Science and technology in Germany

Science and technology in Germany has a long and illustrious

history, and research and development efforts form an integral part
of the country's economy. Germany has been the home of some of
the most prominent researchers in various scientific disciplines,
notably physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering.[1]
Before World War II, Germany had produced more Nobel
laureates in scientific fields than any other nation, and was the
preeminent country in the natural sciences.[2][3] Germany is
European Space Operations Centre
currently the nation with the 3rd most Nobel Prize winners, 115. (ESOC) in Darmstadt near Frankfurt

The German language, along with English and French, was one of
the leading languages of science from the late 19th century until the end of World War II.[4][5] After the
war, because so many scientific researchers' and teachers' careers had been ended either by Nazi Germany
which started a brain drain, the denazification process, the American Operation Paperclip and Soviet
Operation Osoaviakhim which exacerbated the brain drain in post-war Germany, or simply losing the
war, "Germany, German science, and German as the language of science had all lost their leading position
in the scientific community."[6]

Today, scientific research in the country is supported by industry, the network of German universities and
scientific state-institutions such as the Max Planck Society and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
The raw output of scientific research from Germany consistently ranks among the world's highest.[7]
Germany was declared the most innovative country in the world in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index
and was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[8]

Institutions
The Deutsches Museum, 'German Museum' of Masterpieces of
Science and Technology in Munich is one of the largest science
and technology museums in the world in terms of exhibition
space, with about 28,000 exhibited objects from 50 fields of
science and technology.[9][10]

The Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, 'Federal

Ministry of Education and Research' (BMBF) is a supreme Aerial image of the science museum
authority of the Federal Republic of Germany for science and "Deutsches Museum" (center) in the
technology. The headquarter of the Federal Ministry is located in city center of Munich on an island of
Bonn, the second office in Berlin. It was founded in 1972 as the Isar river
Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT) to promote
basic research, applied research and technological
[11]
development.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (German: Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft
und Klimaschutz (BMWK, previous BMWi)

Foundations
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research association)
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), promoting international exchange of
scientists and students)
The Fritz Thyssen Stiftung, 'Fritz Thyssen Foundation' supports young scientists and
research projects. It was founded in 1959 and is located in Cologne. The purpose of the
foundation, with an endowment capital of €542.4 million,[12] is to promote science at
scientific universities and research institutes, primarily in Germany, under particular
consideration on young scientists.[13]

National science libraries

German National Library of Economics (ZWB), Kiel & Hamburg
German National Library of Medicine (ZB MED), Cologne & Bonn
German National Library of Science and Technology (TIB), Hannover

Research organizations
Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres (complex
systems und large-scale research), Bonn & Berlin
Fraunhofer Society (applied research and mission oriented
research, Munich)
Leibniz Association (fundamental and applied research), Berlin
Max Planck Society (fundamental research), Munich
Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik ("Society
of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics"), Dresden
The Hasso Plattner Institute (HPI), officially: Hasso Plattner
Institute for Digital Engineering gGmbH, is a privately financed IT
institute and, together with the University of Potsdam, forms the
Digital Engineering Faculty. It is located in Potsdam-Babelsberg Engraving of Gottfried
and researches practical and applied topics in digital technologies. Wilhelm Leibniz
Its founder and namesake is SAP founder Hasso Plattner.

Prize committees
The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year.
With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in
the world.[14] The prize and the mentioned organization above is named after the German
polymath and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), who was a contemporary
and competitor of Isaac Newton (1642–1727).
The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award is a prize for "outstanding achievements" in the field of
analytical spectroscopy. The prize is named in honor of chemist Robert Bunsen and
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff (→ Physics).
 The Helmholtz Prize is awarded with €20,000 every two to three years to European
scientists for scientific and technological research in metrology.[15]

Scientific fields
The global spread of the printing press with movable types and an
oil-based ink was a process that began around 1440 with the
invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg
(c. 1400–1468) and continued until the introduction of printing
based on this procedure in all parts of the world in the 19th
century, thus creating the conditions for the dissemination of
generally accessible scientific publications emerging to the
revolution of science.[16] Johannes Gutenberg, 1904
reconstruction

Scientific Revolution
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was one of the originators of the Scientific
Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. He was an astronomer, physicist,
mathematician and natural philosopher[20] He advocated the idea of a
heliocentric model of the Solar System, which can be traced back to the
theories of the ancient Greek astronomers Aristarchus of Samos and Seleucus
of Seleucia, as well as to the 16th-century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473–1543), whose main work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, 'On
the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres' about the heliocentric model was
Probably a first published by Johannes Petreius (c. 1497–1550) and likely the polymath
contemporary portrait of Johannes Schöner (1477–1547) in the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg in
Johannes Kepler 1543. In March 1600, Kepler became assistant to the astronomer Tycho
painted around 1612. Brahe (1546–1601) at the court of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, Kingdom of
Kepler was one of the Bohemia. After Brahe's death in October of the next year, Kepler succeeded
founders and fathers of
him as imperial mathematician and court astronomer (until 1627).[21]
modern astronomy, the
scientific method,
Johannes Kepler discovered the laws
natural and modern
according to which planets are moving around
science.[17][18][19]
the Sun, who were called Kepler's laws after
him. With his introduction to calculating with
logarithms, Kepler contributed to the spread of this type of calculation. In
mathematics, a numerical method for calculating the volume of wine
barrels with integrals was named former Kepler's barrel rule.[23] He made
optics to a subject of scientific investigation and confirmed the discoveries
made with the telescope by his Italian contemporary Galileo Galilei Nicolaus Copernicus, often
(1564–1642). He worked on the theory of the telescope and invented the named the originator of the
refracting astronomical or Keplerian telescope,[24] which involved a Scientific Revolution[22]
considerable improvement over the Galilean telescope.[25] Kepler also made the invention of the
valveless gear pump, because a mine owner needed a device to pump water out of his mine.[26]

Physics
Otto von Guericke (1602–1686) was a scientist,
inventor, mathematician and physicist from
Magdeburg. He is best known for his
experiments on air pressure using the Magdeburg
hemispheres. With the invention of the vacuum
pump he laid the foundation of vacuum
technology.

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736) was a

physicist and inventor of measuring instruments
from Danzig. The temperature unit degrees Gustav Kirchhoff (left)
Albert Einstein was a
Fahrenheit (°F) was named after him. and Robert Bunsen
German-born theoretical
(right), photograph
physicist.
Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887) was a physicist c. 1850
from Königsberg who made a particular
contribution to the study of electricity. However,
they were discovered as early as 1833 by Carl
Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) during his
experiments on electricity. Today Kirchhoff is
best known for Kirchhoff's rules, the
fundamental laws of electrical engineering, and
to describe the emission of black-body radiation
by heated objects, what contributed eventually to
the emergence of quantum mechanics. With
Karl Schwarzschild Robert Bunsen (1811–1899) he developed flame
spectroscopy in 1859, which can be used to
detect chemical elements with high specificity.[27] Bunsen was a chemist Max Planck
from Göttingen, he discovered together with Kirchhoff the elements caesium
and rubidium in 1861. He perfected the Bunsen burner, which is named after
him, and invented the Bunsen cell and a grease-spot photometer.

The work of Albert Einstein (1879–1955), best known for developing the theory of relativity,[28] and Max
Planck (1858–1947), he is known for the Planck constant, was crucial to the foundation of modern
physics, which Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) and Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) developed
further.[29] They were preceded by such key physicists as Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826), who
discovered the Fraunhofer lines in spectroscopy, and Hermann von Helmholtz (1857–1894), among
others. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) discovered X-rays in 1895, an accomplishment that made
him the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901[30] and eventually earned him an element
name, roentgenium. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's (1857–1894) work in the domain of electromagnetic
radiation were pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication; the unit of frequency was
named in his honor "Hertz".[31] Mathematical aerodynamics was developed in Germany, especially by
Ludwig Prandtl.
Karl Schwarzschild (1873–1916) was an astrophysicist from Frankfurt am Main. He was professor and
director of the Göttingen Observatory from 1901 to 1909. There he was able to work together with
scientists like David Hilbert (1862–1943) and Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909). Schwarzschild works
on relativity provided the first exact solutions to the field equations of Albert Einstein's general relativity
– one for an uncharged, non-rotating spherically symmetric body and one for a static isotropic void
around a solid body. Schwarzschild did some fundamental works on classical black holes. This is why
some properties of black holes got their name, namely the Schwarzschild metric and the Schwarzschild
radius. The center of a non-rotating, uncharged black hole is called the Schwarzschild singularity.

Paul Forman in 1971 argued the remarkable scientific achievements in quantum physics were the cross-
product of the hostile intellectual atmosphere whereby many scientists rejected Weimar Germany and
Jewish scientists, revolts against causality, determinism and materialism, and the creation of the
revolutionary new theory of quantum mechanics. The scientists adjusted to the intellectual environment
by dropping Newtonian causality from quantum mechanics, thereby opening up an entirely new and
highly successful approach to physics. The "Forman Thesis" has generated an intense debate among
historians of science.[32][33]

Deutsche Physik
The so-called Deutsche Physik, 'German physics' was a movement that some German
physicists hold during the Nazi period, which mixed physics with racist views. They
rejected new discoveries in physics as being too theoretical and advocated a stronger
emphasis on empirical evidence. This physics was influenced by anti-Semitic ideas
that were widespread in the polarized political climate of the Weimar Republic. In
addition, some leading theoretical physicists at that time were of Jewish descent.
Leading representatives of this ideology were the Bavarian physicist Johannes Stark
(1874–1957, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1919) and the German-Hungarian physicist Philipp
Lenard,
Philipp Lenard (1862–1947, Nobel Prize winner of 1905).[34] Notably, the latter
Deutsche
labeled Albert Einstein's contributions to science as Jewish physics.[35] Physik, 1936–
1937

Chemistry
Georgius Agricola gave chemistry its modern name. He is generally referred
to as the father of mineralogy and as the founder of geology as a scientific
discipline.[36][37]

Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) made major contributions to agricultural and

biological chemistry, and is one of the principal founders of organic
chemistry.[38]

At the start of the 20th century, Germany garnered fourteen of the first thirty-
one Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, starting with Hermann Emil Fischer (1852– Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner at their
1919) in 1902 and until Carl Bosch (1874–1940) and Friedrich Bergius
laboratory in Berlin from
(1884–1949) in 1931.[30] the Kaiser-Wilhelm-
Gesellschaft in 1912
Otto Hahn (1879–1968) was a pioneer of radioactivity and radiochemistry
with the discovery of nuclear fission together with the Austrian scientist Lise
Meitner (1878–1968) and Fritz Strassmann (1902–1980) in 1938, the scientific and technological basis
for the utilization of atomic energy.

The bio-chemist Adolf Butenandt (1903–1995) independently worked out the molecular structure of the
primary male sex hormone of testosterone and was the first to successfully synthesize it from cholesterol
in 1935.

Engineering
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such
as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type
printing press in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and
Konrad Zuse, who built the first electronic computer.[39] German inventors,
engineers and industrialists such as Zeppelin, Siemens, Daimler, Otto,
Wankel, Von Braun and Benz helped shape modern automotive and air
transportation technology including the beginnings of space travel.[40][41]
The engineer Otto Lilienthal laid some of the fundamentals for the science of
aviation.[42]

The physicist and optician Ernst Abbe (1840–

1905) founded in the 19th century together with
the entrepreneurs Carl Zeiss (1840–1905) and
Replica of the first
Otto Schott (1851–1935) the basics of modern
electron microscope
Optical engineering and developed many optical
from 1933 by Ernst
Ruska instruments like microscopes and telescopes.
Since 1899 he was the sole owner of the Carl
Zeiss AG and played a decisive role of setting up
the enterprise Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Gen (today Schott AG). These
enterprises are very successful worldwide up to present time (21st century).
Abbe refractometer
The engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913) was the inventor of an internal 1897

combustion engine, the Diesel engine. He first published his idea of an

engine with a particularly high level of efficiency in 1893 in his work
Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors, 'Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat
Motor'.[43] After 1893, he succeeded in building such an engine in a laboratory at the Augsburg Machine
Factory (now MAN). Through his patents registered in many countries and his public relations work, he
gave his name to the engine and the associated Diesel fuel.

In the 1930s the electrical engineers Ernst Ruska (1906–1988) and Max Knoll (1897–1969) developed at
the "Technische Hochschule zu Berlin" the first electron microscope.[44]

Manfred von Ardenne (1907–1997) was a scientist, engineer and active as a researcher primarily in
applied physics and is the originator of around 600 inventions and patents in radio and television
technology, electron microscopy, nuclear, plasma and medical technology.

Biological and earth sciences

 Martin Waldseemüller (c. 1472/1475–1520) and
Matthias Ringmann (1482–1511) were
cartographers of the Renaissance. In 1507 they
created the first world map on which the land
masses in the west of the Atlantic Ocean were
named "America" after Amerigo Vespucci.[45]
The Waldseemüller map of 1507 has been part of
the UNESCO World Documentary Heritage since
2005.
Alexander von Humboldt
Emil Behring, Ferdinand Cohn, Paul Ehrlich, in front of the
Radiolarians: Picture Chimborazo, oil on
Robert Koch, Friedrich Loeffler and Rudolph
plate Nr. 71 from canvas by Julius
Virchow, six key figures in microbiology, were
Kunstformen der Natur Schrader 1859,
from Germany. Alexander von Humboldt's Metropolitan Museum of
("Art Forms of Nature"),
1899 by Ernst Haeckel
(1769–1859) work as a natural scientist and Art New York
explorer was foundational to biogeography, he
was one of the outstanding scientists of his time
and a shining example for Charles Darwin.[46][47][48] Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) was an eclectic
Russian-born botanist and climatologist who synthesized global relationships between climate, vegetation
and soil types into a classification system that is used, with some modifications, to this day.[49] The
Frankfurt surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist Anton de Bary (1831–1888) laid one of the
fundamentals of the plant pathology and was one of the discoverer of the symbiosis of organisms.

Ernst Haeckel (1834 – 1919) discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a tree
of life relating all life forms and coined many terms in biology, for example ecology and phylum. His
published artwork of different lifeforms includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals
and sea creatures, collected in his Kunstformen der Natur, 'Art Forms of Nature', an international
bestseller and a book that would go on to influence the Art Nouveau (Jugendstil, 'youth style'). But
Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism[50] and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism.

Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a similarly interdisciplinary scientist, was one of the first people to
hypothesize the theory of continental drift that was later developed into the overarching geological theory
of plate tectonics.

Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt is credited with the establishment of psychology as an independent empirical science
through his construction of the first laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879.[51]

In the beginning of the 20th century, the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute founded by Oskar and Cécile Vogt was
among the world's leading institutions in the field of brain research.[52] They collaborated with Korbinian
Brodmann to map areas of the cerebral cortex.
After the National Socialistic laws banning Jewish doctors in 1933, the fields of neurology and psychiatry
faced a decline of 65% of its professors and teachers. The research shifted to a 'Nazi neurology', with
subjects such as eugenics or euthanasia.[52]

Humanities
Besides natural sciences, German researchers have added
much to the development of humanities.

Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) was a polymath,

philosopher, lawyer, natural scientist, theologian,
Dominican and Bishop of Regensburg. His great, diverse
knowledge earned him the name Magnus ("the Great"),
Monument to the Nobel the title of Doctor of the Church and the honorary title of Immanuel Kant
Prize laureate of 1902 doctor universalis.[53] engraving
Theodor Mommsen by
Adolf Brütt (1909), in the Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768) was a
yard of the Humboldt German art historian and archaeologist, "the prophet and
University of Berlin founding hero of modern archaeology".[54] Heinrich
Schliemann (1822–1890) was a wealthy businessman
and a devotee of the historicity of places mentioned in
the works of Homer and an archaeological excavator of Hisarlik (since 1871), now
presumed to be the site of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns.
Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903) is widely counted as one of the greatest classicists Hegel
of the 19th century; his work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental
importance for contemporary research. Max Weber (1864–1920) was together with
Karl Marx (1818–1883) among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western
society and is regarded as one of the founder of the Sociology.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a philosopher of the Enlightenment and professor of logic and
metaphysics in Königsberg. Kant is one of the most important representatives of Western philosophy. His
work Critique of Pure Reason marks a turning point in the history of philosophy and the beginning of
modern philosophy. Kant is best known for the categorical imperative, the fundamental principle of moral
action from his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: "Act only according to that maxim whereby
you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

While Kant was one of the first philosopher of German idealism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–
1831) is one of the most influential and last representative of it. His philosophy seeks to interprete the
whole of reality in its variety of manifestations, including historical development, in a coherent,
systematic and definitive manner. It is divided into "logic", "natural philosophy" and "Phenomenology of
Geist", which also includes a philosophy of history. His thinking also became the starting point for
numerous other movements in the theory of science, sociology, history, theology, politics, jurisprudence
and art theory, and it also influenced other areas of culture and intellectual life.

Contemporary examples are the philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the Egyptologist Jan Assmann, the
sociologist Niklas Luhmann, the historian Reinhart Koselleck and the legal historian Michael Stolleis. In
order to promote the international visibility of research in these fields a new prize, Geisteswissenschaften
International, 'Humanities international', was established in 2008; it serves the translation of studies of
humanities into English.[55]

Warfare
Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831) was a Prussian Generalmajor, army reformer,
military scientist and ethicist. Clausewitz became known through his unfinished
major work Vom Kriege, which deals with the problem of the theory of war. His
theories on strategy, tactics and philosophy had a major influence on the military
theory in all Western countries and are still taught at military academies until today.
They are also used in business management and marketing. The most used quotation
is the statement from his masterpiece: "War is the continuation of policy with other Carl von
means."[56] Clausewitz

Oswald Boelcke was the progenitor of air-to-air combat tactics, fighter squadron
organization, early-warning systems, and the German air force; he has been dubbed "the father of air
combat".[57][58] From his first victories, the news of his success instructed and motivated both his fellow
fliers and the German public. It was at his instigation that the Imperial German Air Service founded its
Jastaschule (Fighter School) to teach his aerial tactics. The promulgation of his Dicta Boelcke set tactics
for the German fighter force. The concentration of fighter airplanes into squadrons gained Germany air
supremacy on the Western Front, and was the basis for their wartime successes.[59]

Personalities

Hildegard of Bingen, Georgius Agricola Johannes Gutenberg, Johannes Kepler, one

considered by gave chemistry its inventor of the of the founders and
scholars to be the modern name. printing press, named fathers of modern
founder of scientific Generally referred to the most important astronomy, the
natural history in as the Father of invention of the scientific method,
Germany.[60] Mineralogy and the second natural and modern
founder of geology as millennium.[61] science.[62][20][63]
a scientific
discipline.[36][37]

Johann Joachim Alexander von Carl Friedrich Gauss, Robert Koch, one of
Winckelmann, Humboldt, seen as referred to as one of the fathers of
founder of modern father of ecology and the most important microbiology,[68]
archaeology,[64] of mathematicians of all medical
father of the discipline environmentalism.[47] time.[67] bacteriology[69][70]
of art history[65] and [48] and one of the
father of founders of modern
Neoclassicism.[66] medicine.
Carl Benz, inventor of Otto Lilienthal, who Karl Ferdinand Fritz Haber invented
the modern car and has been referred to Braun, who has been the Haber–Bosch
father of the as the "father of called one of the process. It is
automobile aviation"[74][75][76] or fathers of television, estimated that it
industry.[71][72][73] "father of flight".[77] radio telegraphy and provides the food
who built the first production for nearly
semiconductor.[78][79] half of the world's
[80][81] population.[82][83]
Haber has been
called one of the
most important
scientists and
chemists in human
history.[84][85][86]

Albert Einstein, who Konrad Zuse, Wernher von Braun,

has been called the inventor of the who co-developed
greatest physicist of modern the V-2 rocket, the
all time and one of computer.[88][89] first artificial object to
the fathers of modern travel into space.
physics.[87] Described by others
as the "father of
space travel",[90] the
"father of rocket
science",[91] or the
"father of the
American lunar
program".[92]

See also
Germany portal

Science portal
 Technology portal

German inventors and discoverers

German inventions and discoveries
Operation Paperclip
Technology during World War II
Körber European Science Prize

Notes
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b/20140327012415/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html) 27 March 2014 at the
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3. Swedish academy awards. ScienceNews web edition, Friday, 1 October 2010:
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Marine Corps 1914–1918. London: Grub Street. ISBN 978-0-948817-73-1.
Head, R. G. (2016). Oswald Boelcke: Germany's First Fighter Ace and Father of Air
Combat. London: Grub Street. ISBN 978-1-910690-23-9.
Competing Modernities: Science and Education (https://web.archive.org/web/200709272046
53/http://www.ghi-dc.org/competingmodernities/e_science.cfm), Kathryn Olesko and
Christoph Strupp. (A comparative analysis of the history of science and education in
Germany and the United States)
English section of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research's website (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20070203075300/http://www.bmbf.de/en/99.php)
Germany's science and research landscape (http://wm2006.deutschland.de/EN/Content/Ho
st-Country-Germany/Germany-in-brief/germanys-science-and-research-landscape.html)
Articles and dossiers about Research and Technology in Germany, Goethe-Institut (http://w
ww.goethe.de/wis/fut/enindex.htm)
Audretsch, D. B., Lehmann, E. E., & Schenkenhofer, J. (2018). Internationalization
strategies of hidden champions: lessons from Germany. Multinational Business Review.

External links
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (https://www.bmbf.de/EN/Home/home_node.ht
ml)
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (https://www.dfg.de)
Research-in-germany.org (https://www.research-in-germany.org)

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