CRIM 200 REVIEWER 1ST SEM

Potentialities of a True Human

This section explains what it means to be a "true human" through four potentialities or qualities:

1. Physical Potentiality

This refers to having a body capable of performing physical activities. It involves having physical
health and the ability to engage in movement, labor, sports, etc.

2. Mental Ability

This describes a person’s ability to think in critical, rational, and logical ways. It involves
problem-solving, decision-making, and understanding complex ideas.

3. Communication Skills

This is the ability to express oneself clearly and to understand others. It includes speaking,
listening, reading, and writing, which are essential for social interaction.

4. Social Skills

These are abilities that help a person engage with others effectively, contributing positively to
social groups. Social skills help individuals interact, form relationships, and cooperate in society.

A person doesn't need to excel in all four areas but should possess them at an average level to
be considered a "true human."

How the Human Mind Thinks and Behaves

Humans are conscious beings, and their behavior is shaped by their mind's response to various
stimuli. The way we act is influenced by how we process information, which in turn is affected by
the social environment we belong to. Society sets norms for behavior, and our actions are either
in conformity with these norms or deviate from them.

Social Norms

Definition of Norms:

Norms are societal rules that dictate what is considered acceptable behavior within a group,
community, or culture. They guide, regulate, and control actions to maintain order.

Thorsten Sellin (1938): Norms are rules set by specific groups, and deviation from these norms
leads to being labeled as deviant.

Social Norms are the accepted behaviors that individuals must conform to in their group or
culture. If someone doesn’t follow these norms, their behavior may be viewed as abnormal.

Types of Norms:

Folkways: Informal, everyday norms that aren’t morally significant but are widely accepted, like
manners.

Mores: Strongly held moral norms, and violating them causes deep offense.

Taboo: Actions or words that are highly unacceptable in society.

Laws: Official rules created by the state to maintain social order, with formal punishments.

Values and Ethics

Values: These are beliefs about what is desirable, good, or worthy of pursuit. They guide
behavior by defining what is important to individuals and societies.

Ethics: A branch of philosophy that studies what is morally right or wrong. Ethics involves moral
principles that govern an individual's behavior in society.

Human Behavior

Humans are social beings who need interaction and engagement with others. Through
socialization, people learn to act and behave in ways that are either acceptable or deviant
based on the norms of their society.

Human Behavior refers to how individuals act, and it’s shaped by both hereditary factors
(genetics) and environmental influences (culture, upbringing, etc.).

Theory and Its Importance

A theory is an explanation of a behavior, event, or phenomenon. It provides a framework to

understand why things happen and to predict future occurrences.

Importance of Theory:

1. Explanation: Theory helps explain relationships between concepts and allows us to

understand the world better.

2. Funding and Research: Theories are used to justify research and gain support for studies.

3. Professional Growth: Theories advance knowledge in various fields, guiding research and
practical applications.

4. Understanding the Unknown: Theory helps us investigate and solve problems that are not
fully understood.

Crime

Crime is defined as any act or omission that violates the law and is punishable by the state.
While all crimes can be considered sins from a religious perspective, not all sins are crimes in
the legal sense (some acts might be immoral but not illegal).

Classification of Crimes:

1. Felony: Serious crimes punishable by the Revised Penal Code.

2. Offense: Crimes punishable under special laws.
3. Misdemeanor: Minor offenses that violate local ordinances.

Theories on the Causes of Crime

Several schools of thought explain why crimes occur, providing different perspectives on
criminal behavior.
1. Classical School

Founded in the 18th century by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, this school advocates
for the idea that people have free will to commit crimes but should be punished based on their
actions. The main idea is "Let the punishment fit the crime", meaning the severity of
punishment should match the severity of the crime.

Key Ideas:

Cesare Beccaria: Believed in preventive measures rather than harsh punishments. He argued
that the law should apply equally to everyone.

Jeremy Bentham: Developed Utilitarianism, which says that the goal of punishment is to
achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number. He emphasized the idea that people
weigh pleasure against pain when deciding to commit crimes.

2. Neo-Classical School
This is a modification of the Classical School. It arose during the French Revolution,
acknowledging that some people (like children or the mentally ill) might not be fully responsible
for their actions. In these cases, punishment is not appropriate because these individuals
cannot fully understand or control their behavior.

3. Positivist School
The Positivist School emerged in the 19th century, focusing on applying scientific methods to
study criminals. It emphasized that criminal behavior is caused by factors beyond the
individual’s control, such as biological, social, and environmental influences.

Key Figures:

Cesare Lombroso: Known as the father of criminology, Lombroso believed that criminals are
biologically different from non-criminals. He proposed that criminals could be identified by
physical traits (a theory known as atavism).

Raffaele Garofalo: Linked criminal behavior to psychological defects, calling them "moral
anomalies". He believed that crime violated the laws of nature.

Enrico Ferri: Argued that criminals are driven by social, economic, and political factors, not
personal choice. He believed that crime should be studied in relation to the offender's social
background, and the punishment should fit the criminal, not just the crime.

Classical Theory

Classical theories of crime causation are based on the idea that people have free will and
choose to commit crimes based on a rational calculation of the benefits and
consequences. This means that individuals decide to break the law because they believe the
rewards (like money, revenge, or pleasure) will be greater than the possible punishments (like
imprisonment or fines).

Key thinkers:

Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham are two major figures in classical criminology.
They argued that:

People are rational and make decisions by weighing the potential benefits of their actions
against the possible costs.
If the punishment for a crime is severe enough, people will be discouraged from
committing the crime, as they would not want to endure the consequences.

Conversely, if the rewards of committing a crime outweigh the punishment, people might still
choose to break the law.

The main idea is that crime is a choice and can be prevented by making the punishment
predictable, quick, and proportionate to the crime committed. This theory is centered
around the idea that individuals control their actions and make decisions based on self-interest.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory is an extension of the classical theory. It argues that individuals
make decisions to commit crimes based on a rational assessment of costs and benefits.

The theory relies heavily on utilitarianism, an ethical theory by Jeremy Bentham, which
suggests that people choose actions that maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Hedonistic calculus is a concept introduced by Bentham, which means individuals weigh the
potential pleasures (rewards) of committing a crime against the potential pains (punishments)
that might follow.

Example:

If a person decides to rob a bank, they will consider the financial gain (pleasure) against the risk
of getting caught (pain). If the reward seems greater than the risk, they might choose to commit
the crime.

If the penalty for robbery is severe (long prison sentence), it might deter the individual
from committing the crime.

The theory remains influential because it explains why some individuals make calculated
decisions to engage in criminal behavior when the benefits seem worth the risks.

Routine Activity Theory

Routine Activity Theory suggests that crime happens when the right conditions are present. It
focuses on the opportunity for crime, rather than on the criminal’s motivations.

Key components of this theory:

1. Motivated Offender: There must be an individual who is willing and able to commit a crime.

2. Suitable Target: The target (person or object) must be vulnerable or attractive to the
offender.

3. Absence of a Capable Guardian: This refers to the absence of someone or something (like
a security guard, alarm system, or responsible adult) that could deter the crime.

Main Idea: Crime is more likely to happen when there is a motivated offender, an easy
target, and no one around to stop it. This theory highlights the importance of preventing
opportunities for crime. If a person avoids risky situations or increases guardianship (e.g.,
having security cameras), crime can be reduced.

Theories of Victimology

Victimology is the study of crime victims. It looks at why certain people are more likely to
become victims and examines the interaction between victims and offenders, as well as the
psychological effects of crime on victims.

Victim Precipitation Theory

This theory suggests that sometimes victims' behaviors or characteristics can trigger or
precipitate the crime. In other words, certain actions or traits of the victim might provoke the
offender to commit a crime.

Active Precipitation: When a victim actively provokes the criminal (e.g., by using threats,
fighting words, or attacking the offender first).

Passive Precipitation: When a victim's personal characteristics (e.g., being vulnerable, or

certain social or physical traits) might make them a target for crime without actively provoking
the offender.

Lifestyle Theory

Lifestyle theory suggests that a person’s lifestyle choices and habits can make them more likely
to become a victim of crime.

People who engage in high-risk behaviors or frequent risky environments are more likely to
become victims. For example, someone who often goes out late at night or spends time in
dangerous areas may be more likely to be targeted by criminals.

Deviant Place Theory

This theory posits that a person is more likely to become a victim of a crime if they spend
time in high-crime areas. Simply being in a location that is known for criminal activity increases
the chances of victimization.

The key idea here is that location plays a critical role in increasing the risk of becoming a crime
victim.

General Deterrence and Specific Deterrence Theory

Both theories focus on the idea of punishment as a tool to prevent crime.

General Deterrence Theory

General deterrence theory aims to discourage potential criminals from committing crimes by
making them fear the consequences.

The idea is that if people know that the legal system will punish crime severely, swiftly, and
consistently, they will be less likely to commit crimes because they want to avoid the pain of
punishment.

This theory is aimed at dissuading the general public from committing crimes by making an
example of offenders. The punishment is intended to show that crime doesn’t pay.

Specific Deterrence Theory

Specific deterrence targets individual offenders who have already been caught and punished.
The idea is that if criminals are punished severely, they will be less likely to commit crimes again
because they will be afraid of facing similar consequences.

This theory focuses on recidivism, or repeat offenses. The goal is to change the behavior of
people who have already committed a crime by showing them the consequences of their
actions.

Incapacitation Theory

Incapacitation theory is based on the idea that if criminals are locked up (in prison), they
cannot commit crimes while they are incarcerated. By removing offenders from society,
the crime rate will decrease because these individuals are no longer able to commit criminal
acts.

The assumption is that crime is reduced when criminals are physically prevented from
committing crimes. This theory is most effective for individuals who pose a serious threat to
public safety, and it suggests that incarceration is a way to protect society.

Summary of Theories:

1. Classical Theory: People commit crimes based on a rational decision to weigh the benefits
and costs.

2. Rational Choice Theory: A specific type of classical theory, which focuses on offenders'
decision-making process, weighing potential rewards against risks.

3. Routine Activity Theory: Crime is likely to happen when there is a motivated offender, a
suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian.

4. Victimology Theories: These theories explore how certain individuals or groups are more
likely to become victims of crime based on their behaviors, lifestyles, and locations.

5. General and Specific Deterrence: Theories that focus on how punishment can discourage
crime in society as a whole (general deterrence) and prevent repeat offenses by individuals
(specific deterrence).

6. Incapacitation Theory: Crime can be reduced by physically removing offenders from society
through imprisonment.

Biological Theory
The Biological Theory in criminology suggests that criminal behavior arises from the interaction
between biological and social factors. It focuses on the idea that behaviors, including crimes,
are often determined by influences outside an individual's control. This approach is based on
Positivism (or Determinism), which argues that behaviors, including criminal actions, are
influenced by factors such as genetics, environment, and physical conditions, making them
largely uncontrollable by the individual.

Early Positivism

Early positivist criminologists focused on physical and biological abnormalities to explain

criminal behavior. They considered criminals to be biologically inferior, with characteristics that
set them apart from non-criminals. These theories stressed the importance of studying the
individual’s physical features and heredity as a source of criminality. Some of the physical traits
considered indicative of criminal tendencies were:

Facial features

Body types

Shape of the skull

Contemporary theorists have expanded on these ideas, looking at factors such as diet,
hormonal imbalances, environmental contaminants, and neurophysical conditions as
contributing to criminal behavior.

Physiognomy

Physiognomy is the study of facial features and their supposed connection to behavior.
Giambattista della Porta, an Italian physician, founded the study of physiognomy.
According to him, certain facial features could indicate criminal tendencies. For example,
he suggested that thieves often had large lips and sharp vision. Cesare Lombroso, a key figure
in criminology, suggested that criminals had certain physical characteristics, such as large jaws
and sharp teeth, similar to carnivores who tear meat. Similarly, Johann Caspar Lavater
systematized these ideas in his book "Physiognomical Fragments," making extravagant
claims about the relationship between facial features and conduct.

Phrenology or Craniology

Phrenology is the study of the shape and size of the skull to infer personality and behavior.
Proponents of this theory believed that the external shape of the skull could reflect the internal
structure of the brain, and thus reveal an individual's personality and potential for criminal
behavior. Franz Joseph Gall, an Austrian physician, was the primary figure behind this theory.
He argued that the brain has three major regions responsible for different behaviors:

1. Intellectual (related to thinking and reasoning)

2. Moral (linked to emotions and ethical behavior)

3. Lower (connected to base instincts and criminal tendencies)

The "lower" region was believed to be larger in criminals.

Atavism

Atavism, a concept introduced by Cesare Lombroso, suggests that criminals are

"throwbacks" to earlier stages of human evolution. Lombroso argued that criminals were
biologically similar to primitive ancestors, and their undeveloped brains made it difficult for them
to conform to societal rules. This view portrays criminals as evolutionary remnants, with physical
and behavioral traits resembling more primitive humans or even animals.

Lombroso's followers, such as Charles Buckman Goring and Ernest Hooton, expanded on
these ideas, identifying physical traits associated with criminality:

Lombroso's traits for criminals: asymmetrical faces, twisted noses, fleshy lips, long arms.

Goring's characteristics: smaller physique, mental inferiority.

Hooton's traits: low foreheads, crooked noses, narrow jaws, small ears, long necks, stooped
shoulders.

Constitutional Theories

Constitutional theories focus on the relationship between an individual’s physical traits and
their potential for criminal behavior. The idea is that certain body types or genetic characteristics
are linked to criminal tendencies. Somatotyping is a classification system that categorizes
people based on body types and links these to personality traits:

1. Ernst Kretschmer identified three body types:

Asthenics: Lean, narrow-shouldered, associated with schizophrenia.

Athletic: Muscular, strong, linked to schizophrenia.

Pyknic: Rounded, massive neck, associated with manic depression.

2. William Herbert Sheldon expanded on this concept, identifying three body types linked to
different personality traits:

Endomorphs: Heavy build, relaxed, non-criminal.

Mesomorphs: Muscular build, aggressive, likely to commit violent crimes.

Ectomorphs: Thin, introverted, overly sensitive.

Biosocial Perspective

Biosocial theory posits that both biological and social factors contribute to criminal behavior. It
emphasizes the interaction between biological predispositions and environmental influences in
shaping behavior. Contemporary biosocial theorists investigate the role of biochemical factors,
neurological dysfunction, and genetic influences in criminal behavior.

Biochemical Factors

Certain biochemical imbalances are thought to influence behavior and personality. These can
include:

Lead exposure: Lead poisoning has been linked to reduced mental capacity, irritability, fatigue,
mood swings, and lower fertility.

Diet: Poor nutrition, particularly in childhood, can affect behavior. For example, hypoglycemia
(low blood sugar) may impair reasoning, leading to impulsive behavior.

Hormonal levels: Hormones, such as testosterone, can affect aggression levels. Studies
suggest that an excess of testosterone is linked to criminal behavior. In women, hormonal
changes during the menstrual cycle have also been associated with violent crime.

Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain that transmit signals between nerve cells.
Dopamine and serotonin are two neurotransmitters linked to criminal behavior:

Dopamine: Low levels are associated with criminality, though some studies show mixed results.

Serotonin: Low levels of serotonin are linked to aggression, impulsivity, and other antisocial
behaviors.

Brain Injuries

Trauma or damage to certain areas of the brain, especially the frontal and temporal lobes, has
been associated with an increased risk of criminal behavior.

Genetic Influences

Biosocial theorists also focus on the role of genetics in criminal behavior. They argue that
people who share the same genetic makeup, such as identical twins, are more likely to exhibit
similar behaviors, even when raised in different environments. Research on parent-child
similarities shows that children of criminal parents are more likely to engage in delinquent
behavior. Similarly, studies on siblings and twins reveal that identical twins (who share 100%
of their genes) are more likely to exhibit similar criminal behavior compared to fraternal twins or
non-twin siblings.

Adoption Studies

Research by Sarnoff Mednick and Bernard Hutchings found that adoptees often shared
behavioral traits with their biological parents, suggesting a genetic influence on behavior, even
when raised in different social environments.

Evolutionary Theory

The Evolutionary Theory explains that aggression and violent behaviors may have been
adaptive traits during human evolution. In simpler terms, these behaviors were beneficial to our
ancestors in terms of survival and reproduction. They allowed individuals who displayed
aggressive or violent tendencies to overcome challenges, secure resources, and gain
reproductive advantages. As a result, these traits were passed down through generations,
becoming embedded in human biology. Over time, aggressive behavior became prevalent in
many human cultures because it was linked to success in reproduction, particularly for males.

The theory of evolution, initially proposed by Charles Darwin, explains how species change
over time due to natural selection. Darwin’s core idea was that individuals with characteristics
that help them survive in their environment are more likely to pass those traits to the next
generation. Over time, these traits become more common in the population. In the context of
human aggression, evolutionary theorists suggest that violent behavior may have been an
advantageous trait in some environments, allowing those who displayed aggression to
dominate, secure mates, and reproduce more successfully.

Theories Within Evolutionary Theory:

1. Cheater Theory

The Cheater Theory suggests that a subgroup of males evolved to focus on maximizing their
reproductive success through sexual activity, with little regard for the care of their offspring.
These males have developed traits like deceptiveness and manipulativeness, allowing them to
have sex with as many females as possible without being involved in parenting. The goal is to
spread their genes far and wide.
Characteristics of these males: Cunning, resourceful, and deceptive.

Impact on future generations: Offspring born from these males may develop traits like low
self-esteem, aggression, and lower intelligence, as their fathers were not involved in
nurturing and providing guidance.

2. R/K Selection Theory

The R/K Selection Theory draws from Darwin's ideas about reproduction strategies in
organisms. It divides species into two categories based on how they approach reproduction:

R-Selection: This strategy is used by species that reproduce quickly and in large numbers
but invest little care in their offspring. Males that exhibit R-type behavior reproduce as much
as possible without concern for parental involvement.

Link to aggression and criminal behavior: Males who lean toward R-selection are more likely
to engage in aggressive or violent behaviors, such as rape or theft, because these traits help
them spread their genes more effectively.

K-Selection: Organisms in this category reproduce more slowly, with fewer offspring, but
invest a lot of time and care into raising them. Females typically fall into this category
because they invest heavily in offspring care.

Why this matters for criminal behavior: According to the theory, males tend to have more
R-selection traits, making them more prone to committing violent crimes. This theory can
help explain why males commit most violent crimes, such as rape or domestic abuse, while
females generally engage in fewer of these behaviors.

Latent Trait Theory

Latent Trait Theory suggests that certain inherited traits, such as impulsivity, aggression, or
low intelligence, make some individuals more likely to engage in criminal behavior. These traits
are "latent," meaning they are stable over time but only become significant when combined with
certain environmental factors.

Basic Human Traits: Traits like aggression, impulsivity, and attachment can influence criminal
behavior.

Environmental Influence: It’s not just biology—factors such as family environment,

education, economic status, and neighborhood conditions play a role in whether these
latent traits lead to criminal behavior.

This theory emphasizes that crime is not determined solely by genetics but is the result of an
interaction between biological predispositions and environmental influences.

Family Studies: Jukes and Kalikak Families

Two well-known family studies that contributed to latent trait theory were conducted on the
Jukes and Kalikak families. These studies aimed to understand whether criminal behavior
could be passed down through generations, potentially due to genetics.

Jukes Family (Richard Dugdale)

Study findings: Dugdale’s research on the Jukes family suggested that criminal behavior was
inherited and passed down through generations. His observations included:

1. Crime is more common in families with lower intelligence.

2. Crime can spread through generations as people marry within criminal families.

3. The eldest child in these families often becomes the criminal.

4. Criminal behavior tends to follow the male line.

5. The family line with the most crime tends to be the longest, particularly on the eldest
male side.

Impact: Dugdale’s findings suggested that criminal behavior may have a hereditary component,
influenced by factors like intelligence and family environment.

Kalikak Family (Henry Goddard)

Study findings: Goddard studied the Kalikak family and found a similar pattern of criminality
and mental feeblemindedness being passed down. He suggested that these traits could be
inherited and contributed to crime.

Arousal Theory

The Arousal Theory posits that individuals who engage in antisocial or aggressive behavior
might do so because they have low arousal levels in their brains. These individuals seek novel
experiences or stress to reach an optimal level of brain stimulation.

Low arousal causes boredom, which some individuals try to escape by engaging in deviant
behaviors, including crime.

The theory argues that people who are naturally sensation-seeking are more likely to engage
in activities like drug use, theft, or other forms of deviance.

Essentially, the brain's need for stimulation can lead some individuals to engage in aggressive
or criminal activities as a way to increase arousal.

Nature Theory

The Nature Theory asserts that criminal behavior is biologically predetermined. According
to this theory, individuals are born with a genetic predisposition toward criminality, and their
genes determine whether they are likely to engage in antisocial or criminal behavior.

Innate tendency: Some people are simply born with a higher likelihood of committing crimes
due to their genetic makeup.

This theory contrasts with the Nurture Theory, which argues that behavior is shaped more by
environmental factors like upbringing and life experiences.
Summary:

Evolutionary Theory explains aggression and violent behavior as traits that evolved because
they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

The Cheater Theory suggests some males evolved to pursue sexual conquest without
investing in offspring, leading to aggressive behaviors.

The R/K Selection Theory categorizes organisms into those who reproduce quickly (R-type) or
slowly (K-type), with R-types being more prone to aggression and violent behavior.

Latent Trait Theory links certain inherent traits (e.g., aggression) with crime, influenced by both
genetics and environmental factors.

Arousal Theory suggests that individuals with low brain arousal seek stimulation, which may
lead them to engage in deviant activities.

Nature Theory emphasizes that criminal behavior is genetically predetermined.

Biochemical Theory

The Biochemical Theory suggests that some individuals may be more predisposed to criminal
behavior due to imbalances in their brain chemistry or genetics. Brain chemistry refers to the
complex chemical processes in the brain that regulate a wide range of bodily functions,
including movement, mood, thinking, speaking, and regulating bodily systems like digestion and
breathing. These chemicals, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, play a key role in
shaping how individuals respond to stress, make decisions, and behave in social situations.

Key Hormones and Their Effects:

1. Serotonin: This is a neurotransmitter that affects mood, emotion, and behavior. Low
serotonin levels have been linked to aggression, impulsivity, and criminal behavior. When
serotonin is low, individuals may struggle to control their emotions, leading to potential outbursts
or criminal actions.

2. Dopamine: Known as the "feel-good" hormone, dopamine is involved in the brain's reward
system. It helps control pleasure, motivation, and learning. Imbalances in dopamine levels can
lead to risk-taking behavior, addiction, and even violent behavior. Those with higher levels of
dopamine may engage in risky or criminal activities to achieve excitement or pleasure.

3. Oxytocin: Often called the "bonding hormone," oxytocin plays a crucial role in emotional
bonding and social interactions. It is released during moments of trust, sexual arousal, romantic
attachment, and parent-child bonding. Imbalances in oxytocin may contribute to issues like
depression, anxiety, addiction, and poor social interactions, which could lead to anti-social or
even criminal behavior.

Stress Hormones:

1. Adrenaline: This hormone is produced by the adrenal glands during stressful situations. It
prepares the body for "fight or flight," increasing heart rate, blood circulation, and energy.
While adrenaline can heighten alertness, excessive amounts in stressful environments may
contribute to impulsivity and aggressive behavior.
2. Cortisol: Known as the "stress hormone," cortisol is released when the body perceives
stress. Long-term elevated levels of cortisol can contribute to anxiety, poor decision-making, and
an inability to control impulsive behaviors, which might increase criminal tendencies.

Neurotransmitters and Their Influence on Behavior:

Neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin are responsible for transmitting electrical
signals between neurons (brain cells). Imbalances in these chemicals can lead to issues like
poor mood regulation, impulsivity, and lack of self-control, which are associated with criminal
behavior.

Psychological and Behavioral Effects Linked to Hormonal Imbalances:

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD): Similar to PMS, but more severe, PMDD can
cause significant mood changes, such as irritability, depression, or anxiety, leading to emotional
instability. Such emotional swings can contribute to increased aggression or violent tendencies,
especially in vulnerable individuals.

XYY Syndrome (Chromosomal Abnormalities)

The XYY Supermale Syndrome refers to a rare chromosomal condition where males have an
extra Y chromosome (XYY instead of XY). This genetic anomaly has been associated with the
following symptoms:

1. Lower-than-average intelligence

2. Impediments in speech and language

3. Learning difficulties

4. Poor performance in school

5. Social difficulties and challenges with attention span

Studies have suggested that individuals with XYY syndrome might be at an increased risk for
aggressive or criminal behavior due to these developmental challenges.

Low Levels of Testosterone

Testosterone is a key hormone that plays a significant role in male aggression, libido, and
energy. When levels of testosterone are too low, individuals may experience:

Decreased sex drive

Low energy

Weight gain

Depression and mood swings

Low self-esteem

These symptoms can contribute to emotional instability and may lead to aggressive or antisocial
behaviors if not properly managed.

Diet and Its Impact on Behavior

Dietary factors can influence brain chemistry and behavior in significant ways:

1. Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar): When blood sugar levels drop too low, it can affect the
brain's ability to think clearly, leading to poor decision-making and impulsive behavior. People
with hypoglycemia might be more prone to engage in risky or criminal activities because their
minds are not functioning at their best.

2. Food Additives: Some studies suggest that certain food additives or preservatives can
cause hyperactivity, restlessness, and impulsivity, especially in children. These behavioral
changes may make it more difficult for an individual to control their actions, potentially leading to
criminal behavior.

Allergy and Its Role in Behavioral Changes

An allergy is an unusual or excessive reaction by the body to foreign substances (like pollen,
dust, or certain foods). Some allergies, particularly cerebral allergies (which affect the brain) or
neuro allergies (which affect the nervous system), have been linked to behavioral problems.
These allergies can lead to an overreaction in the brain, causing:

Mental issues like difficulty concentrating or thinking clearly.

Emotional challenges like anxiety or irritability.

Behavioral problems, such as impulsivity or aggression.

When the immune system attacks substances that the body normally sees as harmless, it can
cause disruption in behavior, contributing to antisocial or criminal actions.

Neurophysiological Theory

Neurophysiological Theory focuses on how impairments in brain functioning may contribute to

criminal behavior. It examines:

Brain structure: Issues like brain tumors or diseases can impair cognitive functions, leading to
problems with impulse control, aggression, or social interaction.

Brain chemistry: Low or abnormal levels of neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and

serotonin) can cause impulsivity, lack of attention, and a higher tendency to engage in risky or
criminal behavior. These imbalances disrupt normal brain functioning, leading to poor
decision-making and aggression.

Evolutionary Theory (Sociobiology)

Sociobiology applies evolutionary theory to human behavior, suggesting that human actions,
including criminal behavior, are influenced by the need to survive and reproduce. According to
Darwin’s logic, behaviors that increase an individual’s chances of survival or their ability to
reproduce are passed on to future generations.

In the context of crime, sociobiologists believe that individuals may engage in aggressive,
criminal behavior if it increases their chances of reproducing or gaining resources necessary for
survival. This theory proposes that criminal behaviors may be seen as adaptive in certain
environments, helping individuals secure resources or mates.

1. Classical Perspective

The Classical Perspective believes that people have free will and are rational beings who
make choices based on the cost and benefits of their actions. According to this view,
individuals commit crimes because they choose to do so, and this choice is influenced by the
perceived benefits of committing the crime, such as financial gain or personal satisfaction. The
classical school emphasizes that to prevent crime, punishment must be an effective deterrent.
For punishment to work as a deterrent, it must meet three criteria:

Swift: Punishments should be delivered immediately after the crime is committed to make the
connection between the crime and the punishment clear.

Certain: There must be a high likelihood that the criminal will be caught and punished. This
certainty of punishment discourages people from engaging in criminal behavior.

Severe: The punishment must be harsh enough to outweigh the potential benefits of committing
the crime. If the cost of crime is higher than its reward, people will be deterred from committing
it.

This perspective is often associated with thinkers like Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham
who argued that rationality and deterrence were central to reducing crime in society.

2. Biological Perspective

The Biological Perspective views crime as a product of biological and genetic factors. It
argues that certain biological conditions, such as genetic inheritance, brain chemistry,
neurological defects, or hormonal imbalances, influence a person's likelihood of engaging in
criminal behavior. This perspective suggests that crime may be rooted in an individual's physical
or mental state, which could predispose them to criminal behavior. For example:

Genetic Factors: Some individuals may inherit genes that make them more prone to
aggressive or impulsive behaviors.

Neurological Factors: Brain damage or abnormalities, such as those caused by injury or

congenital conditions, might impair decision-making or emotional control, leading to criminal
acts.

Chemical or Hormonal Imbalances: Imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or

dopamine, could affect mood and behavior, potentially leading to criminal acts.

Researchers in this field believe that understanding these biological factors can help to better
predict and prevent criminal behavior by addressing the underlying causes, such as treating
mental health conditions or genetic predispositions.

3. Process Perspective

The Process Perspective focuses on the idea that crime is a result of the socialization process,
meaning that it develops through interactions and experiences in one's environment. This
perspective suggests that people learn to commit crimes through their relationships with others
and the influences of their upbringing, social groups, and society at large. According to this
view:

Socialization: People, especially young ones, learn criminal behavior through interactions with
family, peers, or other individuals who may engage in illegal activities. This process occurs
through observation, reinforcement, or even direct teaching.

Upbringing and Family Influence: If a child grows up in an environment where criminal

behavior is normalized or even encouraged, they are more likely to adopt similar behaviors.

Peers and Media: The influence of peers (peer pressure) or exposure to media that glorifies
crime (movies, TV shows, etc.) can shape an individual’s view of crime, normalizing or
encouraging unlawful actions.

This perspective emphasizes the importance of positive socialization in preventing crime,

suggesting that societal institutions such as schools, families, and communities play a critical
role in shaping individuals' behaviors.

4. Conflict Perspective

The Conflict Perspective views crime as a result of the unequal distribution of power and
resources in society. It suggests that crime is often a consequence of social, economic, and
political inequalities. According to this theory, those in power (e.g., wealthy elites, politicians,
corporations) create laws that serve their interests, which disproportionately affect the less
privileged groups in society. As a result:

Economic and Political Inequality: The wealthy and powerful may use laws to maintain their
status, while marginalized groups (poor, racial minorities, etc.) are more likely to be criminalized
and punished.

Resistance to Oppression: People who are oppressed by social and economic structures may
resort to crime as a form of protest or survival. Crime, in this view, becomes a way for those
without power to challenge an unjust system.

Karl Marx, the philosopher behind this perspective, argued that the capitalist system creates
inherent inequalities, and these inequalities lead to conflict and crime. The idea is that crime is a
symptom of the unfair distribution of wealth and power in society.

5. Biosocial Perspective

The Biosocial Perspective combines elements of both biological and social theories of crime. It
posits that criminal behavior is influenced by the interaction between biological factors and
environmental factors. According to this view, it is not just an individual’s biology or environment
that causes crime on its own, but the way these two factors interact that creates conditions for
criminal behavior.

3 DISTINCT AREA OF STUDY

1. Biochemical Factors
2. Neurological Dysfunction
3. Genetic Influences

Biochemical Factors: Diet, hormonal imbalances, and exposure to environmental toxins (e.g.,
lead poisoning) can influence behavior. For instance, studies suggest that children with poor
diets or exposure to certain chemicals may have a higher risk of engaging in criminal behavior.
Neurological Factors: Brain damage, brain structure abnormalities, or issues with brain
function can affect cognitive processes, emotional regulation, and impulse control, potentially
leading to criminal acts.

Genetic Factors: Inherited traits may make some individuals more predisposed to aggression
or impulsivity, which could increase the likelihood of criminal behavior.

The biosocial approach argues that both biological vulnerabilities and social environments
work together to create conditions in which a person might commit a crime.

6. Psychological Perspective

The Psychological Perspective looks at crime through the lens of individual mental processes
and behaviors. It suggests that criminal behavior is influenced by a person's mental state,
personality, and cognitive processes. Factors like personality disorders, cognitive distortions,
and past traumatic experiences play a significant role in shaping criminal behavior. Key
components of this perspective include:

Personality Disorders: Individuals with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) or other mental
health issues might exhibit criminal behavior due to their inability to empathize with others or
control impulses.

Cognitive Distortions: People may justify their criminal behavior through distorted thinking,
such as believing that their actions are acceptable or that the victim "deserved" it. Cognitive
distortions can serve as rationalizations for criminal behavior.

Life Experiences: Psychological trauma, such as abuse or neglect, may lead to maladaptive
coping mechanisms, including criminal actions. Past experiences of victimization or social
rejection might also contribute to a person's propensity for crime.

In short, the psychological perspective emphasizes that criminal behavior often results from
individual mental factors and experiences, including how one thinks and reacts to the world
around them.
Each of these perspectives offers a unique lens through which to view the causes of crime,
ranging from personal choice and biology to social influences and systemic inequalities.
Understanding these perspectives helps in developing comprehensive crime prevention
strategies that address multiple contributing factors.

Sociological Theories of Crime:

Sociological theories of crime focus on how society and social interactions contribute to the
development of criminal or anti-social behavior. It emphasizes the role of socialization
agents—such as family, environment, schools, media, and peer groups—in influencing behavior.
These theories suggest that a person’s response to social interactions and the conduct
displayed by others shapes their behavior, including the potential for criminality.

Subfields of Sociological Theories:

1. Social Processes Theory

2. Social Structure Theory

A. Social Processes Theories:

These theories explore how individuals learn behaviors, including criminal ones, through social
interactions. They argue that crime is not innate but learned via socialization processes. Social
processes theories suggest everyone has the potential to commit a crime, but most people are
socialized in a way that prevents them from doing so.
Key Theories in Social Processes:

1. Social Learning Theory:

Differential Association Theory (Sutherland): People learn criminal behavior through

associations with criminal peers (family, friends, etc.). Criminal behavior is learned just like any
other behavior, and the more someone is exposed to criminal influences, the more likely they
are to commit crimes.

Differential Association Reinforcement Theory (Akers): This builds on Sutherland's theory,

incorporating the idea that behavior is learned through both positive reinforcement (rewards)
and negative reinforcement (avoidance of punishment).

2. Social Control Theory:

Suggests that everyone has the potential for criminal behavior, but most people are controlled
by their bonds to society (family, work, friendships, etc.). When these bonds weaken, crime
becomes more likely.

Containment Theory (Reckless): Crime occurs when both internal (self-control) and external
(society’s norms) controls fail. Inner containment refers to personal traits, like self-image and
frustration tolerance, while outer containment is influenced by society and institutions (family,
school).

3. Labeling Theory (Social Reaction Theory):

Explains that people can become criminals because society labels them as such. Once labeled
as deviant, individuals may internalize this identity and start behaving accordingly.

B. Social Structure Theories:

These theories focus on the societal structures that contribute to crime, especially in areas with
high levels of poverty, disorganization, and social inequality. Social structure theories argue that
crime is the result of larger social conditions and systemic inequalities, rather than individual
behaviors.

Key Theories in Social Structure:

1. Strain Theory (Anomie Theory):

Emile Durkheim coined the term anomie (normlessness), which describes a breakdown of
social norms. Strain theory suggests that society sets goals (like financial success) but doesn't
provide equal means for everyone to achieve them, leading some individuals to resort to
criminal behavior as a way to cope with this frustration.

Robert Merton’s Strain Theory: Merton extended Durkheim's work, arguing that the societal
pressure to achieve cultural goals (e.g., monetary success) leads people, especially those in
lower socio-economic classes, to commit crimes when they can’t achieve success through
legitimate means.

2. Social Disorganization Theory:

Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay observed that high crime rates are often found in transitional
zones (areas undergoing significant change, typically with a mix of poor and immigrant
populations). The breakdown of social institutions (e.g., family, schools) in these areas leads to
a lack of social control, creating an environment where crime thrives.

3. Culture Conflict Theory:

Suggests that crime occurs when people from different cultural backgrounds clash, especially
when the norms and values of one group conflict with those of the dominant society.

Crucial Concepts within Social Structure Theories:

1. Social Ecology (Robert Park and Ernest Burgess):

A theory that sees the city as an ecosystem, where different neighborhoods develop distinct
characteristics, and crime tends to be more prevalent in socially disorganized areas, such as the
Zone in Transition (characterized by poverty, overcrowding, and ethnic conflict).

2. Criminology of Place (Environmental Criminology):

This theory highlights the role of geographic location and environmental factors in crime. Crime
tends to occur more in hot spots (specific neighborhoods, streets, or even houses). This is
influenced by factors like poor living conditions, overcrowding, and a lack of supervision.

Other Important Concepts:

Social Bond Theory (Travis Hirschi):

Focuses on the idea that social relationships prevent people from committing crimes. Hirschi
argues that the stronger a person’s bonds to society (through family, school, or work), the less
likely they are to commit crime. The four bonds are attachment, commitment, involvement, and
belief in societal norms.

Psychodynamic theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on the idea that unconscious
psychological processes (such as thoughts, feelings, and desires that we are not fully aware of)
and early childhood experiences play a major role in shaping our behaviors, including criminal
ones. The theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the deeper, unconscious
motivations that drive our actions.

Core Assumptions of Psychodynamic Theory

1. Primacy of the Unconscious: The psychodynamic theory asserts that most of our
psychological processes occur outside of conscious awareness. This includes emotions,
motives, and memories that are not easily accessible but still influence our behavior. For
instance, many people may not be fully aware of the reasons behind their actions, as they are
driven by unconscious forces.

2. Critical Importance of Early Experiences: According to this theory, experiences during

early childhood are pivotal in shaping one's personality. These early experiences—especially
those involving the family—can leave lasting marks on a person's future behavior. For example,
traumatic or nurturing experiences in early childhood can influence later behavior patterns and
tendencies, including criminal behavior.

3. Psychic Causality: This assumption suggests that nothing in the mind happens randomly.
Every thought, feeling, or behavior has an underlying cause, even if it is unconscious. This
principle asserts that there is always an identifiable reason for actions, and those reasons can
often be traced back to early life experiences.

The Evolution of Psychodynamic Theory

1. Topographic Model: Freud's initial model of the mind divided it into three regions:

Conscious: Thoughts and feelings we are aware of in the present moment.

Preconscious: Information we can easily bring into consciousness, like recalling something we
had for dinner last night.

Unconscious: The part of the mind where repressed memories and desires (often
anxiety-provoking) are stored, and we are unaware of them. Freud believed that repressed
memories often influence behavior without our knowledge.

2. Psychosexual Stage Model: Freud proposed that people progress through a series of
stages in childhood, each focused on a specific erogenous zone (areas of the body that are
sensitive to stimulation). If a person experiences frustration or overgratification during a
particular stage, they may develop "fixations" that could influence their adult personality,
potentially leading to criminal behavior. The stages are:

Oral: Focused on pleasure from activities like sucking and biting.

Anal: Focused on controlling bodily functions, like toilet training.

Oedipal: Focused on feelings of desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the
same-sex parent.

Latency: A period of relative calm where sexual feelings are suppressed.

Genital: Maturation of sexual interests during adolescence.

3. Structural Model: This model introduced three components of the mind:

KINDS OF INSTINCT
1. Eros
2. Thanatos

Id: Represents our primal desires and instincts, such as the need for pleasure and avoiding
discomfort. It operates on the "pleasure principle."

Ego: The rational part of the mind that tries to balance the demands of the id with the
constraints of reality. It operates on the "reality principle."

Superego: Represents our conscience and the moral guidelines we internalize from society and
our upbringing. It urges us to act in ways that are ethically and socially acceptable.

The balance between these three parts influences our behavior. If the id dominates, a
person may act impulsively, whereas if the superego is too strong, the person may
become overly moralistic or self-repressive. The ego tries to mediate between these
forces, aiming for a balanced personality.

The Ego and Its Defenses

The ego uses defense mechanisms to manage internal conflict and anxiety. These mechanisms
help us cope with uncomfortable emotions or thoughts, but they can distort reality. Some
common defense mechanisms include:
Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts or memories out of conscious awareness.

Denial: Refusing to acknowledge a reality that would cause anxiety (e.g., a person with an
addiction insisting they have control over it).

Object Relations Theory

Later developments in psychodynamic theory, such as object relations theory, focus on how
early relationships, particularly with caregivers (e.g., parents), shape our internal "objects" or
mental representations. These mental images (called introjects) form templates for how we
expect future relationships to unfold. If someone experienced nurturing relationships, they may
expect warmth in future interactions. However, if they had harsh or neglectful relationships early
on, they may internalize negative self-views and feel insecure in relationships later in life.

Psychodynamic Theory and Crime

Psychodynamic theory suggests that criminal behavior can stem from unresolved conflicts
and repressed desires that originated in childhood. For example, a person who did not develop
a strong conscience (due to early neglect or trauma) might not feel guilt or remorse when
committing crimes. Additionally, individuals who were exposed to violence or aggression in
childhood may learn to solve problems through similar violent means.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

is a psychological theory that explains how people learn new behaviors by observing and
interacting with others.

BANDURA - is the best known for his modelling study on aggression known as the bobo doll.

KEY ASPECT OF BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:

1. Learning through Observation

2. Cognitive Processes - involves extracting information
3. Reciprocal determinism - cognition, environment and behavior mutually influence
each other.
4. Reinforcement - plays a role in learning, but is not entirely responsible for it.

Personality Theory

Personality: Refers to the unique ways in which individuals think, feel, and behave. It
encompasses consistent patterns that make each person distinct.

Personality Traits: These are enduring characteristics or tendencies that influence how a
person behaves, thinks, and feels across different situations and throughout time. For example,
a person who is generally calm under pressure or someone who tends to be anxious.

Hans Jürgen Eysenck's Personality Theory

Eysenck proposed that biological factors (like brain activity and hormones) along with
environmental influences (like learning) shape personality. He identified three key dimensions of
personality:

1. Introversion vs. Extraversion:

Extraversion: Extraverts are sociable, active, and seek stimulation from the outside world.
Eysenck believed this trait is connected to lower cortical arousal (brain activity), meaning
extroverts need external stimulation to reach optimal brain arousal levels.
Introversion: Introverts are more reserved, quieter, and prefer solitude. They experience higher
cortical arousal and, therefore, avoid overstimulation from the environment.

2. Neuroticism:

Refers to emotional instability. People high in neuroticism often experience anxiety, stress,
and worry. This is thought to be connected to the sympathetic nervous system, which controls
responses to stress (fight or flight).

Neurotics might overreact to minor issues and struggle to cope with stress.

3. Psychoticism:

Characterized by aggression, impulsivity, and interpersonal hostility. Eysenck believed

psychoticism had a biological basis, particularly related to high levels of testosterone. People
high in psychoticism may engage in antisocial behaviors or show a lack of empathy.

Personality and Mental Health Theories

1. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD):

Individuals with APD often disregard social norms and laws. They may show traits like
irresponsibility, lack of empathy, irritability, and impulsiveness

2. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:

This theory posits that frustration (when a person’s goals are blocked) leads to aggression,
which is a way of relieving the built-up frustration. Aggression is a common response to feelings
of frustration.

3. Psychopaths:

Psychopathy is a personality disorder marked by aggressive antisocial behavior, a lack of

empathy, and manipulativeness. Psychopaths often have a poorly developed superego (the
moral part of personality). They may lie, be narcissistic, and engage in risky behaviors without
remorse.

Causes: Psychopathy may arise due to a lack of parental attachment, childhood behavioral
disorders, genetics, and abnormalities in brain chemistry.

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

1. Psychosexual Stages:

Freud believed that early childhood experiences shape adult personality. He proposed five
stages of development:

Oral Stage (0-1 years): Focus on the mouth (e.g., sucking, biting). Fixations here may lead to
behaviors like smoking or overeating in adulthood.

Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus on bladder and bowel control. Fixations could lead to traits like
orderliness (anal-retentive) or messiness (anal-expulsive).

Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Focus on the genitals. Key conflicts include the Oedipus complex
(for boys) or Electra complex (for girls). Fixations here might lead to issues with gender identity
or immaturity.
Latency Stage (6-12 years): Sexual energy is domin not active, and children focus on
hobbies and social skills.

Genital Stage (12+ years): Puberty brings mature sexual desires and the potential for healthy
relationships.

2. Defense Mechanisms:
Mechanisms used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety. Common ones include:

Repression: Pushing unpleasant thoughts into the unconscious.

Denial: Refusing to accept reality.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a less threatening target.
Projection: Attributing your own undesirable traits to others.

Drives and Instincts

1. Eros (Life Instinct): Focuses on survival, pleasure, and reproduction. This drive includes
basic needs like hunger, thirst, and the desire for sexual pleasure.

2. Thanatos (Death Instinct): Refers to an unconscious drive towards aggression,

self-destructive behaviors, and even suicidal tendencies. People may express the death instinct
outwardly (as aggression) or inwardly (as self-harm)

Intergenerational Transmission Theory

This theory examines how behaviors, traits, and values are passed down from one generation
to the next. It can happen through:

Genetic Inheritance: Genetic factors can contribute to behaviors or traits being inherited.

Cultural Transmission: Cultural beliefs and values are shared between generations and
influence behavior.

Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

Sutherland proposed that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. People
adopt the behaviors, values, and techniques of those they associate with, especially if they are
exposed to criminal behaviors frequently. For example, if a person grows up in an environment
where criminal activities are normalized, they are more likely to engage in crime themselves.

Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner)

This theory suggests that behaviors are shaped by their consequences. If a behavior is followed
by a positive outcome (reinforcement), the behavior is more likely to be repeated. Conversely, if
a behavior leads to negative consequences (punishment), it will be less likely to recur. This
principle is key in behavior modification, where positive reinforcement encourages desired
behaviors.

Psychological Terms

Anxiety: A feeling of unease or fear, often without a clear source. It alerts the person to
potential dangers and motivates actions to reduce perceived threats.

Sexual Instincts:

Sadism: Deriving pleasure from inflicting pain on others.

Masochism: Deriving pleasure from experiencing pain or humiliation.
Alternative and Sociological Theories

1. Assortative Mating:
This theory suggests that people tend to form relationships with others who have similar traits,
including antisocial behaviors. For example, an individual with a criminal background may be
more likely to marry someone with similar tendencies.

2. Social Homogamy:

People tend to choose partners who share similar social traits, like age, race, or education. This
can lead to the reinforcement of shared behaviors and values.

Types of Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory is based on the idea that behavior is influenced by the consequences
that follow it. The theory was developed by B.F. Skinner and it explains how positive and
negative outcomes can shape behavior. Here are the different types of reinforcement:

1. Positive Reinforcement:

This involves encouraging a desired behavior by offering a reward or an attractive consequence.

The goal is to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future.

Example: If a child cleans their room and is praised or given a treat afterward, the positive
reward (praise or treat) makes it more likely that the child will clean their room again in the
future.

2. Negative Reinforcement:

Also known as avoidance reinforcement, this involves removing something unpleasant or

aversive to increase a desired response. The idea is that people or animals will perform a
behavior to avoid something they don’t want.

Example: If an employee works harder to avoid being scolded or punished for poor
performance, the threat of punishment is removed as a result of their good behavior. Another
example could be withholding payment until a job is completed to encourage prompt
completion.

3. Punishment:

Punishment involves introducing an unpleasant consequence to decrease an undesirable

behavior. It’s meant to reduce the occurrence of a certain behavior.

Example: Yelling at a child for misbehaving in class or giving a student detention for tardiness
are examples of punishment. The goal is to discourage the behavior from happening again.

4. Extinction:

Extinction occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in that

behavior over time. Essentially, the behavior stops because it no longer gets the response it
used to.

Example: If a teenager comes home late and their parents respond by limiting their phone use,
this might discourage the teenager from coming home late in the future. The lack of
reinforcement (phone use) leads to a decrease in the undesired behavior (coming home late).

Alternative Theory: Assortative Mating

Assortative Mating refers to the theory that people tend to form relationships or get married to
individuals who share similar traits. This includes characteristics like antisocial behavior, criminal
tendencies, or even social status, which may influence their relationship choices.

Example: Female offenders might be more likely to marry or cohabit with male offenders
because they share similar patterns of behavior and attitudes.

Dunedin Study

The Dunedin Study is a long-term study focused on understanding the social and family factors
that influence parenting styles. The goal of this research is to explore how parenting
experiences are passed down and how they might affect the development of children into
adults. It looks at how parenting styles change over time and the factors that might lead to these
changes.

Intergenerational Transmission Theory

Intergenerational Transmission refers to the passing down of behaviors, values, characteristics,

and traits from one generation to the next. This transmission can occur in different ways:

1. Genetic Inheritance: Parents and children share genetic traits that can influence behavior
and personality. For example, genetic factors might predispose children to certain behaviors or
mental health conditions.

2. Cultural Transmission: This involves the passing down of cultural values, beliefs, practices,
and norms. For example, children learn their family’s values about education, work ethic, or
religious beliefs, which influence their behavior and decision-making.

3. Interaction of Genetics and Environment: Both genetic and environmental factors interact
to shape a child's behavior. For example, a child may inherit a genetic predisposition for anxiety,
but their environment (like supportive parenting) may help them manage it.

Dante Cicchetti contributed to the research on developmental psychopathology and

intergenerational transmission by studying how parents' behavior impacts their children’s
development, particularly in the context of trauma and mental health disorders.

Ann Duffy and Julianne Momirov (2000) also explored this concept, looking at how behaviors
and traits are passed down, particularly in families facing challenges such as mental illness or
social dysfunction.

Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

Differential Association Theory was developed by sociologist Edwin Sutherland and explains
how individuals learn criminal behavior through their interactions with others. According to this
theory, people adopt criminal behavior by associating with others who hold values and attitudes
that encourage crime. It emphasizes the idea that crime is learned, not an inherent trait.

Key Components:

Learning: Criminal behavior is learned through social interactions, especially with people who
engage in or endorse criminal activity.

Values and Techniques: Individuals learn not only the techniques to commit crimes but also
the rationalizations and attitudes that justify criminal behavior.

Example: A teenager who spends time with peers who engage in shoplifting may learn how to
steal, why it’s acceptable to them, and develop a similar attitude toward criminal behavior.
White-Collar Crime: A concept that Sutherland introduced is white-collar crime, which refers to
nonviolent, financially motivated crimes committed by professionals or businesspeople. This
type of crime is typically committed for personal or financial gain and often occurs in a business
or organizational context.

Example: A CEO embezzling money from a corporation or a banker committing fraud falls under
the category of white-collar crime.

Operant conditioning is a learning process where an organism learns to behave in a way that
results in rewards and avoids punishments.

4 Stages of Cognitive development

1. Sensorimotor Stage - Ability to perceive and interact with objects (2 years old)
2. Preoperational Stage - Language and symbolic thinking (2-7 yo)
3. Concrete Operational Stage- Ability to think logically (7-11)
4. Formal Operational Stage - Adulterated ability (11)

Benefit from social learning theory

1. Attention
2. retention
3. reproduction
4. motivation

founders of behavioural theory

1. Ivan Pavlov
2. Edward Thorndike
3. B.F. Skinner
4. John B. Watson