Module –I

Atoms, Electrons, Energy Bands and Charge

Carriers in Semiconductors :
Quantum Mechanics, Bonding Forces and Energy Bands in Solids, Direct and Indirect
Semiconductors, Variation of EnergyBands with Alloy Composition, Effective Mass,
Electrons and Holes in Quantum Wells, Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations,
Conductivity and Mobility, High-Field Effects, The Hall Effect, LED, Gunn Diode.
Content In Module -I
• In studying solid state electronic devices we are interested primarily in the
electrical behavior of solids.
• We will find that the transport of charge through a metal or a semiconductor
depends not only on the properties of the electron but also on the arrangement
of atoms in the solid.
• we shall discuss some of the physical properties of semiconductors compared
with other solids, the atomic arrangements of various materials, and some
methods of growing semiconductor crystal.
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are a group of materials having electrical conductivities
intermediate between metals and insulators.
• It is significant that the conductivity of these materials can be varied over orders
of magnitude by changes in temperature, optical excitation, and impurity
content.
• This variability of electrical properties makes the semiconductor materials natural
choices for electronic device investigations.
• Semiconductor materials are found in column IV and neighboring columns of the
periodic table (Table 1-1).
• The column IV semiconductors, silicon and germanium, are called elemental
semiconductors because they are composed of single species of atoms.
• In addition to the elemental materials, compounds of column III and column V
atoms, as well as certain combinations from II and VI, and from IV, make up the
compound semiconductor.
Semiconductors….
• The elemental semiconductor Ge was widely used in the early days of semiconductor development for
transistors and diodes.
• Silicon is now used for the majority of rectifiers, transistors, and integrated circuits. However, the
compounds are widely used in high-speed devices and devices requiring the emission or absorption of
light.
• The two-element (binary) III-V compounds such as GaN, GaP, and GaAs are common in light-emitting
diodes (LEDs).
• Some are, three-element (ternary) compounds such as GaAsP and four-element (quaternary)
compounds such as InGaAsP can be grown to provide added flexibility in choosing materials properties.
• Fluorescent materials such as those used in television screens usually are II-VI compound
semiconductors such as ZnS. Light detectors are commonly made with InSb, CdSe, or other compounds
such as PbTe and HgCdTe.
• Si and Ge are also widely used as infrared and nuclear radiation detectors. An important microwave
device, the Gunn diode, is usually made of GaAs or InP.
• Semiconductor lasers are made using GaAs, AlGaAs, and other ternary and quaternary compounds.
• One of the most important characteristics of a semiconductor, which distinguishes it from metals and
insulators, is its energy band gap
Table 1.1
• The wavelengths of light that can be absorbed or emitted by the semiconductor.
For example, the band gap of GaAs is about 1.43 electron volts (eV), which
corresponds to light wavelengths in the near infrared.
• GaP has a band gap of about 2.3 eV, corresponding to wavelengths in the green
portion of the spectrum. The band gap Eg for various semiconductor materials is
listed along with other properties could be found resulting in the wide variety of
semiconductor.
• The electronic and optical properties of semiconductor materials are strongly
affected by impurities, which may be added in precisely controlled amounts.
• Such impurities are used to vary the conductivities of semiconductors over wide
ranges and even to alter the nature of the conduction processes from conduction
by negative charge carriers to positive charge carriers.
• For example, an impurity concentration of one part per million can change a
sample of Si from a poor conductor to a good conductor of electric current.
• This process of controlled addition of impurities, called doping
So what to do…
• To investigate these useful properties of semiconductors, it is necessary
to understand the atomic arrangements in the materials.
• Obviously, if slight alterations in purity of the original material can
produce such dramatic changes in electrical properties, then the
nature and specific arrangement of atoms in each semiconductor must
be of critical importance.
• Therefore, we begin our study of semiconductors with a brief
introduction to crystal structure
• We shall distinguish between single crystals and other forms of
materials and CRYSTAL LATTICES then investigate the periodicity of
crystal lattices.
Periodic Structures
• Certain important crystallographic terms will be defined and illustrated in
reference to crystals having a basic cubic structure. These definitions will allow us
to refer to certain planes and directions within a lattice.
• A crystalline solid is distinguished by the fact that the atoms making up the
crystal are arranged in a periodic fashion. That is, there is some basic
arrangement of atoms that is repeated throughout the entire solid.
• Thus the crystal appears exactly the same at one point as it does at a series of
other equivalent points, once the basic periodicity is discovered. However, not all
solids are crystals (Fig. 1-1);some have no periodic structure at all (amorphous
solids), and others are composed of many small regions of single-crystal material
(polycrystalline solids).
• The high-resolution micrograph shown in Fig. 6-33 illustrates the periodic array of
atoms in the single-crystal silicon of a transistor channel compared with the
amorphous Si02 (glass) of the oxide layer.
Atomic Arrangement:

The periodicity in a crystal is defined in terms of a symmetric array of points in space called the lattice. Adding atoms at each
lattice point in an arrangement called a basis, which can be one atom or a group of atoms having the same spatial
arrangement, which is a crystal. In every case, the lattice contains a volume or cell that represents the entire lattice and is
regularly repeated throughout the crystal.
In Fig. 1-2,a two-dimensional arrangement of atoms called a rhombic lattice is shown , with a primitive cell ODEF, which is the
smallest such cell. Notice that we can define vectors a and b such that if the primitive cell is translated by integral multiples of
these vectors, a new primitive cell identical to the original is found (e.g., O'D'E'F')- These vectors, a and b (and c if the lattice is
three dimensional), are called the primitive vectors for the lattice. Points within the lattice are indistinguishable if the vector
between the points is
r = pa + qb + sc (1-1)
Where p, q, and s are integers. A primitive cell has lattice points only at the corners of the cell. It is not unique, but the
convention is to choose the smallest primitive vectors.
Primitive cell
Note that, in a primitive cell, the lattice points at the corners are shared with adjacent cells;
thus, the effective number of lattice points belonging to the primitive cell is always unity. Since
there are many different ways of placing atoms in a volume, the distances and orientation
between atoms can take many forms, but it is the symmetry that determines the lattice, not the
magnitudes of the distances between the lattice points.
In many lattices, however, the primitive cell is not the most convenient to work with. For
example, in Fig. 1-2, we see that the rhombic arrangement of the lattice points is such that it can
also be considered to be rectangular (PQRS) with a lattice point in the center at T (a so-called
centered rectangular lattice).
[Note that this is not true of all rhombic lattices!] Clearly, it is simpler to deal with a rectangle
rather than a rhombus. So, in this case we can choose to work with a larger rectangular unit cell,
PQRS, rather than the smallest primitive cell, ODEF.
Unit Cell:- (A pinch of salt / sugar)
• A unit cell allows lattice points not only at the corners, but also at the face center (and
body center in 3-D) if necessary. It is sometimes used instead of the primitive cell if it
can represent the symmetry of the lattice better (in this example "centered
rectangular" 2-D lattice).
• It replicates the lattice by integer translations of basis vectors.
• The importance of the unit cell lies in the fact that we can analyze the crystal as a
whole by investigating a representative volume.
• For example, from the unit cell we can find the distances between nearest atoms and
next nearest atoms for calculation of the forces holding the lattice together; we can
look at the fraction of the unit cell volume filled by atoms and relate the density of the
solid to the atomic arrangement.
• But even more important for our interest in electronic devices, the properties of the
periodic crystal lattice determine the allowed energies of electrons that participate in
the conduction process.
• Thus the lattice determines not only the mechanical properties of the crystal but also its
electrical properties.
Cubic Lattices
• The simplest three-dimensional lattice is one in which the unit cell is a cubic
volume, such as the three cells shown in Fig. 1-3. The simple cubic structure
(abbreviated SC) has an atom located at each corner of the unit cell. The body
centered cubic (bcc) lattice has an additional atom at the center of the cube, and
the face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell has atoms at the eight corners and centered
on the six faces. All three structures have different primitive cells, but the same
cubic unit cell. We will generally work with unit cells.
No of Atoms per unit cell in Cubic
Lattice :-
1/8,here means that
each atom in the cubic
arrangement is shared
by 8 neighboring crystal.

Lattice point

Note: If number for atom present in the cubic lattice is

less then it means it has large empty space(voids)
present in the lattice.

Lattice point is unshared to

any other lattice present at
center of the cubic lattice
No of Atoms per unit cell in Cubic Lattice :-

Each face lattice point Both End face

is shared only to one lattice point is
other lattice present shared only to
so, its contribution is one other lattice
½. present so, its
contribution is
½.
Lattice point and the axes
We first set up an xyz coordinate system with the origin at any
lattice point and the axes are lined up with the edges of the
cubic unit cell. The three integers describing a particular plane
are found in the following way:
1. Find the intercepts of the plane with the crystal axes and
express these intercepts as integral multiples of the basis
vectors (the plane can be moved in and out from the origin,
retaining its orientation, until such an integral intercept is
discovered on each axis).
The three integers h, k, and I are called
2. Take the reciprocals of the three integers found in step 1 and the Miller indices; these three numbers
reduce these to the smallest set of integers h, k, and /, which define a set of parallel planes in the
have the same relationship to each other as the three lattice. One advantage of taking the
reciprocals. reciprocals of the intercepts is
3. Label the plane (hkl). avoidance of infinities in the notation.
One intercept is infinity for a plane
Intercepts at 2a,4b,and 1c along the three crystal axes. Taking parallel to an axis; however, the
the reciprocals of these intercept, we get ½,1/4,and [Link] the reciprocal of such an intercept is taken
plane can be referred as (214). as zero.
A direction in a lattice is expressed as a set of three integers with
the same relationship as the components of a vector in that
direction. The three vector components are expressed in multiples
of the basis vectors, and the three integers are reduced to their
smallest values while retaining the relationship among them. For
example, the body diagonal in the cubic lattice (Fig. l-7a) is
composed of the components la, lb, and lc; therefore, this diagonal
is the [111] direction. (Brackets are used for direction indices.)
As in the case of planes, many directions in a lattice are equivalent,
depending only on the arbitrary choice of orientation for the axes.
Such equivalent direction indices are placed in angular brackets (>.
For example, the crystal axes in the cubic lattice [100], [010], and
[001] are all equivalent and are called (100) directions (Fig. l-7b).
Two useful relationships in terms of Miller indices describe the
distance between planes and angles between directions. The
distance d between two adjacent planes labeled (hkl) is given in
terms of the lattice constant, a, as
d = al{h2 + k2 + l2)m (l-2a)
The angle 6 between two different Miller index directions is given
by
Cos 9 = hxh2 + kxk2 + WPi 2 + *i2 + li)m(h22 + k22 + l22)m) (l-2b)
• The important properties of electrons, with special emphasis on two points:
• (1) the electronic structure of atoms, and
• (2) the interaction of atoms and electrons with excitation, such as the
absorption and emission of light.
• By studying electron energies in an atom, we lay the foundation for
understanding the influence of the lattice on electrons participating in
current flow through a solid.
• The electrons in atoms are restricted to certain energy levels by quantum
rules; the electronic structure of atoms is determined from these quantum
conditions; and this "quantization" defines certain allowable transitions
involving absorption and emission of energy by the electrons.
Bonding forces and energy bands
Bonding forces and energy bands are fundamental concepts in the study of solids,
especially in the field of solid-state physics and materials science. These concepts help us
understand the behavior of electrons within solids and how they contribute to the
material's properties. Let's delve into each concept:
1. Bonding Forces:
Bonding forces refer to the interactions between atoms or ions in a solid that hold them
together in a stable arrangement. These forces determine the structure, stability, and
physical properties of the solid material. There are several types of bonding forces:
Ionic Bonds: Formed between positively and negatively charged ions. One atom transfers
electrons to another, resulting in electrostatic attraction between ions.
Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared between atoms, forming a strong bond. This is
common in non-metallic solids like diamond and silicon.
Metallic Bonds: Electrons are shared collectively among a lattice of positively charged
metal ions. This creates a "sea" of electrons that move freely, contributing to electrical
conductivity.
Van der Waals Forces: Weak forces between nonpolar molecules or atoms. These forces
include London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole interactions.
 Energy bands
2. Energy Bands:
In a solid, the energy levels of electrons are grouped into energy bands. These energy bands
provide insight into the allowed energy states for electrons within the solid material. There are
two main types of energy bands:

Valence Band: This is the highest energy band that is fully occupied by electrons at absolute zero
temperature. The electrons in the valence band are responsible for the material's bonding and
electrical properties.

Conduction Band: This is the energy band located just above the valence band. Electrons in the
conduction band are relatively free to move and contribute to electrical conductivity. In
insulators, there is a significant energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. In
semiconductors, this gap is smaller, allowing electrons to be excited across it under certain
conditions.
3. Band Gap:
The energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band is known as the "band gap." This
energy gap determines a material's electrical
behavior:
Insulators: Have a large band gap. Electrons require
a significant amount of energy to move from the
valence band to the conduction band, making them
poor conductors of electricity.
Semiconductors: Have a smaller band gap. Under
certain conditions, electrons can acquire enough
energy to move from the valence band to the
conduction band, allowing for moderate electrical
conductivity.
Metals: Have overlapping or partially filled energy
bands. This overlap allows electrons to move freely,
contributing to high electrical conductivity.
Understanding these concepts helps scientists and
engineers predict and manipulate the properties of
solid materials for various applications, ranging
from electronics and optoelectronics to materials
design and development.
• No free electron for conduction at 00C.
• With some energy given electron move from
valance band to conduction band creating
holes in the valance band(electron hole pair
generation) .Energy will be absorbed.
Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors refer to different
characteristics of the energy band structure of a semiconductor material,
particularly in relation to the absorption and emission of photons.

Direct Band Gap Semiconductor:

In a direct band gap semiconductor, the minimum energy level of
the conduction band (where electrons can move freely) aligns
with the maximum energy level of the valence band (where
electrons are bound to atoms) at the same momentum or wave-
vector. This means that when an electron in the valence band
absorbs energy, it can easily transition to the conduction band by
gaining the required energy without any change in momentum.
Because of this direct transition, direct band gap semiconductors
tend to have efficient light emission and absorption properties.
Electrons can easily move from the valence band to the
conduction band, and when they recombine with holes (electron
vacancies) in the valence band, they release energy in the form
of photons. This makes direct band gap semiconductors suitable
for optoelectronic devices like light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and
laser diodes.
Direct Band Gap Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor
Semiconductor In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the minimum energy level
of the conduction band does not align with the maximum energy
level of the valence band at the same momentum or wavevector. In
other words, the transition from the valence band to the
conduction band involves a change in momentum as well as
energy. This makes the absorption or emission of photons less
efficient.
Indirect band gap semiconductors have stricter selection rules for
absorption and emission processes, leading to less efficient optical
properties. The non-conservation of momentum often requires the
involvement of lattice vibrations (phonons) to assist in the
transition, which reduces the probability of recombination. As a
*Relative Carrier life result, indirect band gap semiconductors are generally less suitable
for light-emitting applications compared to direct band gap
tie is Small
semiconductors.
Example : GaAs,
InAs,InSb,Ga,InN,ZnO,C .Here energy in the form of heat
dSe and ZnS .Carrier Life time is more.
.Best example are Si, Ge,C,GaP etc
Variation of Energy Bands with Alloy Composition
What is an Alloy?
A metal made by combining two or more metallic elements.
It is used to achieve greater strength or resistance to
corrosion.
As III-V ternary and quaternary alloys are varied over their
composition ranges, their band structure changes.
For example : In Al x Ga1-x As the composition of x decides
the change in the Band .
Variation of Energy Bands with Alloy Composition
 Effective Mass
Effective mass" refers to a concept used to describe the behavior of charge carriers (electrons or holes) within a crystal lattice. The
effective mass is a parameter that simplifies the description of the carriers' motion by treating them as if they were free particles with a
modified mass, rather than considering the complex interactions with the crystal lattice.
Free Electrons in a Crystal:
In a crystal lattice, electrons are subject to the periodic potential energy created by the arrangement of atoms. When an external electric
field is applied, the electrons move under the influence of both the field and the lattice potential. Describing their motion becomes
complex due to the interactions with the lattice.
Effective Mass Approximation:
To simplify the calculations, the concept of effective mass is introduced. The effective mass is a parameter that quantifies how an electron
responds to an external force in a crystal as compared to a free electron. It allows to treat the electron's behavior as a free particle with a
modified mass that takes into account the crystal lattice effects.
For example, in regions of the energy band structure where the energy-momentum relationship is approximately parabolic, the effective
mass can be defined. The effective mass can be different for electrons and holes and can vary depending on the direction in which they
move within the crystal lattice.
The effective mass is mathematically expressed as:
Quantum Well
A quantum well is a nanostructure in which a thin layer of a semiconductor material with a narrower band gap is
sandwiched between two layers of a semiconductor material with a wider band gap. This creates a potential energy
well for charge carriers, such as electrons and holes, within the narrow layer.
Electrons and Holes in Quantum Wells:
In a quantum well structure, the confined layer of narrower band gap material creates discrete energy levels for
both electrons and holes. These energy levels are quantized due to the confinement in the vertical direction, leading
to discrete allowed energy states.
Electrons:
In the conduction band of the narrow layer, electrons have higher energy levels. Due to the confinement, the energy
levels become quantized, forming a series of closely spaced energy levels. Electrons in the conduction band of the
quantum well can transition between these quantized energy levels by absorbing or emitting photons of specific
energies.
Holes:
In the valence band of the narrow layer, there are lower energy levels. The absence of electrons in these energy
levels creates "holes," which are essentially electron vacancies. Similar to electrons, the energy levels for holes are
quantized in the quantum well structure.
Quantum confinement also leads to spatial confinement of charge carriers.
Electrons and holes are localized within the quantum well layer, reducing their ability to move freely in the lateral
direction. This confinement affects carrier mobility and interactions, which in turn influences the electrical and
optical properties of the material.
Quantum confinement in quantum wells results from the confinement of charge carriers within nanoscale
structures. It leads to quantized energy levels, altered band structures, and modified carrier behaviors.
Quantum wells offer a versatile platform for manipulating electronic and optical properties, making them crucial
components in various semiconductor devices.
Temperature And Doping Dependence On mobility
Phonons are quantized lattice vibrations within a
crystal lattice. When charge carriers move through a
semiconductor lattice, they interact with these
lattice vibrations, leading to scattering.
Phonon scattering can limit the mobility of carriers as
they transfer energy and momentum to the lattice
vibrations.
The main types of phonon scattering are acoustic
phonon scattering and optical phonon scattering.
The scattering rate due to phonons can be described
by the Matthiessen's rule:

1 1 1
= +
τtotal τimp τph

τtotal​ is the total scattering time.

τimp​ is the scattering time due to impurities.
τph​ is the scattering time due to phonons.
Lattice scattering and impurity scattering continues…
• The two basic types of scattering mechanisms that influence electron and hole mobility are lattice scattering and
impurity scattering.
• In lattice scattering a carrier moving through the crystal is scattered by a vibration of the lattice, resulting from the
temperature.1
• The frequency of such scattering events increases as the temperature increases, since the thermal agitation of the
lattice becomes greater. Therefore, we should expect the mobility to decrease as the sample is heated (Fig. 3-22).
• On the other hand, scattering from crystal defects such as ionized impurities becomes the dominant mechanism
at low temperatures. Since the atoms of the cooler lattice are less agitated, lattice scattering is less important;
however, the thermal motion of the carriers is also slower. Since a slowly moving carrier is likely to be scattered
more strongly by an interaction with a charged ion than is a carrier with greater momentum, impurity scattering
events cause a decrease in mobility with decreasing temperature.
• As Fig. 3-22 indicates, the approximate temperature dependencies are T-3/2 for lattice scattering and T3/2 for
impurity scattering.
• Since the scattering probability of Eq. (3-32) is inversely proportional to the mean free time and therefore to
mobility, the mobility's due to two or more scattering mechanisms add inversely:

• As a result, the mechanism causing the lowest mobility value dominates, as shown in Fig. 3-2
• "Collective vibrations of atoms in the crystal are called phonons. Thus lattice scattering is also known as phonon
scattering.
Temperature And Doping Dependence On mobility
• Impurity Scattering:
Impurity scattering occurs when charge carriers collide with impurity
atoms or defects within the semiconductor crystal lattice. Impurity
atoms are atoms of foreign elements that are intentionally or
unintentionally introduced into the crystal lattice.
These impurities create localized energy levels within the band gap of
the semiconductor, and charge carriers can scatter off these energy
levels, affecting their mobility.
The scattering rate due to impurities can be expressed as:
1 1
• = n imp.
τimp τtr

Where:
nimp​ is the impurity concentration.
τtr​ is the average time between scattering events off impurities.
Conductivity: Conductivity (σ) is a measure of how easily electric current can flow through a
material. In semiconductors, conductivity depends on the concentration of charge carriers
(electrons and holes) as well as their mobility. It is defined as the product of the charge
carrier concentration (n or p) and the charge carrier mobility (μ).
• σ= n⋅q⋅μn + p⋅q⋅μp
• where:
• n is the electron concentration (number of electrons per unit volume).
• p is the hole concentration (number of holes per unit volume).
• q is the elementary charge (charge of an electron/holes).
• μn is the electron mobility.
• μp is the hole mobility.
• Mobility: Mobility (μ) is a measure of how quickly charge carriers can move in response to an electric field. It
is influenced by factors such as carrier scattering, crystal structure, and temperature. Higher mobility values
indicate that charge carriers can move more easily through the material. Mobility is related to the drift
velocity (vd ) of charge carriers in an electric field (E) through the following equation:
vd=μ⋅E
• where:
• vd is the drift velocity.
• μ is the mobility.
• E is the electric field.
• The mobility of charge carriers in semiconductors can be limited by various scattering mechanisms,
including:
• Ionized impurity scattering: Charge carriers can be scattered by charged impurities in the crystal lattice.
• Phonon scattering: Charge carriers can interact with lattice vibrations (phonons), leading to scattering.
• Defect scattering: Structural defects in the crystal lattice can cause scattering.
• Surface scattering: Charge carriers near the surface of the material can experience additional scattering.
• The relationship between conductivity, mobility, and carrier concentration is crucial for understanding the
electrical behavior of semiconductor materials and devices. Intrinsic semiconductors have carrier
concentrations primarily determined by temperature and bandgap energy, while extrinsic (doped)
semiconductors have controlled carrier concentrations due to intentional introduction of impurities.
High-field effects in semiconductors:
• Velocity Saturation: In a low-field region, the drift velocity of charge carriers is approximately proportional to the electric field.
However, as the electric field increases, the carrier velocity eventually saturates. This is due to the carriers reaching a
maximum velocity beyond which they cannot accelerate further due to scattering mechanisms and energy loss.
• Impact Ionization: In strong electric fields, carriers can gain enough energy to collide with atoms in the crystal lattice with
sufficient force to ionize them, creating additional electron-hole pairs. This can lead to an avalanche-like multiplication of
carriers, resulting in a phenomenon known as impact ionization. This effect is utilized in avalanche photodiodes and some
forms of semiconductor amplifiers.
• Velocity Overshoot: Under high-field conditions, carriers can temporarily achieve velocities higher than their saturation velocity
before scattering mechanisms limit their motion. This phenomenon is referred to as velocity overshoot and is observed in
certain semiconductor structures with high carrier mobility.
• Hot Carriers: High electric fields can lead to the generation of "hot carriers" that possess significantly higher kinetic energy than
carriers in thermal equilibrium. These hot carriers can cause various non-linear effects and contribute to increased scattering
and energy loss.
• Transient Lateral Diffusion: In high electric fields, carriers can experience lateral diffusion (spreading out) perpendicular to the
electric field direction due to the impact of scattering events. This can lead to a broadening of the carrier distribution.
• High-Frequency Effects: In high-frequency applications, carriers experience rapidly changing electric fields. This can lead to
phenomena like transit-time effects, where carriers do not have sufficient time to traverse the semiconductor before the field
changes direction. These effects are critical in high-frequency devices like microwave transistors.
• Understanding and managing high-field effects is crucial for designing reliable and high-performance semiconductor devices.
Engineers and researchers work to optimize device structures, materials, and operating conditions to mitigate the negative
impact of these effects and even leverage them for specific applications.
• It's worth noting that the specific behavior of high-field effects depends on factors such as the semiconductor material, doping
levels, device geometry, and the magnitude and direction of the applied electric field.
Hall Effect
If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction in which holes drift in a p-type bar, the path of
the holes tends to be deflected (Fig. 3-25). In this scenario, the following effects occur:
Lorentz Force: When the electric current flows through the plate, the moving electrons experience a force
due to the magnetic field. This force is called the Lorentz force and acts perpendicular to both the current
direction and the magnetic field direction according to the right-hand rule.
Using vector notation, the total force on a single hole due to the electric and magnetic fields is

(eq. 3-46)
In the y-direction the force is
(eq. 3-47)

(eq. 3-48)

The important result of Eq. (3-47) is that unless an electric field Ey is established along the width of the
bar, each hole will experience a net force (and therefore an acceleration) in the -y-direction due to the
qVxBz product.
Therefore, to maintain a steady state flow of holes down the length of the bar, the electric field Ey must
just balance the product VxBz
so that the net force Fy is zero. Physically, this electric field
is set up when the magnetic field shifts the hole distribution
slightly in the -_y-direction. Once the electric field Ey
becomes as large as VxBz, no net lateral force is experienced
by the holes as they drift along the bar.

The establishment of the electric field Ey is known as the

Hall effect, and the resulting voltage VAB = EyW is called the
Hall voltage. If we use the expression derived in Eq. (3-37)
for the drift velocity (using +q and p0 for holes), the field Ey
becomes

(eq. 3-49)

Electron Deflection: As the electrons experience the Lorentz

force, they are deflected to one side of the plate, causing an
accumulation of negative charge on that side.
Charge Separation: The accumulation of negative charge on
one side of the plate leads to an electric field that opposes
the further movement of electrons. Eventually, an equilibrium
is reached where the electric field due to the charge
• Hall Voltage: The accumulation of charge and the establishment of the electric field result in a
voltage difference between the two sides of the plate perpendicular to both the current and
magnetic field in this diagram:
• The arrow pointing out of the page represents the magnetic field (B) perpendicular to the
plane of the plate. The horizontal arrow represents the flow of electric current (I) from left to
right. The vertical double-arrow represents the Hall voltage (VH) generated perpendicular to
both the current and magnetic field directions.
• The magnitude of the Hall voltage is directly proportional to the product of the magnetic field
strength, the current, and a factor related to the charge carriers' properties (carrier
concentration and mobility). By measuring the Hall voltage and known quantities, it's possible
to determine the charge carrier concentration and mobility in the material.
• Thus the Hall field is proportional to the product of the current density and the magnetic flux
density. The proportionality constant RH = (qPo)-1 is called the Hall coefficient. A measurement
of the Hall voltage for a known current and magnetic field yields a value for the hole
concentration p0

(eq. 3-50)

Since all of the quantities in the right-hand side of Eq. (3-50) can be measured, the Hall effect
can be used to give quite accurate values for carrier concentration.
• If a measurement of resistance R is made, the sample resistivity p can be calculated:

(eq. 3-51)

(eq. 3-52)
Measurements of the Hall coefficient and the resistivity over a range of temperatures yield plots of majority carrier
concentration and mobility vs. temperature. Such measurements are extremely useful in the analysis of
semiconductor materials. Although the discussion here has been related to p-type material, similar results are
obtained for n-type material.
A negative value of q is used for electrons, and the Hall voltage VAB and Hall coefficient RH are negative. In fact,
measurement of the sign of the Hall voltage is a common technique for determining if an unknown sample is p-type
or n-type.
Gunn diode
• A transferred electron device (TED), also referred to as a Gunn diode, is a
semiconductor device that employs the Gunn effect. It is a diode that, over
specific voltage ranges, displays negative differential resistance, which enables it
to produce microwave signals.
• In microwave oscillators, amplifiers, and other high-frequency applications, Gunn
diodes are frequently utilized.
• The Gunn effect, so-called in honor of the physicist J. B. Gunn who performed the
initial observation, is a phenomenon that affects some semiconductor materials,
especially substances like gallium arsenide (GaAs).
• Under specific circumstances, electrons in these materials can experience a
decrease in speed as the electric field intensifies. The current-voltage
characteristic curve of the material exhibits a region of negative differential
resistance as a consequence.
• Typically, a single piece of n-type GaAs is used to create a Gunn diode. A region
with a strong electric field gradient is produced by a unique structure that it has.
The Gunn effect occurs in this region, which is frequently referred to as the
"active region.
• When a voltage is placed across a Gunn diode, the electric field in the active
region becomes high enough to provide some electrons with enough energy to
travel from the valence band to the conduction band, forming an electron-hole
pair. This kind of electrons is known as "transferred electrons.
• Due to the negative differential resistance characteristic of the material, as the
voltage across the diode increases, the current does not increase linearly;
instead, it decreases. This goes contrary to what is expected given how resistors
and diodes typically behave.
• As an oscillator, the Gunn diode is frequently employed.
Here is a brief explanation of how an oscillator works:
[Link] Gunn diode is typically biased with a DC voltage that is lower than the threshold voltage of
the area of negative differential resistance. Now that the current has passed through the diode
without any interruption, it functions as a conventional diode with positive resistance.
2. The diode enters the area of negative differential resistance when the DC bias voltage
progressively rises and crosses the threshold voltage. As the voltage rises at this moment, the
current begins to drop.
3. The voltage across the diode rises even more as the current flowing through it decreases.
Microwave oscillations are created as a result of this feedback loop. Voltage fluctuations at
microwave frequencies are caused by voltage and current variations in the active zone.
4. To obtain a reliable microwave signal, the output of the Gunn diode oscillator can be extracted
using the appropriate waveguides or resonant circuits.
It's crucial to remember that Gunn diodes need precise biasing and regulation to function
steadily. The material characteristics and the actual physical dimensions of the gadget affect the
oscillation frequency.
Due to their simplicity of use and capacity to generate microwave signals without the use of
external resonators, Gunn diodes offer a particular advantage in microwave applications.
However, their frequency stability can be affected by temperature changes and other factors, so
they are often used in applications where fine frequency control is not crucial.