Module 1: Fundamentals of

Measurement
Derived Quantities - combination of
Physics fundamental quantities
★ Physics is an experimental
science.
★ Physics is a branch of science
concerned with the nature and
properties of matter and energy.
★ Understanding different phenomena
of nature by developing theories

Physical Theories
★ Usually expressed mathematically
★ Describes how a physical
phenomenon/system works
★ Involve physical quantities
*Quantity is different from Unit
Physical Quantities
★ any number used to describe a System of Units
physical phenomenon
quantitatively Systéme International d’Unités (SI)
★ any number used to describe
measurements ★ established 7 fundamental units for 7
★ has two categories fundamental quantities
○ Fundamental Quantities
○ Derived Quantities

Fundamental Quantities - basic

measurable quantities that have no
connection with each other

System of units based on the fundamental

units
★ MKS system
(meter-kilogram-second)
★ CGS system
(centimeter-gram-second)
 ★ Empirical system (FPS;
foot-pound-second) *Most commonly
used in the USA

Conversion of units - dimensional analysis

is employed
Dimension - type of quantity (for example:
length, time)
Dimensional Analysis - calculation done to
dimensions, usually to check the
consistency of dimensions to their proper
units

Example of Unit Conversion: Convert 130

kilometers to meters.

Solution:
130km=130×1000=130,000m

Scientific Notation

mx10^n Accuracy: The closeness of a

measurement to the true or accepted value.
Where: Precision: The consistency of repeated
n - must be an integer measurements, regardless of whether they
m - mantissa, valid only are close to the true value.
within the range
Example: A student measures the mass of
(1≤m<10)
an object five times and records: 4.02 g,
4.03 g, 4.02 g, 4.04 g, 4.02 g.

● Precision is high because the

measurements are close to each
other.
● If the true mass is 4.50 g, the
accuracy is low because the values
are not close to 4.50 g.

Uncertainty and Deviation

● Uncertainty: Describes the range

within which the true value of a
measurement likely lies, often
caused by limitations in measuring
 instruments. It is typically half the ○ Consistent and repeatable
least count of the instrument. errors.
○ Absolute Uncertainty: The ○ Affect the accuracy of
uncertainty of a measured measurements.
quantity in the same units. ● Causes:
■ Example: If a ruler ○ Faulty calibration of
has a least count of 1 instruments.
mm, the uncertainty is ○ Zero errors (instrument not
±0.5 mm. starting from zero).
○ Relative Uncertainty: ○ Consistent procedural errors.
Expressed as a percentage
of the measured value. 3. Gross Errors
● Deviation: Describes how far a
measurement deviates from the ● Characteristics:
accepted or true value. ○ Significant mistakes, often
○ Absolute Deviation: The human errors.
difference between the ● Causes:
measured value and the true ○ Misreading instruments.
value. ○ Recording wrong data.
■ Measured - Actual
4. Blunders
○ Relative Deviation:
Expressed as a percentage ● Characteristics:
error. ○ Major mistakes that can
■ Measured - Actual render data invalid.
Actual ● Causes:
■ Ans x 100 ○ Incorrect experimental setup.
○ Miscalculations.
Sources of Error
Significant Figures
1. Random Errors
Significant Figures (Sig Figs) indicate the
● Characteristics:
precision of a measurement by showing
○ Vary unpredictably in
which digits are known reliably.
magnitude and direction.
○ Affect the precision of Rules for Determining Significant
measurements. Figures
● Causes:
○ Environmental fluctuations 1. Non-Zero Digits: Always significant.
(e.g., temperature changes). ○ Example: 1234 has 4
○ Observer variability (e.g., significant figures.
reaction time). 2. Zeros Between Non-Zero Digits
(Captive Zeros): Always significant.
2. Systematic Errors ○ Example: 1002 has 4
significant figures.
● Characteristics:
 3. Leading Zeros: Never significant. The measurement with the fewest
○ Example: 0.005 has 1 significant figures is 2.0 cm (2 sig figs).
significant figure (the 5).
4. Trailing Zeros in a Decimal Reported Result: 13 cm² (rounded to 2
Number: Significant. significant figures).
○ Example: 12.300 has 5
significant figures. Module 2: Vectors
5. Trailing Zeros in a Whole Number
Scalars:
Without a Decimal Point:
Ambiguous; use scientific notation to ● A scalar is a quantity that has only
clarify. magnitude (size or value) but no
○ Example: 1500 could have 2, direction.
3, or 4 significant figures. ● Examples:
6. Exact Numbers: Have an infinite ○ Speed (e.g., 60 km/h),
number of significant figures (e.g., ○ Mass (e.g., 5 kg),
counted items like 12 eggs). ○ Temperature (e.g., 25°C).

Calculations with Significant Figures Vectors:

Addition and Subtraction: ● A vector is a quantity that has both

magnitude and direction.
● The result should have the same
● Examples:
number of decimal places as the
○ Velocity (e.g., 60 km/h
measurement with the least decimal
north),
places.
○ Force (e.g., 10 N
Example: downward),
12.11g+0.023g+0.0056g=12.1386g ○ Displacement (e.g., 5 m
east).
The measurement with the least decimal
places is 12.11 (2 decimal places). Vector Representation:

Reported Result: 12.14 g (rounded to 2 ● Vectors are represented graphically

decimal places). by arrows.
○ The length of the arrow
Multiplication and Division: represents the magnitude.
○ The direction of the arrow
● The result should have the same shows the direction of the
number of significant figures as the vector.
measurement with the fewest ○ The vector is denoted by a
significant figures. symbol, typically with an
arrow on top
Example:

6.38cm×2.0cm=12.76cm2
Resolution of Vectors

Resolution of vectors means breaking a

vector into its horizontal (x) and vertical (y)
components. This is useful when working in
2D or 3D space, where vectors have to be
analyzed in different directions.

Components of a Vector:
Consider vector A with magnitude A and
direction θ.

X-component:
Ax = Acosθ

Y-component:
Ay = Asinθ

Steps for Resolving a Vector:

1. Find the magnitude of the vector.

2. Determine the angle with respect to
the horizontal (x-axis).
3. Use trigonometric functions to find
the x and y components.

Example Problem:

Resolve a vector A with magnitude 50 N at

an angle of 60° above the positive x-axis
into its components.

Solution:

Ax​=50cos(60∘)=50×0.5=25N

Ay​=50sin(60∘)=50×0.866=43.3N

Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude

of 1, used to indicate direction only.
Unit Vector Notation: Component Method:

● Unit vectors are represented with a ● Break each vector into its
caret (^) symbol on top of the vector components (x and y directions).
symbol. ● Add the corresponding components:
○ î represents the unit vector in ○ Rx=Ax+Bx
the x-direction. ○ Ry=Ay+By
○ ĵ represents the unit vector in
the y-direction.
○ k̂ represents the unit vector
in the z-direction.

Any vector can be written in terms of its

components using unit vectors:

vector A can be expressed as:

A = Axî + Ayĵ + Azk̂

Example:

Vector B Components:

Bx=4m

By=3m

Solution: Magnitude and direction of vector can be

found using components
B=4î + 3ĵ

Vector Addition

Vector Addition refers to the process of

combining two or more vectors to find a
resultant vector.

Methods of Vector Addition:

1. Graphical Method (Head-to-Tail

Rule): Less accurate
○ Place the tail of the second
vector at the head of the first
vector.
○ The resultant vector is drawn
from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last vector.
Vector Multiplication

Vector multiplication can be of two types:

Dot Product (Scalar Product) and Cross
Product (Vector Product).

Dot Product (Scalar Product):

● The dot product of two vectors A and

B gives a scalar quantity.

Cross Product (Vector Product):

● The cross product of two vectors A

and B gives a vector that is
perpendicular to both A and B
● Formula:

Example:
Step 1: Set up the determinant

Step 2: Expand the determinant

Step 3: Calculate the 2x2 determinants

Step 4: Combine the results

Final Answer: