CHAPTER

UNIT

chol al ught I:Emergen

1 ce

of

ogic Tho s Psychology

Psy
in
ted

as rn ys m as
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r,

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world.
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ology s t se
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have made
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study
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the mind and
Psvcho of scientif functio lly
is of
od ion Psy log logy the mind
in human
human ic ns,
 atfecting context. behaviour.
given it
behaviour
the by
the West the
mental process and psycho human ted ed
es of of is
Though stream
affects logy
of and

main in promot
how origina of

majorit logical perspe psych ned relevan consid be in the Greeks

Eastern Wester
the ctives ologis in ce ering ancient
vet back
y side influen n of
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ts, the lined. ce BC
the thought
psvchorn' value the opher
on Eastern to CE time
of goes
nentio
and 242 the
s s. der Great Centur efforts and
ophies
region. Alexan reached India and
study Roman
Roman in y to in
the the
Plotinu 4th made philos
the

the
Great and shown t
ts Rogers, m Willia ologic though ted
Eric deep
P'svch like Maslo m the al ts created in
in Fromm
ologis Carl w, James interes
have
psych in presen a
Abraha

of s. Theos l the century

in Move
19th real
svstem ophica ment
major Eastern s t s
ding Buddh ism). is
The
as
interest scholar Eastern insight
though (inclu Indian
per
human va, Yoga, various
under ng ophic ism,
nature
and
traditi like Vedant Indian derived from
though
standi philos al ons a, Samkh Buddh Jainism many
ts

more

lndian
ancient

psvchology
religious

follows
texts.
the

description In

of
as
self
and

personality

Taittiryopanishad,
as
mentioned
soul

in
(atma

or
the

In this
various Hindu inside lavers Introductio "
as of
bliss)
wTapped
texts. Hinduism per
Chapt n to
Arishad
five kosha) Psychology
religious (Pancha er in
is varga.
Ihe
the per religiou texts " logical
fre layers wraps Psycho Thought Eastern
soul are
Hindu s
which s

() va or force). " Psycholo

(food sheath). as in
Systerms Academic in gy India
Annama Kosha (vital sheath life

(i) (ii) iv)

Pranamava anomava
ava
Kosha

Kosha

Kosha
(mind

tellect
air

distinct

heath).
ditferent
from

telligence).
"
Issues
Indian

Psychology
4

(v) (Bliss not

Anandmava Kosha sheath-ceaseless joy connected to body or nnind)
of five lavers, the
Out these Annamaya Kosha is outermost
of and the Kosha.
Kosha is laver Pancha Kosha Anandmaya innermost laver of Pancha
There
UGC NET Tutor " Psychology

describing
There are 18 chapters in Gita each different
aspect of the prOCess of self transformation. The aim of the Gita is to teach a person how to establish
composure in hi internal life and in his activities of the external world. help a person develop
tranquility within and to explain the
This
is essential and non-self.
continuity betwveen the self implies that the line
art and science of doing actions skillfully and selflessly.
and is be more or less on
not a demarcating self non-self fixed one. The self may inclusive
different occasions.
Psychological Thougts in Eastern
is
believed that a subject
Systems It naturally psychology as

in
deep of like
originated Western world. However, a reading Eastern text Bhagavad
of Sufism and an into of
Gita, ideas Buddhism, Integral yoga gives insight importance
psychological thoughts in the Eastern system. Bhagavad Gita
part Epic
Bhagavad Gita is a 700 verse sanskrit scripture that is a of Hindu Mahabharata.
a narrative of a
The Gita is set in framework dialogue between Pandava prince Arjun and
and Gita is best of
his guide charioteer Krishna. considered to be one of the contributions
first a
India to the world as it is one of the revelations from God. Its doctrine of universal truth.
needs no is and Eastern and As
Gita introduction respected in both Western culture. Bhagavad
human dav-to-day worries, and people
Gita deals with anxieties inhibitions which face in
daily The Gita is
their day-to-day life. importance of cannot be over looked in any age. It
relevant for people of any culture, gender, race or religion. Bhagavad Gita was not written
at any temple or religious place but was spoken by Lord Krishna in the battle field of
was
Mahabharata, to Arjuna who was facing a situation of turmoil when, Arjuna
supposed to fight against his respected elders, teachers and other family members.
Gita an
This makes efficient text which can provide practical solutions to the daily stress,
and lives.
anxieties, inhibitions apprehensions that a person faces in his/her daily The
self, the is
nature of consciousness, universe and the supreme which described in Bhagavad
Gita has never been presented by any other philosophical or religious work.
called the
The Bhagavad Gita consists of 18 chapters. Each chapter ix a yoga. Yoga is the science of

individual consciousness attaining communion with the ultimate consciousness. So,

each chapter is highly specialised revealing the path to attain realisation of the ultimate truth

Various Chapters Describing Process of Self Consciousness The

various chapters describing process of self-consciousness are classified into Karma yoga,
Bhakti yoga and Jnana yoga.
 Karma Yoga
are they of
The first six chapters classified as the karma yoga as mainly deal with the science
communion with the
individual consciousness attaining ultimate consciousness
through actions. These chapter are
for
(i) Visada Yoga As the opposing armies stand poised battle, Arjuna, the mighty
teachers and in to
warrior, sees his intimate relatives, friends both armies ready fight
and lives. pity, fails in
sacrifice their Struck by grief and Arjuna strength, his mind
his (ii)
becomes confused and he gives up determination to fight. Sankhya Yoga In

the the
this chapter Krishna explains fundamental distinction betwecn material body

and the soul. the nature of

temporary eternal spiritual Krishna explains to Arjuna
the the of a person. (iii)
selfless service to supreme and characteristics self-realised
This chapter of in
Karma Yoga summarises the role of action 'Karma' one's life. It

that by tor the

says acting pleasure of the one can supreme, without selfish

motives, of and and

liberate from the law Karma (action reaction) attain self

the the (iv) this

transcendental knowledge of and supreme. Jnana Yoga In
chapter the spiritual soul, of of their
Krishna talks about knowledge of the God and

both He such
relationship which is purifying and says liberating. that

the fruit of selfless action lord

knowledge is devotional (Karma Yoga). The
the the significance of his
explains remote history of the Gita, purpose and material
periodic the the of a
descents to world and necessity approaching guru. a realised
teacher.

5
Psychological Thoughts in Eastern Systems
 material world or in the spiritual, are nothing but
partial
(v) Karma-Sanyasa Yoga This chapter talks
(xii) Bhakti Yoga Bhakti Yoga, pure devotional
about 'action' or 'karma'. Lord says that by
service to Lord Krishna, is the highest and most
outwardly performing all actions but
expedient means for attaining pure love for
inwardly renouncing their fruits, the wise Krishna, which is the ultimate end of spiritual
man is purified by the fine transcendental existence.
knowledge and attains peace, detachment, Jnana Yoga
The final six chapters are regarded as the Jnana
forbearance, spiritual vision and bliss.
Yoga, as they are primarily concerned with the science
(vi) Dhyana Yoga Here the lord talks about the of the individual consciousness attaining communion with
power of Ashtanga yoga, a mechanical the ultimate consciousness through intellect. These
meditative practice, which controls the mind and chapters are
(xii) Kshetra Kshetrajna Vibhaga Yoga This
senses and centres concentration on parmatma chapter talks about the individual who understands the
(the super soul, the form of the lord situated difference between the body, the soul and
in the heart), This practice culminates in supersoul, attains liberation from this material world.
samadhi, full consciousness of the supreme. (xv) Gunatraya Vibhaga Yoga It talks about the three
Bhakti Yoga modes or qualities of material nature i.e.
The middle six chapters have been designated as the goodness passion and ignorance. Lord Krishna
Bhakti yoga, as they principally deal with the
science of the individuals consciouness attaining modes are, how they act
explains what these
communion with the ultimate consciousness by the upon us, how one transcends them and the
path of devotion. These chapters are symptoms of one who has attained the transcendental
self.
(vii) Paramhans a Vijnana Yoga This chapter (xiv) Purushottam Yoga The chapter talks about the
talks about the knowledge of the absolute. ultimate purpose of vedic knowledge which is to
Lord Krishna tells Arjuna that he is the detach oneself from the entanglement of the
supreme truth, the supreme cause and material world and to understand Lord Krishna as
sustaining force of everything both material and the supreme personality
spiritual. The advanced souls surrender to him in of Godhead. One who understands Krishna's
devotion, whereas, impious souls divert their supreme identity surrenders to him and engages
minds to other objects of worship. in his devotional service.
(vii) Akshara Parabrahma Yoga This (xvi) Daivasura Sampad Vibhaga Yoga This
chapter talks about how by remembering chapter tells that those who possess demoniac
Krishna in
Lord devotion throughout one's life and qualities and who lives playfully, without
especially at the time of death one can reach
following the regulations of scripture, attain
supreme abode, beyond material world.
(ix) Raja Vidya Raja Guhya Yoga This chapter lower births and further material bondage, but
talks about the power of bhakti and devotional those who possess divine qualities and lines
service in attaining the transcendental self. regulated life gradually attain spiritual
(x) Vibhuti Vistara Yoga It talks about that the perfection.
wondorous phenomena showing power, (xvii) Shraddha Traya Vibhaga Yoga It talks about
beauty, grandeur or sublimity either in the three types of faith and its outcomes. Acts
 performed by those whose faith is in passion and
ignorance yield only impermanent material heart and lead to pure faith in Lord Krishna and
devotion to him.
results, whereas acts performed in goodness, in
accord with scriptural injunctions, purify the
manifestations of Krishna's divine Krishna explains that his own beautiful explains Brahman realisation, the
energies and opulence. As the human like form is the original glories of the Bhagavad Gita and the
supreme cause of all causes and the form of Godhead. One can ultimate conclusion of the Gita.
Support and essence of everything, perceive this form only by pure He explains that the highest path of
Krishna is the supreme object of devotional service. religion is absolute, unconditional
worship for all beings. and loving surrender to lord Krishna.
(xi) Visvarupa Darsana Yoga (Vl) This frees one from all sins, brings
1MOKSha-Upadesa Yoga Here
Lord Krishna grants Arjuna divine Krishna explains the meaning of one to complete enlightenment and
renunciation and the effects of the enables one to return to Krishna's
vision and reveals his spectacular modes of nature on human eternal spiritual abode.
unlimited form as the cosmic universe. consciousness and activity. He
6
Importance of Bhagavad
Gita in Psychology
Bhagavad Gita is not just conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna, but its a
type of psychiatric counselling between counsellor (Krish.a) and a patient (Arjuna).
Arjuna, the greatest hero, momentarily beconmes so despondent that he wants to lav his
ghandiva down and refuses to fight. Krishna, his charioteer, makes a quick diagnosis

of Arjuna's mental state as classical reactive depression coupled with severe anxiety neurosis
and starts his pyschotherapy session effectively through this great classic, Shrimad
Bhagavad Gita.
Arjuna had all the features of anxiety: state-dry mouth,
palpitation, sweating,
trembling of legs, fear clouded mind etc. Krishna's diagnosis was dead right. The best
for that is good psvchotherapy and Lord Krishna did a good
treatment job. He
reminded Arjuna that it was his duty to fight as a warrior: he will let his brother down if he
now declines to
fight. Krishna tells him to have a detached attachment in life.

Prof BM Hegde said,I am yet to find a better textbook of psychotherapy than Gita in
medical literature'. It also teaches us that life is a struggle with ups and downs like the waves
in the sea which one has to survive to live, but it says that if vou want to realise God you have to win
over your
ego. Krishna practised futuristic medicine of making the irational mind see reason and work
properly (psychotherapy). The Gita also gives us a living philosophy for happiness of
mind and peace. Detached attachment is a wonderful formula to avoid shoka (sorrow) in life
and to move on.

Buddhism
The life and the basic teachings of Lord Buddha is known to us, through stories we have been
listening to since childhood. Lord Buddha was born in a royal family in Kapilavastu in the
6th century BC and renounced the world early in life seeing disease, old age, death and
other miseries of life.

Throughout his life he endeavoured to seek solution to all miseries of life. He tried to sought
answers to his questions from numerous religious teachers of his time, but nothing satisfied
him.

He practised great austerities, did intense meditation with his strong will and mind, free
from all disturbing houghts and passions. His aim was t0 scarch for the causes of all
sufferings in the world. Finally, he accomplisBhed his mission and prince Siddhartha
became Buddha or enlightened'.
.
UGC NET Tutor Psychology
 the
The message of his enlightenment laid foundation of both Buddhist religion and
philosophy. Buddhist psychology is both a psychology of transformation and theory of
psychology of
cognition. As a transformation, it aims to develop the innate
psychic potential of every being
to its perfection.
'pathological':
The ordinary state of being is tlawed' or the sense that one has a

limited
perception of the world undergoes innumerable cycles of suffering
psvchloeie
tensions in attempts to respond and cope with the worla These cfforts do not
happiness becallse
provide ever lasting the perceptions of self and world are discordant
psychology aims to transcend thie
with not true nature. Buddhist entrapment. It's main
endeavour is to analvse the root cues behind any suffering. Buddhism focuses on personal

spiritual development and strives for true nature of life. Although there are many divisions
or schools within Buddhism. ther are two main branches which differ in some areas
of focus
(i)) Theravada Buddhism It focuses on individual enlightenment and experience as well as
monastic life. (ii), Mahayana Buddhism It focuses on collective freedom from suffering and
teaching the ways to enlightenment. Zen and Tibetan Buddhism are considered to be the
off shots of Mahayana Buddhism.

Key Principles of Buddhism Buddhism is more than a religion; it is a

tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development. For many, it is a philosophy
and a humanistic way of life which can be summed up as striving to lead a moral life: being
and
aware 0 one's thought and actions; developing wisdot. compassion and
peace and controlling one's self desires. The
understanding, It is all about finding inner
principles
Buddhism are based on four noble truths and i eightfold path

Four When
Buddhism's Noble Truth Siddhartha Gautama
his the he came
achieved breakthrough beneath Bodhi tree, important

realisation world
concerning the plight of the and
 spiritual

our He paarticular truths

physical existence within it. realised
(i)) of
about the world, these are called the four r noble truths. These an Existence
sutfering
(Duhkha).
(ii) Suffering has a cause namely craving and attachnent (Duhkha-Samudava).
(iii) a of
8
There is eessation sutfering (Duhkha-Nirodha). (iv) There is a patlh to

the cessation of suttering (Dubkha-Nirodha Marga).

Psychological Thoughts in Eastern sufferings are as follows
Systems (i) Right Views Understanding the nature of all
things as imperfect, impermanent and
insubstantial and our self inflicted suffering is
The Eight Fold Paths in Buddhism result of clinging (attachment) hate and
The path to cessation of suffering is an eight fold ignorance.
path, which helps a person to attain the state of (iv) The fourth stage and final stage is detachment from
nirvana by the bodily case too. There are then perfect
7 equanimity and indifference. This is the state of
nirvana, perfect wisdom. This is the highest from of
Buddhist meditation.
(iii) The third stage of concentration is detachment from
even the joy of tranquility but a feeling of a bodily Buddhism and Western Psychology
case persists. Many renowned teachers, clinicians and writers in the
West such as Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Joseph Goldstein
freeing him from attachments and delusions and
and Sharon Salzberg among others have attempted to
helping him to understand the innate truth of all bridge and integrate psychology and Buddhism from
things. This path is open to all monks as well as time to time, in a manner that offers meaning, inspiration
laymen. The first two segments of the path are and healing to the common man's
referred to as prajna meaning wisdom.
The eight folds in the path of orercoming stress and
(ii) Right Resolve/Aspiration It is to have psychology have a number
suffering. Buddhism and Western
determination to free oneself from attachment, Livelihood Making one's living in a honest,
hatefulness and ignorance. non- hurtful way. The last three segments of the path
(iii) Right Speech Abstaining from lying, are the ones Buddhism is most famous for and is concerned
with samadhi or meditation.
gossiping and hurtful speech in which we can
harm others. (vi) Right Effort Taking control of your mind and
(iv) Right Action/Conduct It includes 'Pancha-Sila' its contents, requires efforts to develop good
the five vows for desisting from killing, stealing, mental habits.
(vii) Right Mindfulness Mindfulness refers to a kind of
sensuality, lying and intoxication. (v) Right meditation (vipassana) involving an
 moderm Western psychology like
acceptance of thoughts and perceptions, a 'bare
Buddhism and Phenomenological
attention' to these events without attachment.
Psychology
The mindfulness can be extended to daily life as
Abhidhamma Pitaka of Buddhism articulates
well and it becomesa way of developing a fuller
and richer awareness of life. philosophy. psychology and ethics as well; all
(vii) Right Concentration One who has guided his life
in integrated into the framework of a program for
liberation. The primary concern of the Abhidhamma
is to understand the nature of experience and thus
the reality on which it focuses is conscious reality.
For this reason Abhidhamma shades off into
phenomenological psychology. Chogyam Trungpa,
in his book 'Glimpses of the Abhidhamma' wrote, that
manv modern psychologists have found the discoveries
and explanations of the abhidharma coincide with their
own discoveries and new ideas. Thus, abhidhamma
which is 2500 yrs old had been redeveloped in the
modern times.
The four noble truths and eight fold path of Buddhism
provide a way to end suffering. Like Buddhism,

of commonalities in theory and in practice which has been

mentioned by many experts in the field.
These commonalities can be seen in various branches of
the last seven rules and freed himself and
psychoanalysis focuses On
from all
self-exploration
 passions and evil thoughts is fit to enter into suftering. In the psychoanalytic process, the
deeper stages of concentration that gradually therapist asks patient to give up conscious control over
the presentation of his or her inner world.
takes him to goal of his long and arduous
Buddhism and psychoanalysis share the goal of the
journey of cessation of suffering.
Kigat concentration through four stages is the last step
alleviation of mental suffering both from a highly
to attain nirvana. personal and individual perspective as well as
(i) The first stage of concentration is based on universaiistic perspective. Both are radically experiential
rather th¡n primarily philosophical or dogmatic.
reasoning and investigaton regarding the truths
Both of them employ the technique of
and then a joy of pure thinking prevails. moment-to-moment awareness of mental processes to
(1) The second stage is unruffled meditation free from reduce suffering.
reasoning. There is then a joy of tranquility.
self-understanding and identifying the cause of

Buddhism and Existential Psychology Buddha said that life is suffering and this
suffering is due to attachment, but he believed that this suffering can be extinguished and
are the concepts of existentialists, who
one can attain the state of nirvana. Similar
speaks of ontological anxiety, angst, dread and clinging on to things with the hope
of
certain benefit. Existentialists talks about freedom which is similar to 'nivana'.
Buddhism enmphasise that there is a way to extinguish suffering. For the existerntial
psychologist, the therapist must take an assertive role in helping the client become
aware of the reality of his or her suffering and its roots.
Likewise, the client must take an assertive role in working
e
UGC NET Tutor Psycholog
Buddhism and Other
Psychotherapy Principles Gestalt therapy by Fritz Perls, is heavily based

principles Zen also

existentialist and significantly Buddhism Gestalt therapy
works whole person and
on encourage right mindfulness, similarly as Buddhism.

principle that
Similarly Client Centered therapy by Carl Rogers works on the therapist
does not direct the
process of therapy, but patient has the resources to deal with their own 'cure' and 'self
growth', provided the
environment is safe for them. Like the Buddha this non-authoratative
approach suggests that the patient can be a light to
themselves.'
towards improvement even though it means facing the fears.
We
can
Thus, say
that Buddha was
unique

They have been working so hard to avoid and especially facing the fear that they will
'Lose' themselves in the process.
Buddhism and Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy Principles
Psychotherapies dealing with cognitive restructuring share core principles with ancient
buddhist antedotes to personal suffering.
Fromm distinguishes between two types of meditative techniques that have been used
in psychotherapy (i) Auto suggestion used to induce relaxation (iü) Meditation "to achieve
higher degree of non attachment, of non-greed and of non-illusion; briefly those that serve to
reach a higher level of being". From attributes techniques associated with meditation to
Buddhist mindfulness practices.
Two other increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness

techniques are Jon Kabat Zinn's Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Marsha
M Linehan's Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT).
The noble eight fold path of Buddhism has a great connect with the School of Behaviourism,
which describe human functions in relation to principles of behaviour which can be manipulated
to create positive effects on the life of the clients. Its principles are in sync with right to
action, right speech and right livelihood (of eight fold noble path of Buddhism). The
behaviourists in order to remove phobias,
training of human mind by cognitive and cognitive
beliefs
and fears, by using techniques of visualisations and positive self talks, are similar

to noble eight fold paths which focus on right thinking and right mindfulness.
Psychotherapist and his teachings, writings and wisdom helped millions of people
through out the centuries. Today even the Western world has realised the psychologi essence
of Buddhism. In short the Psychotherapeutic models described by Buddhism are of great
value and have. all time applications.

Sufism
Sufism is the mystical or inward aspect of Islam. The word 'sufism' is derived from 'sufi'
which means yogi and refers to someone who has reached the goal'. Sufism philosophy is
to teach people to live simple harmonious lives. The main idea of sufism is that mankind
is the most honourable of all living crcatures on Earth and so it is bound to carry the divine trust.
It follows that if ego forgets the divine purpose of creation, and view itself as existing independent of its
creation, it is betraying that sacred trust. Basically, Sufism teaches that the essence of this
universe is spiritual., In modern tiico
of
cgo continually quests for self satisfaction and adoration. These practices Sufism
peope
enable combat this tendency, seeking to discover the higher 'true' self.

of
It views humans beings as religio-psychological beings who that in the process

trom the
evolution humans got separatedt began life in unconscious union with nature. It
says

one's
nature and experienced pain. Sufisnm is a process of regaining naturalness and
with
harmonisation tuc

Inature. lt is an inner experience that enables one to gel identifications of his object or desire.
 The belief
main in
is the unity, it on
sufism that duality turns in to emphasis purity of heart,

Psychological Thoughts in Eastern

Systems Essentials of Sufi

Psychology

Heart
Sufism ofters a comprehensive approach to sacred
 psychology with the ultimate aim of self knowledge various ego-desires and narcissistic tendencies.
and self acceptance. The nafs often cráves for wordly desires and
Three principal aspects of the human being and ignores the wisdom of the heart, which is the
their relationship comprise the triadic foundationmedium of transformation of the knowledge of the
of Sufi Psvchology: the nafs (self), qalb (heart) soul. They need spiritual guidance to awaken to its
and ruh (soul). Sufis consider that the spiritual spiritual potential from the state of sleep like
heart is the agent of reconciliation between theignorance (geflat).
physical and the netaphysical dimensions of the Sufism is often referred to as the path of the heart.
human being. The spiritual destiny of a human However, Sufism has also developed as one of the
being depends on whether soul or nafs, becomes the most complete teachings and practices for
eventual winner of the inner battle (jihad) between understanding and knowing of self, its growth and
the tendencies exercised by the nafs and the higher evolution in the context of human psycho spiritual
qualities of the soul. developmental process.
In the journey of self-knowledge one must encounter
Nafs and discover nafs, but nafs being extremely
Nafs is equivalent to English word 'self. It has often intelligent is unable to see through is own makeup
been translated as 'ego' or 'self lover' which is and heart is the wisest place to start.
incorrect. 'Ego' is generally a hypothetical Javad Nurbakhsh writes, "The heart is a city
construct which has different definition and between the domain of unity (spirit, ruh) and the
function in each School of Psychology. 'Nafs' land of multiplicity (nafs). If the heart snaps that
however is not an abstract or theoretical concept, it is cord linking it with nafs, it falls under the sway of
a living, organic reality which could be experienced the spirit, that is to say, it becomes heart in the
in day-to-day life situations. It is the agency of true sense of the word, polished clean of the
human will and is the product of bio-psycho-social corrosion of multiplicity. On the other hand, if the
development . According to Frager, "In sufi heart becomes dominated by the nafs, it becomes
psychology the self or nafs, is an aspect of the darkened by the tarnish of the nafs multiplicity,
psyche that begins as our worst adversary but can taking on its hue.
develop into an invaluable tool." Thus, it can be concluded that the role of heart in
overall process of psycho spiritual transformation is
Nafs-ammarah (the commanding self), encompasses
cardinal. In Sufi practice the initial goal is to open
three levels of the nafs prior to the human self in
evolutionary terms. These are the seeker's heart. The open heart helps to
transcend and transform the nafs.
The mineral/inorganic self (nafs-al-jamaadi)
As the 'nafs' transforms it co-operates with further
The vegetable/organic self (nafs-al-habaati) transformation of consciousness. Desires of the nafs
" The animal self (nafs-al-haywaani) give way to the desires of the heart and finally these
As the principle of embodiment, the human self is remains only one-desire, desire to know God.
the crown of the evolutionary process, presiding over
the animal self, vegetable self and the mineral self. Soul
The human soul (ruh) is the innermost dimension
The commanding self (Nafs-al-Ammarah)
(baatin) of the human being and is hidden to the
though intelligent in wordly ways, generally lacks immediate consciousness of the ordinary individual
spiritual wisdom. The mineral Self generates inertia, as our surface consciousness (zaheer) is dominated
the vegetative self creates desires for food and by the activities of nafs. All souls are formless and
inactivities and the animal self is the source of both seek expression and experience in different levels
Sexual and destructive tendencies , Nafs-al- Ammarah
of consciousness. The ascent of soul through
seeks material objects, power and is plagued with
various planes of consciousness is called
transmigration or metempsychosis (tanaasukh). ultimaie truh and unity with God or the over-soul.
Once the spiritual heart is opened, the soul respectively.
In its origin individual soul is part of the over-soul
experiences wholeness and true individuality. The or God, yet it's not conscious of its identity with
God. Through its journey the soul moves through
next two stations of the soul are the 'secret' and various states of consciousness and experiences its
the 'secret of secrets' which are unknown to the identity with the various states.
ordinary mind and are marked by oneness with
10

There are numerous veils of of

illusions that keep human beings in the state gheflat
like ignorance and to "there
or sleep unconsciousness. According traditional saying
are seventy veils the none and
between human being and God, yet between God human
goal of open the
being". The Sufism is to seeker's heart, which is gateway to soul.
to and then the as nafs
The open heart, first helps transcend transform 'nafs', and
no acts as a but in
transforms it longer dividing agent cooperates further transformation
Sufism and Psychospiritual
of consciousness.
Sufi stage of
Transformation practice begins with the first
psychospiritual or spiritual awakening. After first
transformation perfecting
stage a as
Nafs-al-Amanarah undergoes gradual process of transformation known
means or loss of self center d
fana, which ego-annihilation personality traits. Once 'nafs'
is a self called is stage of
modified new 'Nafs-al-Lawwama' experienced. It is the
sufi avoids all of and
absitenence, where the practioner actively forms inferior impulses

by the
until
tendencies observing ethical codes of discipline (adab) eventually the
of By of
third stage non-attachment is mastered. means successive passages into next
two is purified
stages; 'spiritual poverty; during which heart perfectly 'patience'
for is as or
longing divine grace, the sixth stage attained referred to 'self-surrender'
on God; through tendencies
reliance completion of which all nafs-al-ammarah are
eradicated at the root.
and
"
UGC NET Tutor Psychology

Integral Yoga
Integral yoga or purna yoga sometimes also called .L supramental yoga, refers to the union of all
parts of one's
beings with the divine and the transmutation of all of their jarring
elements into a harmonious state of higher divine consciousness or existence. The
nature and practice of integral yoga is defined by Sri Aurobindo in his opus The
synthesis of yoga.' The integral yoga of Sri Aurobindo, is a yoga of synthesis,
intended to harmonise the paths of Karma, Jnana and Bhakti Yoga as described in
Bhagavad Gita. It can also be considered as the synthesis between Vedanta and Tantra and
even between Eastern and Western approaches to spirituality.

Sri
world wide
Aurobindo's Integral Yoga and Integral Psychology attracted
attention. Sri perspective
Aurobindo's provides legitimate spaces for the insights
on to
gathered human existence both from West as well as East and allows us integrate
go the in of and
these and seems to beyond what previous systems offer terms growth
expansion which are possible for Sri
human being. Aurobindo's Model
of The of in
Personality aspect persornality defined Western
is largely the 'outer a
psychology preoccupied with consciousness' that is the way
person expresses itself in ordinary life through form.
external, mental and vital

Sri has a different of

However, Aurobindo's integral yoga approach human

personality. According with

understanding identification only
the outer our
aspects of existence
of
to
this
approach

marks the all of

Completion of sixth stage also cessation of efforts on the part individual.
 this of and universal
Beyond experience cosmic self consciousness occur
point
spontaneously or by divine grace.
the called self its mode, Nafs-al
At seventh and last stage, Contentment, the takes final

a
and all Sufi best
motma'enna which is stage of joy removal of doubts. practice is
the of a be
attained under guidance learned teacher call 'Sheikh'. Thus, it can

that Sufism are

concluded presented in psychological thoughts quite
and it well the an individual from an
portrays impactful very evolution of egoistic, self

an of and to is a of
centered being to stage higher self union god. knowledge
reality, not of logic. This
absolute knowledge
Sufism
one a of it them unaware.
keeps trapped in state ignorance, because keeps According
to the is
integral yoga, outer being experiencing only a capable of narrow range
of to stimuli the
related stimuli and events impinging from external world. The

inner being of the inner

physical and
consists mind, inner vital, serves as a

inner the On each

connection between psychic and the outer being.
and
level-mental, vital physical, there is a wae range of
The possible and vaster
tapped. experiences inner energies that can De being
in the planes of The of
is contact with universal consciousness. process

the and the and

Sadhana leads t0 awakening activation of inner being, wu
the of the the to the
opening 'chakras' outer being also get a access universal

of Sri
has the term
bands Aurobindo, consciousness. used 'subliminal'
 all the being, which are on the waking those
for parts o not surface, especialy
to the of the
referring workings inner being.

by can be the of and

is means attained only by the 'eye of heart' that illumination
contemplation.
Psychological Thoughts in Eastern Systems

The psvchic within us awakens us toward the good, the true, the beautiful and love. The
existence of the psychology remains latent (outside of conscious awareness) within most
of us, but is responsible for the experience of all that is sublime.
Over the lifetime psychic evolves and keeps us guiding towards the 'light. A point comes
when psychic has evolved sufficiently and it makes its presence felt in outward
consciousness. At this stage a sense of lightness, greater freedom from the external
world, is felt. A feeling of silence, peace, bliss, love all spontaneous and not a response to
anything outside of the person is experienced. From this point where psychic is felt in
conscious state, 'Sadhana' helps to progress rapidly towards spiritual awakening taking a
person to the higher planes of consciouSness.

The Gradients of Consciousness The lowest form of consciousness is that which is

found in inanimate matter as involved in the workings of the atom with the electrons revolving
around the nucleus and is referred as 'inconscience'.
The next higher level of consciousness is subconscient. It is the quite submerged part of
our being in which there is no wakingly conscious and cohernt thought, will or
feeling or organised reaction, but yet receives obscurely the impressions of all things
and stores them up in itself and from it too all sorts of Stimuli, of persistent habitual
movements, crudely repeated or disguised in strange forms.
Further in the gradient of consciousness is the physical or the body consciousness
which is present in animals as well.
The highest that is most commonly found in humans is the level of the mind. In the
language of integral yoga the words 'mind' and 'mental' are used to describe the part
of nature which is concerned with cognition and intelligence, ideas, mental or
thought perceptions, the reactions of thought to things, mental vision and will etc.
that are part of human intelligence.
For those human beings who have not gone deeper within themselves mind and
consciousness are synonymous. It is when one becomes aware of oneself by a growth
in consciousness then
17

Sri Aurbindo describes the sequential involution of the infinite reality into finite matter
which he calls "Planes of Consciousness". Listed from lowest to highest order the major planes
of consciousness are as follows
(i) llumined Mind In this mode the mind begins to operate visually using subtle
images rather than dry logic and reason. It is found in poets, musicians and painters.
(ii) Intuitive Mind At this level knowledge is gained by intuition. The consciousness of
the subject meets the consciousness of the object and vibrates with the knowledge of that
which it contacts.
(ii) Over Mind This is the state where one begins to live in cosmic consciousness. Those who
attain liberation saluation are said to be in this state.
(iv) Super Mind This is the highest plane where one joins an all encompassing vision and
is able to see truth from all sides.
According to Sri Aurobindo, "there are two systems simultaneosouly active in the
organisation of the being and its parts. One is concentric, a series of rings or sheaths
with the psychic at the centre (Annamaya Kosha, Prananjaya Kosha, Manomaya Kosha,
Vijnamaya Kosha, Anandamaya Kosha) and other is vertical an ascension and
descent, like a flight of steps, as series of super imposed planes with supermind
overmind as the crucial nodes of transition bevond the human into the divine.

Thus, Sri Aurobindo's depiction of personality and human existence refers to a

lesser self-caught up in the demands of the outer being, which can get transtormed
into the greater self via a process of development. This entails first an inward
movement leading to the uncovering of the psychic and then an upward movement
through the higher gradations of consciousness taking one towards the supramental level
of awareness, and subsequently descent of the higher force into lower parts
leading to their transformation.
one
Can
see different degress, kinds and powers of
This simply means that our whole nature gets converted
Consciousness- mental, physical, psychic and spiritual. Ihere is a description of
higher ranges of consciousness above mind which become accessible through
lowest of the
'Sadhana'. These include 'higher mind' the first and spiritual mental
gTades, lying above the normal mental level. The mind's Characteristic movement
ideation, as
is a mass seeing of the Inner relation between ideas, Truth is seen in wholeness.
and we are no longer caught up in the narrow egoistic confines of a delimited
consciousness, which identifies with experiences limited to the horizons of the outer
essential and
being. The integral yoga view helps us in getting in touch with the nmost
fundamental aspect of our existence and has potential applications in the area of
psychotherapy, parenting attitude towards work. human relationships, education
etc.
12
Acadenmic Psychology In India Psvchology as
an

new first 20th

academic discipline made a beginning in the decade of century. The initial
were the of academic on Indian
years marked by influence West-oriented psychology
This prevented the of academic in
psychologists. enrichment psychology India form
diverse and of Indian Thus, in
expertise life-experiences psychologists. psvchology India
remained vast of in Indian
discounted from its own storehouse knowledge inherent
texts. from on
philosophical However, in recent years there is a shift emphasis replication
socially research and the
of Western studies to relevant understanding psychological,
and using qualitative
social cultural contexts approaches.

Pre-Independence Era
modern first
Wilhelm Wundt, known as the father of Psychology set up the Psychological
the of this
laboratory in University Leipzig in the year 18. After numerous developments
area of Impressed and
took place in West in the psychology. influenced by the growth
of West,
psychology in the modern psychology was introduced at Calcutta University with
the of many
starting of a separate department Psychology in 1916. Since then
been India,
psychologists from India have trained abroad and many have been trained in
the brands of psychology. Indian
following Western psychological traditions also
flourished significantly during last century with its distinctive emphasis on spiritual self
development. There were numerous teacher and disciple pairs who practiced their own
practice
bands of theory and and made an impact globally.
Contribution of Various
Psychologists
Ramakrishna
One of this pair of teacher disciple in the modern times was (teacher)
Paramhansa-Swami Vivekananda (disciple). Swami Vivekananda's lecture at the world
conference on religions in Chicago in 1883, became the landmark in introducing Indian
 work for on
thought in the USA. His thoughts and psychology, had a deep impact
about the
William James and his ideas higher states of
"
UGC NET Tutor Psychology

and theories for Psychological theory and practice the wr.. of BG Tilak (1856-1920) is most
He
suitable. interpreted the path of action described in the Bhagavad Gita in light et
Post-Kantian Philosophy and Darwinian thought. But the most important contribution to
psychology in the Indian tradition was made by Sri Aurobindo (1872-J950 Though he was not
formally trained in psychology, he was sage in Indian tradition and wrote on basis of his profoUnd
experience as a yogi. His most prominent contribution psychology is his work called the

synthesis of yoga (Aurobindo 1949-1999) in which he brings together essence of the

basic varieties of yoga namely the paths of knowledge
three (Jnana Marga), Devotion
(Bhakti) and Action (Karma). Now if we talk about academic psychology that was
transplanted from the West, the names of two pioneers names are worth mentioning are :
Narendra Nath Sengupta of the Calcutta University, who was trained in
experimental
Psychology with Hugo Musterberg at Harvard and his successor
Givindra Shekhar Bose, who became a self-taught psychoanalyst to be admitted by
the of
Freud to membership of International Association Psychoanalysis. As both
Western experimental and clinical approaches were imported, many psychologists got
in the
trained abroad, and continued influencing psychology in India. However India

flourished and of Indian

experimental model psychoanalysis lagged behind. In area
Psychology too, its side of
theoretical became a small part philosophy courses in
in The of
universities, while applied part had no place academic curriculum. contribution
Gandhi who is saint, social
Mahatma (1869-1948) known as freedom fighter, reformer
great of social quite His
and thinker, in the area 'applied psychology' is impressing.
of the movement the
principle non-violence (ahimsa) and Satyagraha, are techniques
wide in of social His and
which have application resolution conflicts. ideas practices

a of
Indian and style of
were replication traditional thoughts culture. His his
 leadership shows of what group dynamics.
deep understanding modern

called work practical of

Gandhiji's psychologists reflects the orientation
India
psychology
in
India. Post Independence Era Soon after
gained the rule,
independence from British psychology witnessed an
consciousness.
explosive growth
with

in
The famous pioneers interpreting Indian thought in the context of Western
philosophy were Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya (1875-1949) and S Radhakrishnan
(1888-1975). In terms of articulation of the basic principles
of old
departments psychology opening up in universities a5 well as in continually
of new was similar
widening circle IIT's, and universities ano of IIM's. There
the number research in as well as
explosion in publications Indian journals.

intemationa
Psychological Thoughts in Eastern Bhagavad Gita etc. But now psychology in India is
returning to its roots and moving towards a new
Systems path.

Separate psychology department were largely set up Development of Academic Psychology in

between 1940-1960. In 1954 Bureau of
Psychology was established at Allahabad. The first India . 1947 Girindra Shekhar Bose published
NIMHANS (National Institute of Mental Health journal 'Samiksha'. Guidance Bureau was set up at
Bangalore, Bihar and Parsi Panchayat Vocational Guidance
and Neuro Sciences) was set up in in Bureau at Bombay was established.
1955. In 1962, hospital for mental diseases in . 1949 Indian Government established psychological
Ranchi was established. research under Defence Ministry with an aim of the
Though Psychology as an academic discipline was inclusion of psychologists on research and selection
board. 1950 Prof. VK Kothurkar, who was
creating its mark in India, but it was totally influenced trained at Cambridge University, founded and
headed the department of psychology at
by Western theories and concepts and these were
influencing the research and teaching programmes in University of Pune and named it as "Experimental
most of Indian universities. 'Psychology' was Psychology'.
1950 UNESCO and Ministry of Education in
flourishing in India academia, but it was
maintaining a distance from its own vast store house Collaboration with Gardner Murphy, developed
of knowledge which was available in the Indian a research project to investigate the causes of
philosophical texts like in Buddhism, Jainism, command violence. Many Indian Psychologists too
became the part of this project and published a Psychology.
book named, 'In the minds of mea'. This project 1953 Indian Psychologist Jadunath Sinha wrote
gave a lot of interest for research in the scholars. a book on Cognition.
1950's-1960's During this period 32 Psychology 1959 Department of Applied psychology
departments were established in universities all over established in University of Mumbai.
India. These departments pursued research as per
1961 The NCERT reviewed all psychological test
their Interest area and developed their distinct
made till 1961l.
identity like Rural and Social Psychology
(Allahabad), Test Construction (Mysore), 1967 The university of Calcutta officially
established Applied Psychology under the
Industrial Psychology (Osmania) and
guidance of Prof. SN Roy. 1968 The Indian
Measurement and Guidance (Patna). During this
Association of Clinical Psychologists was started in
psychology 1968.
Pernod only applied 1970 Several well organised research centres were
established like ANS Institutes of Social Research
applications widened in
Industrial Psychology, organisational (Patna), Centre for Study of Developing
management developing training and Societies (New
job-productively oriented work activities. Delhi) NIPCCD, Delhi, National
13 Institute of Health and Family Welfare (Delhi),
National Institute of Educational Policy and
Administration (New Delhi), NCERT New Delhi
" 1955 With the collaborative support of Mc Clelland Indian Institute of Sciences, (Bangalore), Academic
and Erikson advanced training programmes in Staff College (Bangalore) and Indian Statistical
clinical psychology were introduced at Institute (Calcutta). Together with this the
NIMHANS Bangalore. invention of first Statistical Package for the Social
" 1957 The Madras psychological society Sciences (SPSS) manual published by Norma H
published the first journal of Psychological Nie, Dale H Bent and Chadlai Hull's made the
Research. research work in psychology an outstanding
" 1961 Department of Psychology started in one.
Allahabad University, and Prof. Durganand 1974 A directory made by compiling 503
Sinha, who was trained at Cambridge University psychological tests. The department of
and Patna University became its first head. Psychology was established at Bangalore
" 1964 An independent psychology University and Bharathiar University. 1975 By
Department was set up in Delhi University the end of 1975, 51 of 101l recognised university
under Prof. HC Ganguli. However, the
psychology course at the master's level was offered psychology as one of its courses. 1976
introduced in Delhi University in 1957. First publication of journal of Indian
1964 "The Madras Psychology Society' psychology (Dalar AK and Misra A. 2010).
published the Indian Journal of Applied

14

Move of
The Addressing Social lssues in 1970's
most of the ideas are
In 1970's it was quite evident that psvchology in which theories and
 in in
westeniscd is of no applicabilitv addressing social issues which are prevalent Indian
rich
societv. The only solution is to (urn to the intellectual heritage of one's on culture i.c.
Indian thoughts and in
traditional psvchological practices presented numerous
A this by
religious and historical texts and writings. Clarion call in direction was given
for
Durganand Sinha (1965) asking integration of modern Psychology with Indian
He of
thought. emphasised that Indian Models psvchology would have enormous
human
applications for health psvchology, education, organisational management, and
social development.
Being a developing country with millennia old culture, a rich diverse society, a two century
is reliant and
long colonial past , India currently aspiring to emerge as a self economically
strong nation. India has been engaged with rapid grOwth in the field of higher education to
trained in health,
meet the need of professionals required sectors like administration,
military and and
banking, police, management. But being a land of diverse cultures
ecology uneven before
traditions, and language, introduction of technology, the challenge
the welfare
planners to ensure social through democratic processes is quite tough. The
and
challenge to relate India's past modern psychology was a main concern in the early
period and continued since then.

many issue of
It was largely in the 1970's that psychologists raised the insufficient
and inadequate attention to social psychological problems. It was at this time Indian and
of
psychologists realised that they had been indifferent to the vast and rich collection
the to
knowledge inherent in the Indian texts. But commitment scientific inquiry was
regarded with du respect and the debates related to philosophy of science could not be
addressed until the J980's.

1980's Indigenisation
not an was a
Modern Psychoiogy did originate as indigenous science. It
transplant from the West and it is yet to be sufficiently indigenised.
Indigenious Psychology is not imported from outside but originates in its native
 of
land and grows out people's responses and interactions in a culture. They fornm clusters
their interactions. Some are are
and patterns from innovative, some rational, irrational
etc.
Psychologists examine them systematically and develop concepts, principles,
laws and theories.
UGC NET Tutor " Psychology

responses a.
Again people act on them, make informed

create new information, that psychologists use refine the reality their more theorisation and capture
'indigenious knowledos
comprehensively. This is the process of creation' resulting into
Indigenisation over a period of time psychology is closer to cultural
Indigeneous
psycholog
And till 1980's psychology in India was what was imported from West. However,
the theories and perspectives of the West do not explain the reality of human psyche in the
cultural context of Indian culture.
Whenever a Western theory failed to explain evidence collected in India, Indians blamed
Western psychologists for lacking in skill to conduct the study or for wrong sampling
methods, or items. When reality clearly contradicted a theory for e.g. Indians perceived
participative leaders as weak, Indians preferred personalised relationships and Indians
respected and obeyed their parents; Indians were advised to change their mindset and
behaviour.
So, it was clear at this time (1970- 1980's) that Indian psychology was in crisis. There
were many inconsistent and unexplained findings, tests and measures were insensitive to
Indian culture and findings were irrelevant to people's life and problems.
Academia of
Later 'self reliance', a new sentiment arose in the Psychology and a search for
was is a
cultural heritage started. It realised that there disconnect between psychology
and not social the
Indian culture and it worthy to address problems in India. This has led to

an also the
realisation of the need of indegenous Psychology and Emergence of

of forum
International Association Cross-Cultural Psychology. In this
talk about in the
psychologists Can differences cross-cultures and not just similarities
in a the
resulted positive impact on growth of India. Indigeneous P'sychology in
where
 the search for
wisdom for creating Indian
Then, began ancient authetic
The earlier the following Sinha's
Psychology. attempts include Jadunath
on Perception and Emotion,
(1933) work Akhilanand's (1952) work on how
and mental
health, Psycho-spiritual thoug' Aurobindo's (1986)
work on and and
nationalism Radha spirituality
Krishnan's work Inudian During
on Philosophical 'Synthetic Mindset'.

many of ancient
l970'%-1980's other search wisdom. psychologists
the The all time and
joined assumptions made was thau it is valid verifiable, thus
it be
must continued at present.
Psychological Thoughts in Eastern
Systems and the hard work is still on. Today, Indian
psychology is emerging which promises a broad
Indcgenisation in l'sychology is done from both soures theoretical foundation for the exploration of human
consciousness (Yoga) and radical psychological
() Westerm Perspective known as Egenons transformation.
Indigenisation: Exogenous Indigenisation is
integration of modern Psvchology with Indian Its applications are found in modern areas like
thought. organisational behaviour and social development.
Accounts of the states and contents of mnental functions
i) Ancient Indian Perspective known as regulating responsible human conduct available in
vast Indian texts and practices is being rediscovered in
Endogenons
Indigenisation: Ancient indian a more Contemporary context.
perspective put emphasis on experimental and
individual centric transfornmation. lt believes 1990's Paradiagmatic Concerns
on knowing through practicing and explores inspiration from Western and ancient Indian
human possibilities parallels in Western and sources. Thus, the process of indigenisation
Indian psychology. initiated. It was happening "Surely but slowBy'
(Adair, 1989) in all three perspective
Indian psvchologists refined themselves by using
Western, Ancient Indian and Folwvays. But in each
multi-dimensional approach, flexible methods and
perspective there were only few frontrunners.
15
Fox front runners of indigenisation who examined
VWestern concepts by Western methods, are 'adoptology'. There was growing
" Janak Pandey (1981) found unlike in the West
ingratiation is rampant and risk free in India because disillusimment about the applicability of Western
of hierarchical world view and assymetrical
power distribution. theories and their mindless testing in India.
A strong need was felt to return to cultural roots. D Sinha
" Jain (1987) found, unlike in the West crowding
(1977) urged that the scientific understanding of
is not negatively experienced in India because
Indian reality should benefit from its vast treasure
officiation, not privacy are valued.
of traditional psychological knowledge accumulated
" L Krishnan (1997) talks about 'Distributive called for the development of an
Justice' in India is not contractual, but it is duty over centuries. He
bound (social obligation). indigenious psychology
with its own paradigms
Similarly, post conventional morality in
Kohlberg's model in West highlights the
to understand developmental problems of the
individual rights, responsibility and autonomy,
region.
where as in India it is to care and duty for others. In short, psychology in India was seeking its own
Another shade of Indigenisation where conditions identity. The need at this time was to make
were attached to a concept, or the concept was psychology more relevant in Indian context. D Sinha
modified are for example. (1986) also stressed on finding appropriate
MC Clelland's (1975) Concept of need for theoretical
achievement (H Achv) for individuals was framework and research methodologies to
modified, as Udai Paveek (1968) said need for make subject 'socially relevant' to meet the needs of
achievement works in India only if it is combined changing society.
with need for affiliation.
*Prayag Mehta (1987) concluded that its not need Contemporary Debates
for achievement for individuals but social need for
The ongoing debate on the indegenisation of
achievement which is good for India. psychology resulted in Indian psychologists showing
So achievement in Western culture is different than
more interest in studying problems relevant to the
achievement in Indian culture. country using Indian concepts and theories.
1iere were numnerous other researches done in the field
O psychology towards an indigenous approach Neki (1973) for example suggested a
to various theories and methods. A beginning was teacher-pupil model in counselling to break
made in 1980's cultural and social barriers.
By the mid 1970's the enthusiasm with which the
JBP Sinha (1980) proposed a new leadership style
Western educated Indian Psychologists were nurturant task master, which is more likely to succeed in
conducting research was waning. Western
Indian work organisations.
Psychology was failing to throw light on Indian social
issues. Kakar (1982, 1991) studied the role of traditional
healers in maintaining mental health in Indian
Sixty years of Westerm Psychology had not society.
yielded any significant discoveries KG Agarwal

(1973) has called psychology in India as

16
 Rao (1983) and Palsane, and (1986)
Ramchandra Bhavasar Goswami Evans developed

a of on ancient and (1992)

concept stress scriptures. Pande Naidu developed a

to
the of
measure study concept detachment and its mental health
based

consequences.
1990s of identity
Disciplinary ldentity Crisis The crisis discipline's
was of Sinha a of
concern. JBP (1993) made distinction between bulk and the front
was and
psychological research. Mass produced bulk of the research which replicative

few frontrunners take

psychology more
immitative. But started to indigenous

The Canadian saw

seriously. Psychologists, John Adair indigenisation as a gradual
in Indian scale to
process and collaboration with his colleagues, developed a measure the
of He
degree Indigenisation. concluded on the basis of content analysis of over 300 journal

articles that there was a progress in indigenisation of psychology in India, but at a slow pace.
There were numerous research work done to address the social problems of Indian society. Eventually

fruitfully
it was realised that Western theories and methods could not be applied to study
any
Indian social problems. It was realised that in the absence of cultural based knowledge and
understanding, no real insight and solutions of the Indian social problems are possible.
the of
This led to development cross-cultural testing of psychological concepts and theories.
Thus Indian psychologists got an opportunity to operate on wider plane and to influence
in
developments mainstream psychology. But to a large extent cross cultural psychology

remained a
methodological enterpise and culture remained a peripheral concern (Misra and
Gregen, 1993). In recent times cross-cultural psychology itself is going through a crisis
and the classical conception of culture, that was the basis of most research in this area,
is being seriously questioned (Miller, 1998). All these developments in the field of
psychology and that
of indigenous psychology firmed the belief that all psychological knowledge is rooted in
the prevalent world view of a society and is conditioned by its historical and metatheoretical
considerations.

The type of indigenisation as proposed by D Sinha (1994) which is based on a systematic

analysis of the culture bound concept and categories, and focuses on the contemporary
relevance of cultural heritage and native theories is termed as Indian Psychology'.
Tutor "
UGC NET Psychology
primarily relied on the rich Indian scriptures and
This stream has stOreho knowledge found in
texts of the last two to three millennia. The work
philosophical of Kakar presents research
which
finely blends
both
adaptation of the mainstream (Western) psychology and ancient
Indian psychology.
thinkers such as
The beginning of Indian psychology can be traced in +l writings of many eminent

Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo in the early part of last century. The monumental
work of Jadunath Sinb
(1934/1958/1 961) on Indian Psychology can be considered as a landmark informally
establishing it as an independent discipline.
The books of Ramachandra Rao (1962) and Raghunath Safaya (1975) gave it further
impetus during early years. Some notable publications in 1980's and 1990's are hy Paranjpye
(1984, 1998) Chakraboity (1995) Saraswathi (1999) and K Ramakrishna Rao (1988, 2002,
is a rich and growing body of research in this area and many
2005). There excellent reviews
and in
available. The stream of psychology is not only built on theories perspectives
contemporary idiom, but also involves integration with broader global perspective. Matthijis
Psychological knowledge from ancient
Cornelissen (2000, 2005) has requested that
Indian spiritual be the He
tradition needs to integrated in teaching program. advised that

of Indian and
Indian
core psychology curriculum could be theories of self consciousness.
in
Psychology Academia in 2000s
2000's the The scientific
In the beginning of academics in India started to change rapidly.
more towards in and
community became accepting psychology rooted native wisdom
 Indian were
philosophical traditions. psychologists endeavoring to break free from theoretical

the to issues
and with methodological constraints of discipline understand the real
of socla1 the
development and act as a catalysts in change process. Indian realised

the
that if they do not take up challenge they are
psychologists also
be
likely to marginalised.
the in many the the world
Infact psychologists countries of all continents in realised the
for developin8 one's
need indigenous perspective of culture and to get the subject free
the of has a a specu
from dominance American Thus, it become movement., not culture
HoweveT; Indian
phenonmena limited to a few Asian societies. psychology was not only
S specific
suited to address India psychological issues and problems, but it offers
psychology.
and
Psychological Thoughts in Eastern
17
Systems
nsvchological models and theories appropriate to (iv) With India emerging as a major economic
power in the world, there is a renewed interest in
address nroblems of social conflicts, violence and Indian values, philosophies and practices as well
as in strength and resilience of Indian society. The
mental health in other societies also. very
have
Four factors contributed to this change of attitudes
peneptions of Indian psychology. Indian culture and philosophies were

which
of banished from psychology 150 years ago.
(i) First is the failure Western psychology to deal
(ü) Second, the growing popularity of yoga and
with its own societal problems. It has been other spiritual systems of India in the West.
realised that growing problems such as social and Numerous people with spiritual training and
experiences in India have been visiting other
family violence, mental health and moral decay countries and have acquired a large following.
through They have been responsible for disseminating the
cannot be resolved Western psychology
Indian spiritual tradition. Mahrishi Mahesh Yogi
which follows the brute empiricism in and Swami Rama are some prominent gurus who
psychological research. have been able to draw the attention of academic
A need was felt to bring back spirituality and psychologists. Sri Aurobindo's integral yoga
religiosity in psychological research which were
 and integral psychology attracted worldwide Features of Indian Psychology The
attention. Mahesh Yogi transcendental newly emerging psychology is rooted in
traditional Indian thought and practice.
meditation went through rigorous experimental
Some of the features which give Indian psychology a
testing at Harvard and many other universities. distinct identity are briefly discussed.
Swami Rama's medical testing at the meninger " Indian psychology can be deemed as universal' as
foundation laboratory, New York, in which he it deals with the perennial issues of human
demonstrated various Yogic feats proved the existence which are not bound by any
power of mind over body. geographical region or time period.
All this has contributed significantly towards The questions which were raised by sages and
thinkers 100's of years ago, are the same and are
evoking interest in the Indian psychological relevant even today and in this sense Indian
psychology is both ancient and contemnporary
perspectives publications by Sri Aurobindo
at the same time. The roots of Indian
Ashram in Puducherry and the Himalayan
International Institute for Yoga
psychology can be Indian but it was never
Sciences, proposed as the psychology of India. For instance,
Philosophy and Religion in Honesdale Pennsy Buddhist psychology which is an integral part
Ivania founded by Swami Rama. These publications of Indian
psychology, was developed in Sri Lanka, Tibet
have played an important role in popularising
and Japan, among other countries.
Indian Psychology in the world.
" It deals with the 'inner-state' of a person taking
(iii) The secular nature of Indian psychology, of
consciousness as the primary subject matter of
Consciousness validated the fact that it has more to offer
study. Human consciousness is considered to be
in terms of self growth than any other religious hierarchial, the highest state being of pure
interested to consciousness, bliss and truth. Yoga and
tradition. rsychologists became more meditation are the tools to attain this highest state
examine the of pure consciousness. However, it should not be
indigenous perspectives available in misinterpreted that Indian Psychology is not
many religious traditions of the East. It was clearly concerned about human conditions of pOverty.

understood that modern psychology has nothing injustice and pain. Indian psychology do not
dismiss the empirical research in these areas but
to offer regarding the Spiritual transcendental provides a
dimension of human nature to understand others or broader perspective within which their findings
for personal growth (Tart, 1975). Unfortunately should make sense.
psychologists in India Indian psychology is spiritual in nature, but is
most academic ave not
based on truthful methods. As its a human science of
appreciated this fact consciousness its methods are different from the
and consider Indian methods of physical sciences but they are not less
movement.
1'Sychology as part of revivalistic stringent than any scientific methods. Methods of
backwardness
debunked earlier for India's poverty and self observation, direct observation (for example
by many Western ideologists (Max Muller for insitution) and others which rely on sensory and
mental
example) are now taken seriously by both
mediation. These methods rely on blending of
Western and Indian psychologists.
first person and second person perspectives. These
methods work well within the guru (second
person)- Pupil (fîrst
18
person)
traditiorn. of and for to test,
Methods meditation have
yoga centuries experiment
and states. Indian is
empirically validate higher mental psvchology applied and its
just concerned the existing and developing
not with testing theories generalisable
but the be the
propositions more practices importantly, about that can used for
human towards the
transformation of conditions perfection. This is transformation
of the to level of In more
person higher achievement and well-being. recent times,
to as a have Several
efforts build Indian vibrant psychology discipline intensified.
conferences
been used

Delhi,
(Puducherry 2001, 2002, 2004, Kollam, 2001, 2003, 2007
2002,
2006, been
Bengaluru Visakhapatnam, 2002, 2003, 2007). have have

this A impetus to this of

conducted in regard which given number of movement
Indian Psychology. of Indian such as
publications psychology Kuppuswami's
of integral
elements ancient Indian (1985), Sen's psychology Mohanty's
and on Indian (2002) have the
psychology (1986), Misra perspective psychology
of as More and
potential serving textbooks. recently, Joshi Cornelissen's edited
volume, Consciousness, Indian Yoga Rao and
Psychology and (2004);
a spiritual Rao, Parangjpe and Dalal's
Marwaha's towards Psychology (2006);

of Indian and rich resource for

Handbook Psychology (2008) provide material
and be has
teaching research in the area. Thus it can concluded that a movement started
toward Indian their for
contemporarising theories and testing relevance enhancing
human Indian be seen
competencies and well being. Psychology can ushering towards
a of many
new era exciting possibilities.

Issues in Indian
Psychology
Following are the issues crippling Indian Psychology The Colonial Encounter

Indian policy of only

The British East Company adopted a funding

its the
European-style education within territories several years before subcontinent

was formally in
colleges
accessioned to Queen Victoria's empire l857. Education in

and
universities was modeled after Oxford and Cambridge. Modern psychology was
Calcutta separate of
introduced at University with the starting of a department
psychology in 1916.
"
UGC NET Tutor Psychology

an excellent overview of
Dalal (2002) has given the history of psychology since that time
onward.
During nearly a century that has passed since, Indian psychologists
trained abroad as well as those trianed in India almost followed theWestern brands of
pscyhology. exclusively The teaching and research in modern psychology began
largely as an extension of the Euro-American tradition in the British period. Its initial
emphasis was not so much on questioning and doubting the Westerm concepts and
methods, but on preserving the essential configuration of the discipline and keeping it as similar
to the one in the Western world, as possible.
a
We also note that there existed tradition of British psychoanalysts who tried to offer
Christine
interpretations of the Indian psyche to justify the British rule. Citing
work (2011) has at how British
Hartnack's Vahali discussed lerngth early psychoanalysts
to universal psychoanalytic Indian
tried create conceptualisations that explain away
of as inferior, less simply
experiences selfhood or view them essentially worthy or
or social and
pathological otherwise deficient. It acted as a tool to justify oppression
colonial rule. Post-Colonialism and Psychology Soon after
India gained the an
independence from British rule, of psychology witnessed

with old
explosive growth departments psychology opening up in universities as
a new and of
well as in continually widening circle of universities institutes
and a similar the of
technology management.. These was explosion in number
research well as the
publications in Indian as international journals. Despite
acute the
exceptional growth of the field, there has been restlessness about

of the an of
significance accomplishments. Though there was expansion

within since little

university psychology departments system 1970, there were

for these
organisational support pursuing departments. There was research
no for the research, of in higher
projects incentive because of mass entry students

and for n
education chronic campus unrest political reasons. Research
began to develop outside this time research
psychology university system. Al
 like ANS of New
institutes Studies, Patna, Institute Social Delhi and Centre

National
for of SocietieS of
Study Developing Institute Development, Hyderabad
centres for was a
Community became research in psychology. There rapid

but by the of
However 1960's unplanned expansion. number increased
psychology to 32 in Indian was quite
departments Universities, but this
serious thinking in
unplanned. No development establishing preceded

these in of specialisation.
departments terms their need-based
Psvchological Thoughts in Eastern Systems Lack of Distinct

Disciplinary ldentity
19

With due course of time several departments developed their own distinct identity
on the basis of their own areas of research interest but it was mainly was in
congruence with the area of interest of their head of the department. The interest and
training of one dominant person (or HOD) were decisive factors in the
specialisation of that department. For example Mysore University psychology
department was known for "Test construction', Osmania University department for
industrial psychology, Patna University for measurement and guidance,
Allahabad University for rural and social psychology etc. As these departments
were mostly dependent on one dominant personality (HOD), and when
these scholars departed. the department encountered a major set back and showed
in
shifts interests/specialisation. Thus, psychology as a discipline report on

experiencing distinct identity crisis.