UNIT II ANALYSIS OF ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS

PART A-TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. What is SMPS?
A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts power using
switching devices that are turned on and off high frequencies, and storage components such as
inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching devices is in its non-conduction
state.
2. What is a flyback converter?
The flyback converter is used in both AC/DC and DC/DC conversion with galvanic isolation
between the input and any outputs. The flyback converter is a buck-boost converter with the
inductor split to form a transformer, so that the voltage ratios are multiplied with additional
advantages of isolation. When driving for example a plasma lamp or a voltage multiplier the
rectifying diode of the boost converter is left out and the device is called a flyback transformer.
3. What are the applications of flyback converter?
 Low power switch mode power supply cell phone charger standby power supply in Pcs
 High voltage supply for the CRT in TVs and monitors (the flyback convere is often
combined with the horizontal deflection drive)
 High voltage generation (e.g., for xenon flash lamps, lasers, copiers, etc.)
 Isolated gate driver
4. What is a luo converter?
Luo converter can perform step-up or step-down DC-DC voltage conversion all the four
quadrants using a low switching frequency. Since the frequency low compared to the classical
converters, the EMI is very weak. It has be proven to provide high efficiency and high power.
It is also potentially capable achieving a high-output current that, is needed to charge the
modem auto mobile power supply systems
5. What is a 'forward converter"?
Just as the isolated flyback is a derivative of the buck-boost topology, te forward converter is
the isolated version (or derivative) of the buck topology. too uses a transformer (and opto-
coupler) for providing the required isolation high-voltage applications. Whereas the flyback is
typically suited for outpe powers of about 75 W or less, the forward converter can go much
highe The simplest version of the forward converter uses only one transistor (switch and is
thus often called "single-ended." But there are variants of the single-ended forward converter
 with either two or four switches. So whereas the simple forward converter is suited only up to
about 300 W of power, we can use t 'double-switch forward' to get up to about 500 W.
6. What is a push pull converter?
A push-pull converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter, a switching conver that uses a
transformer to change the voltage of a DC power supply. T distinguishing feature of a push-
pull converter is that the transformer primary supplied with current from the input line by
pairs of transistors in a symmetric is push-pull circuit. The transistors are alternately switched
on and off, periodical reversing the current in the transformer. Therefore, current is drawn
from the las during both halves of the switching cycle. This contrasts with buck-booster
converters, in which the input current is supplied by a single transistor which is switched on
and off, so current is only drawn from the line during half the switching cycle. During the
other half the output power is supplied by energy stored in inductors or capacitors in the
power supply. Push-pull converters have steadier input current, create less noise on the input
line, and are more efficient in higher power applications
7. What is a half bridge converter?
A half-bridge converter is a type of DC-DC converter that, like flyback and forward
converters, can supply an output voltage either higher or lower than the input voltage and
provide electrical isolation via a transformer.
8. It is much easier to find "off-the-shelf" inductors. So why a transformer- is based buck-
boost even worth considering?
It is true that most designers prefer the convenience of off-the-shelf components, rather than
custom-designed components (like transformers). However, high- power off-the shelf
inductors often come with two identical windings wound in parallel (on the same core),
(though that may not be immediately apparent just by looking at the datasheet). Further, the
ends of these two windings are sometimes completely separated from each other (no galvanic
connection between the windings). The reason for this may be that from a production
standpoint, it doesn't make sense to try and solder too many copper strands on to a single
pin/termination.

So the intention here is that the two windings will be eventually connected to each other on
the PCB itself. But sometimes, the intention of leaving separate windings on an inductor is to
allow flexibility for the two windings to be connected to each other either in series, or in
parallel, as desired.
 So for example, if we place the winding in series, that would reduce the current rating of the
inductor, but we would get a much higher inductance. If in parallel the inductance would
come down, but the current rating would increase However, in low-voltage applications,
where safety isolation isn't a concern, can also exploit this inductor structure and use it as a
1:1 transformer. And that would be very helpful in correcting the polarity inversion of the
buck-boost. other words, an off-the-shelf inductor could now serve as a 1:1 transformer.
9. In an inductor with split windings (1:1), how exactly does its current tends inductance
change as we go from a parallel configuration to a configuration?
Suppose each winding has 10 turns and a DCR (de resistance) of 10. So used in parallel
configuration, we still have 10 turns, but the effective Do 10 in parallel with IQ, ie. 0.5 2.
When a series configuration is used, 2 Q and 20 turns. We also know that inductance depends
on the square of number of turns. So that goes up four times.
10. Is there any difference between the terms "buck-boost" and "flyback"?
The answer to that may well depend on whom you ask! These terms are th used
interchangeably in the industry. However, generally, most people prefer call the conventional
inductor-based version a (true) "buck-boost," where transformer-based version, isolated or
non-isolated, is called a "flyback."
11. When and why do we need isolation?
And how do we go about achieving i We must recognize that a (transformer-based) flyback
topology may or may provide us with isolation. Isolation is certainly a natural advantage
accruing the use of a transformer. But to preserve isolation, we must ensure that all circuitry
connected to the switch side of the transformer ('primary side") is completely independent
from all the circuitry sitting on ('secondary side').
12. What do we mean by the "peak current" of a dc-dc converter?
In any de-de converter, the terms "peak inductor current," "peak switch cun and "peak diode
current" are all the same - referred to simply as the peak 'IPK' (of the converter).
13. What really determines the current rating of an inductor?
There are two limiting factors here. One is the heat developed (1^2R lose which we should
ensure isn't excessive (usually 50 deg. C or less). The second the magnetic field it can
withstand without saturating. So most ferrites alles maximum B-field of about 3000 gauss
before saturation starts.
14. Why is it commonly stated that in a commonly stated that in a flyback transformer, the
“air gap carries most of the stored magnetic energy"?
 We can intuitively accept the fact that the energy stored is proportional volume of the
magnetic material. And because of that, we also ferrite must be carrying most of the energy,
since it occupies the maximum volume the amount of air enclosed between the ends of the
ferrite being very small. However, the stored energy is also proportional to B × H, and since
the H- field in the gap is so much larger, it ends up storing typically two-thirds of the total
energy, despite its much smaller volume.
15. If air carries most of the stored energy, why do we even need the ferrite?
An air-cored coil would seem perfect as an inductor, especially since it would never saturate.
However, the number of turns required to produce a given inductance would be impractically
large, and so we would get unacceptable copper losses. Further, since there isn'thing to
"channel" (constrain) the flux lines, the air-cored inductor would spew electromagnetic
interference (EMI) everywhere. The ferrite is useful, because it's the very means by which we
can create such high magnetic fields in the first place without an excessive number of turns. It
also provides us the "channel" for flux lines that we had been looking for.
16. How can we tell whether a given topology is "buck-derived" or not?
The simplest way to do that's to remember that only the buck has a true LC filter at its output.
17. What is the application of forward converter?
Forward Converters find wide application in many areas, especially where electrical isolation
is essential or where a step-down or step-up DC voltage is required. Examples include power
supplies for computers and telecom equipment, battery chargers, and LED drivers.
18. Mention the advantages of forward converter?
 It offers better transformer utilization.
 Output inductor and freewheeling diode keep the output current reasonably constant.
 A lower active device peak current is due to a larger magnetizing inductance.
19. Discuss the disadvantage of forward converter?
 Requires a high transistor rating (twice the input voltage)
 Requirement for an active snubbers circuits for resetting the transformer core.
 higher conduction losses.
 Bigger transformer.
20. Write the benefits of push pull converter?
Push-pull converters are widely utilized due to their numerous benefits, which include their
ability to handle high power levels, their high efficiency, and the presence of a transformer
that provides electrical isolation between the input and output.
21. Compare the types of converters flyback and pushpull?
The push-pull topology is essentially a forward converter with two primary windings used to
create a dual drive winding. This utilizes the core of the transformer much more efficiently
than the flyback or the forward converters.
22. Write the advantages of half bridge converter?
 High Efficiency
 Simple Design
 Wide Input Voltage Range
23. What is the current through an inductor?
The current through an inductor can also be found by measuring the rate of change of the
magnetic field around the inductor and using the equation:
I = -L*(dI/dt)
Where, L is the inductance of the inductor.
24. What is the saturation current rating of an inductor?
Saturation current in an inductor is, to use layman's language, the current at which the core is
completely filled with magnetic flux and it can't take any more. More scientifically, it's the
current at which all the magnetic domains in the core are aligned and there are no more
available.
25. Write the formula for saturation current of inductor?
The core of the inductor may become saturated depending on the amount of current going
through it. Saturation is caused by flux density B in the core. It is defined by Inductance x
Current / (core cross sectional area x number of turns).
26. Difference between inductor saturation current and rated current?
Current Rating is the maximum current the gauge of wire used in the inductor can handle at
the rated temperature range. Saturation Current is the point where the magnetic field no
longer increases proportionally with an increase in current. The core has become 'saturated'.
27. What is the working principle of cuk converter?
A cuk converter transforms a DC voltage at the input to a DC voltage at the output with
reversed polarity. Compared to the Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost converters the cuk converter
uses an additional inductor and capacitor to store energy.
28. Explain the isolated version of cuk converter?
For isolated version of Ćuk converter, an AC transformer and an additional capacitor must be
added. Because the isolated Ćuk converter is isolated, the output-voltage polarity can be
chosen freely. Isolated Ćuk converter with gapless AC transformer.
29. Write short notes on design of magnetic components for SMPS?
The most common magnetic components found in power supply designs include: switcher
transformers, gate drive transformers, current sense transformers, inductors and dual planar
inductors. inductors. All of the core manufacturers have graphs of core losses at various levels
of flux density and operating frequencies.
30. What are the advantages of cuk converter?
The Cuk converter is a versatile and efficient power electronic converter that offers several
advantages over other converter topologies. Its unique combination of features, such as non-
inverted output, continuous input and output currents, and high efficiency, make it an
attractive choice for various applications.
31. Give the circuit for cuk converter?
32. Give the waveforms of cuk converter?

33. Derive the expression of cuk converter?

Output Voltage Control of DC–DC Converters Using Pulse Width Modulation Technique.
The average value of a dc–dc converter can be varied by varying the pulse width of the gating
signal. This control technique is called pulse width modulation (PWM).
34. What are the magnetic components available for dc-dc converter?
The analysis of the optimal design of the output inductor for a DC–DC buck converter is
performed. Three different magnetic materials are compared: Mn–Zn ferrite, silicon iron powder,
and iron-based amorphous material.
35. Mention the working of fly back converter?
A flyback converter's operation is based on a coupled inductor, which aids in power
conversion while isolating the converter's input and output. The coupled inductor also enables
multiple outputs, which makes flyback converters the standard for a wide variety of
applications.
36. Write the advantages of flyback converter?
The primary is isolated from the output. Capable of supplying multiple output voltages, all
isolated from the primary. Ability to regulate the multiple output voltages with a single
control. The Flyback converters use very few components compared to the other types of
SMPSs.
37. Write about half bridge converter?

A Bridge Converter is a DC to DC converter topology (configuration) employing four active

switching components in a bridge configuration across a power transformer. This has lower
losses than a bridge rectifier.
38. Write about forward converter?
A forward converter is a switching power supply circuit that transfers the energy from the
primary to the secondary while the switching element is “on,” which is the opposite of a
flyback converter.
39. Mention the advantages of push pull converter?
Push-pull converters are widely utilized due to their numerous benefits, which include their
ability to handle high power levels, their high efficiency, and the presence of a transformer
that provides electrical isolation between the input and output.
40. Mention the disadvantages of push pull converter?
Push-pull converters are prone to transformer saturation if there is an imbalance in the duty
cycles of the two transistors. This can lead to reduced efficiency and potential damage to the
converter.
41. Mention the disadvantages of half bridge converter?
 High ripple current in selected C1 and C2 so that they will not overheat an.
 An isolated driver for the top switch adds component cost.
 Functioning at half of the input voltage, so collector current is double compared to the
Push-pull scheme.
 Not suitable for current-mode control.
42. Mention the disadvantages of cuk converter?
 High-rating capacitor is needed in high-power applications.
 All the current from the source to load as to go through capacitor C1 and the voltage
across the capacitor reverses each half cycle, thus the capacitor must be non-polarized.
43. Mention the disadvantages of flyback converter?
 Higher output voltage ripple compared to other topologies.
 Increased stress on output diode, especially in DCM.
 Reduced efficiency at higher power levels compared to other topologies.
 Complexity in designing high-frequency transformers.
44. What are benefits of forward converter?
 Does not require a snubber circuit.
 Less voltage stress for the MOSFET (same as input voltage)
 Simple construction and operation over a wide range of input and output voltages.
 Ability to provide multiple isolated outputs.
 Low system power losses and noise.
45. What are the benefits of luo converter?
Also, additional advantages of Luo converter are that the switching power element is
referenced to ground, making the switch easy to drive and turn it ON and OFF. Moreover
directly connected input inductor to the dc source is helping to filter the input current, as it is
illustrated in ESLPOLC circuit.
46. Write the disadvantages of switched-mode power supply?
Disadvantages include greater complexity, the generation of high-amplitude, high-frequency
energy that the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI), a
ripple voltage at the switching frequency and its harmonic frequencies.
47. Write the advantages of switched-mode power supply?
The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency (up to 96%) and
lower heat generation than linear regulators because the switching transistor dissipates little
power when acting as a switch.
48. What is inductor saturation?
This is in reference to Inductors. Current Rating is the maximum current the gauge of wire
used in the inductor can handle at the rated temperature range. Saturation Current is the point
where the magnetic field no longer increases proportionally with an increase in current.
49. Write about buck booster?
The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter (also knownas a chopper) that has
an output voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage
magnitude. It is used to “step up” the DC voltage, similar to a transformer for AC circuits
50. Write about push pull strategy?
The push-pull training consists of two workouts: pushing exercises for the chest, shoulders,
and triceps; and pulling exercises for the back, biceps, and forearms. This can help improve
muscle power.
51. Mention the advantages of push pull strategy?
Push-Pull Training Can Build Muscle, Increase Strength and Reduce Imbalances. Focusing on
how you move rather than what parts of the body you move can help you get stronger, faster.
52. What are disadvantages of push pull strategy?
 Two transistors have to be used.
 It requires two equal and opposite voltages at the input.
 If the parameters of the two transistors are not the same, there will be unequal amplification
of two halves of the signal.
 The circuit gives more distortion.
 Transformer used is bulky and expensive.
53. Mention about half bridge converter?
The half-bridge converter is a widely used topology in power electronics for applications that
require voltage or current regulation, such as switch-mode power supplies, inverters, and
motor drives. This article will discuss the basic principles, advantages, and limitations of half-
bridge converters, as well as some common applications.
54. Write the principle of half bridge?
A half-bridge converter is a type of DC-DC converter that uses two switches to alternately
connect a load to a voltage source and a reference (typically ground). The switches are
typically transistors, such as metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs)
or insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
PART B & C QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. Draw the schematic circuit diagram of forward converter and explain the in principle of
operation with relevant waveform.
The forward converter is similar to the flyback. The transformer core is reset by reset winding, as
shown in Figure 3.1 a, where the energy stored in the transformer core is returned to the supply and
the efficiency is increased. The dot on the secondary winding of the transformer is so arranged that
the output diode D2 is forward biased when the voltage across the primary is positive, that is, when
the transistor is on. Thus, energy is not stored in the primary inductance as it was for the fly back.
The transformer acts strictly as an ideal transformer. Unlike the fly back, the forward converter is
operated in the continuous mode. In the discontinuous mode, the forward converter is more difficult
to control because of a double pole existing at the output filter.

There are two modes of operation: (1) mode 1 when switch Q1 is turned on, and (2) mode 2 when Q1
is turned off. Figure 3.1 b–g shows the steady-state waveforms in the continuous mode operation. It
is assumed that the output voltage as shown in Figure 2.1g is ripple free.
Mode 1. This mode begins when switch Q1 turns on. The voltage across the primary winding is Vs.
The primary current ip starts to build up and transfers energy from the primary winding to the
secondary and onto the L1 C filter and the load RL through the rectifier diode D2, which is forward
biased.

Figure 2.1 Forward converter. (a) Circuit, (b) Primary voltage, (c) Transistor voltage, (d) Primary
current, (e) Current of diode D3, (f) Current of inductor L1, and (g) Output voltage
Figure 2.2 Current components in the primary winding
Mode 2. This mode begins when Q1 turns off. The polarity of the transformer voltage reverses. This
causes D2 to turn off and D1 and D3 to turn on. While D3 is conducting, energy is delivered to RL
through the inductor L1. Diode D1 and the tertiary winding provide a path for the magnetizing current
returning to the input. The current iL1 through inductor L1, which is equal to the current iD3 through
diode D3, decreases linearly as given by

Thus, kmax depends on the turns ratio between the resetting winding and the primary one. The duty
cycle k must be kept below the maximum duty cycle kmax to avoid saturating the transformer. The
transformer magnetizing current must be reset to zero at the end of each cycle. Otherwise, the
transformer can be driven into saturation, which can cause damage to the switching device.

A tertiary winding, as shown in Figure 2.1 a, is added to the transformer so that the magnetizing
current can return to the input source Vs when the transistor turns off. The forward converter is
widely used with output power below 200 W, though it can be easily constructed with a much higher
output power. The limitations are due to the inability of the power transistor to handle the voltage and
current stresses.
2. The average (or dc) output voltage of the forward–converter circuit in Figure 13.3a is Vo = 24
V at a resistive load of R = 0.8 Ω. The on-state voltage drops of transistors and diodes are Vt =
1.2 V and Vd = 0.7 V, respectively. The duty cycle is k = 40% and the switching frequency is f =
1 kHz. The dc supply voltage Vs = 12 V. The turns ratio of the transformer is a = Ns/Np = 0.25.
Determine (a) the average input current Is, (b) the efficiency ɳ, (c) the average transistor
current IA, (d) the peak transistor current Ip, (e) the rms transistor current IR, (f) the open-
circuit transistor voltage Voc, (g) the primary magnetizing inductor Lp for maintaining the peak-
to-peak ripple current to 5% of the average input dc current, and (h) the output inductor L1 for
maintaining the peak-to-peak ripple current to 4% of its average value. Neglect the losses in the
transformer and the ripple content of the output voltage is 3%.
3. Draw and explain the schematic circuit diagram of fly back converter operation with
relevant waveform.
Figure 2.2 a shows the circuit of a fly back converter. There are two modes of operation: (1) mode 1
when switch Q1 is turned on, and (2) mode 2 when Q1 is turned off. Figure 2.2 b–f shows the steady-
state waveforms under a discontinuous-mode operation. It is assumed that the output voltage as
shown in Figure 2.3 f is ripple free.

Figure 2.3 Fly back converter. (a) Circuit, (b) Transistor Q1 voltage, (c) Secondary voltage, (d)
Primary current, (e) Secondary current, and (f) Output voltage.
Mode 1. This mode begins when switch Q1 is turned on and it is valid for 0 6 t … kT, where k is the
duty-cycle ratio and T is the switching period. The voltage across the primary winding of the
transformer is Vs. The primary current ip starts to build up and stores energy in the primary winding.
Due to the opposite polarity arrangement between the input and output windings of the transformer,
diode D1 is reverse biased. There is no energy transferred from the input to load RL. The output filter
capacitor C maintains the output voltage and supplies the load current iL. The primary current ip that
increases linearly is given by

Mode 2. This mode begins when switch Q1 is turned off. The polarity of the windings reverses due to
the fact that ip cannot change instantaneously. This causes diode D1 to turn on and charges the output
capacitor C and also delivers current to RL. The secondary current that decreases linearly is given by

where Ls is the secondary magnetizing inductance. Under the discontinuous-mode operation, ise
decreases linearly to zero before the start of the next cycle. Because energy is transferred from the
source to the output during the time interval 0 to kT only, the input power is given by
Thus, Vo can be maintained constant by keeping the product Vs kT constant. Because the maximum
duty cycle kmax occurs at minimum supply voltage Vs(min), the allowable kmax for the discontinuous
mode can be found from Eq. (3.20) as

The flyback converter is used mostly in applications below 100 W. It is widely used for high-output
voltage at relatively low power. Its essential features are simplicity and low cost. The switching
device must be capable of sustaining a voltage VQ1(max) in Eq. (3.23). If the voltage is too high, the
double-ended flyback converter, as shown in Figure 2.4, may be used. The two devices are switched
on or off simultaneously. Diodes D1 and D2 are used to limit the maximum switch voltage to Vs.

Figure 2.4 Double-ended flyback converter

Continuous versus discontinuous mode of operation.
In a continuous mode of operation, switch Q1 is turned on before the secondary current falls to zero.
The continuous mode can provide higher power capability for the same value of peak current Ip(pk).
It means that, for the same output power, the peak currents in the discontinuous mode are much
higher than those in continuous mode. As a result, a more expensive power transistor with a higher
current rating is needed. Moreover, the higher secondary peak currents in the discontinuous mode can
have a larger transient spike at the instant of turn-off. However, despite all these problems, the
discontinuous mode is still more preferred than the continuous mode. There are two main reasons.
First, the inherently smaller magnetizing inductance in the discontinuous mode has a quicker
response and a lower transient output voltage spike to sudden change in load current or input voltage.
Second, the continuous mode has a right-half-plane zero in its transfer function, thereby making the
feedback control circuit more difficult to design.
4. The average (or dc) output voltage of the flyback circuit in Figure 3.1a is Vo = 24 V at a
resistive load of R = 0.8 _. The duty-cycle ratio is k = 50% and the switching frequency is f = 1
kHz. The on-state voltage drops of transistors and diodes are Vt = 1.2 V and Vd = 0.7 V,
respectively. The turns ratio of the transformer is a = Ns/Np = 0.25. Determine (a) the average
input current Is, (b) the efficiency, (c) the average transistor current IA, (d) the peak transistor
current Ip, (e) the rms transistor current IR, (f) the open-circuit transistor voltage Voc, and (g)
the primary magnetizing inductor Lp. Neglect the losses in the transformer and the ripple
current of the load.
Solution
5. Explain the schematic circuit diagram of push–pull converter operation with relevant
waveform.
The push–pull configuration is shown in Figure 2.5 when Q1 is turned on, Vs appears across one-half
of the primary. When Q2 is turned on, Vs is applied across the other half of the transformer. The
voltage of a primary winding swings from -Vs to Vs. The average current through the transformer
should ideally be zero. The average output Voltage is

Figure 2.5 Push-pull converter configurations

Transistors Q1 and Q2 operate with a 50% duty cycle. The open-circuit voltage is Voc = 2Vs, the
average current of a transistor is IA = Is/2, and the peak transistor current is Ip = Is. Because the
open-circuit transistor voltage is twice the supply voltage, this configuration is suitable for low-
voltage applications. The push–pull converter is often driven by a constant current source Is such that
primary current is a square wave that produces a secondary voltage.
6. The average (or dc) output voltage of the push–pull circuit in Figure 13.6 is Vo = 24 V at a
resistive load of R = 0.8 _. The on-state voltage drops of transistors and diodes are Vt = 1.2 V
and Vd = 0.7 V, respectively. The turns ratio of the transformer is a = Ns/Np = 0.25. Determine
(a) the average input current Is, (b) the efficiency ɳ, (c) the average transistor current IA, (d)
the peak transistor current Ip, (e) the rms transistor current IR, and (f) the open-circuit
transistor voltage Voc. Neglect the losses in the transformer, and the ripple current of the load
and input supply is negligible. Assume duty cycle k = 0.5.

7. Describe the operation of half-bridge converter with relevant circuit diagram and waveform.
Figure 2.6a shows the basic configuration of a half-bridge converter. This converter can be viewed as
two back-to-back forward converters that are fed by the same input voltage, each delivering power to
the load at each alternate half-cycle. The capacitors C1 and C2 are placed across the input terminals
such that the voltage across the primary winding always is half of the input voltage Vs/2. There are
four modes of operation: (1) mode 1 when switch Q1 is turned on and switch Q2 is off, (2) mode 2
when both Q1 and Q2 are off, (3) mode 3 when switch Q1 is off and switch Q2 is turned on, and (4)
mode 4 when both Q1 and Q2 are off again. Switches Q1 and Q2 are switched on and off accordingly
to produce a square-wave ac at the primary side of the transformer. This square wave is either
stepped down or up by the isolation transformer and then rectified by diodes D1 and D2. The
rectified voltage is, subsequently, filtered to produce the output voltage Vo. Figure 2.6b–g shows the
steady-state waveforms in the continuous mode operation.
Mode 1. During this mode Q1 is on and Q2 is off, D1 conducts and D2 is reverse biased. The
primary voltage Vp is Vs/2. The primary current ip starts to build up and stores energy in the primary
winding. This energy is forward transferred to the secondary and onto the L1 C filter and the load RL
through the rectifier diode D1. The voltage across the secondary winding is given by

The voltage across the output inductor is then given by

The inductor current iL1 increases linearly at a rate of

Figure 2.6 Half-bridge converters. (a) Circuit, (b) Primary voltage, (c) Transistor Q2 voltage, (d)
Transistor Q1 voltage, (e) Primary current,(f) Inductor L1 current, and (g) Rectifier output voltage.
which gives the peak inductor current IL11pk2 at the end of this mode at t = kT as given by
Mode 2. This mode is valid for kT 6 t … T/2. During this mode both Q1 and Q2 are off, and D1 and
D2 are forced to conduct the magnetizing current that resulted during mode 1. Redefining the time
origin at the beginning of this mode, the rate of fall of iL1 is given by

Modes 3 and 4. During mode 3, Q2 is on and Q1 off, D1 is reverse biased, and D2 conducts. The
primary voltage Vp is now -Vs/2. The circuit operates in the same manner as in mode 1 followed by
mode 4 that is similar to mode 2. The output voltage Vo can be found from the time integral of the
inductor voltage vL1 over the switching period T. That is,

Where Ip1avg2 is the average primary current. Assuming that the secondary load current reflected to
the primary side is much greater than the magnetizing current, the maximum collector currents for
Q1 and Q2 are given by

The maximum collector voltages for Q1 and Q2 during turn-off are given by
The maximum duty cycle k can never be greater than 50%. The half-bridge converter is widely used
for medium-power applications. Because of its core-balancing feature, the half-bridge converter
becomes the predominant choice for output power ranging from 200 to 400 W. In a half-bridge
converter, the voltage stress imposed on the power transistors is subject to only the input voltage and
is only half of that in a forward converter. Thus, the output power of a half-bridge is double to that of
a forward converter for the same semiconductor devices and magnetic core. Because the half-bridge
is more complex, for application below 200 W, the flyback or forward converter is considered to be a
better choice and more cost-effective. Above 400 W, the primary and switch currents of the half-
bridge become very high. Thus, it becomes unsuitable for high-power applications.
Note: The emitter of Q1 is not at ground level, but is at a high-ac level. Thus, the gate driver circuit
must be isolated from the ground through transformers or other coupling devices.
8. Describe the construction and operation of full-bridge converter with relevant circuit
diagram and waveform.
Figure 2.7a shows the basic configuration of a full-bridge converter with four power switches. There
are four modes of operation: (1) mode 1 when switches Q1 and Q4 are on, while Q2 and Q3 are off;
(2) mode 2 when all switches are off; (3) mode 3 when switches Q1 and Q4 are off, while Q2 and Q3
are on; and (4) mode 4 when all switches are off. Switches are switched on and off accordingly to
produce a square-wave ac at the primary side of the transformer. The output voltage is stepped up (or
down), rectified, and then filtered to produce a dc output voltage. The capacitor C1 is used to balance
the volt-second integrals during the two half-cycles and prevent the transformer from becoming
driven into saturation. Figure 2.7b–g shows the steady-state waveforms in the continuous mode
operation.
Mode 1. During this mode both Q1 and Q4 are turned on. The voltage across the secondary winding
is

The voltage across the output inductor L1 is then given by

The inductor current iL1 increases linearly at a rate of

which gives the peak inductor current IL11pk2 at the end of this mode at t = kT as given by
 Figure 2.7 Full-bridge converters. (a) Circuit, (b) Primary voltage, (c) Transistor Q1 voltage, (d)
Transistor Q2 voltage, (e) Rectifier output voltage, (f) Primary current, and (g) Inductor L1 current.
Mode 2. This mode is valid for kT 6 t … T/2. During this mode all switching devices are off, while
D1 and D2 are forced to conduct the magnetizing current at the end of mode 1. Redefining the time
origin at the beginning of this mode, the rate of fall of iL1 is given by

Modes 3 and 4. During mode 3, Q2 and Q3 are on, while Q1 and Q4 are off. D1 is reverse biased
and D2 conducts. The voltage across the primary Vp is Vs. The circuit operates in the same manner as
in mode 1 followed by mode 4 that is similar to mode 2. The output voltage Vo can be found from the
time integral of the inductor voltage vL1 over the switching period T. That is,

which gives Vo as

The output power Po is given by

which gives

where Ip1avg2 has the average primary current. Neglecting the magnetizing current, the maximum
collector currents for Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 are given by

The maximum collector voltage for Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 during turn-off is given by
VC1max2 = Vs1max2
The full-bridge regulator is used for high-power applications ranging from several hundred to several
thousand kilowatts. It has the most efficient use of magnetic core and semiconductor switches. The
full bridge is complex and therefore expensive to build. and is only justified for high-power
applications, typically over 500 W.
9. Describe the construction and operation of cuk converter with relevant circuit diagram and
waveform.
A Cuk converter is a dc-to-dc converter similar to a buck-boost converter by which we can obtain an
output voltage either greater or lesser than the applied input voltage. Though a Cuk converter is
similar to a buck-boost converter, its circuit construction overcomes the drawbacks of the buck-boost
converter.
Need for Cuk Converter:
A Cuk converter is formed by combining the circuits of buck and boost converters. We know that
a buck converter is a step-down type dc-to-dc converter i.e., the output voltage will be less than the
input voltage, whereas a boost converter is a step-up type dc-to-dc converter i.e., the output voltage
will be greater than the input voltage. The Cuk converter combines the merits of this both converters.

Even though there is a buck-boost converter that is similar to the Cuk converter. There are some
drawbacks like the input current and charging current of the capacitor being discontinuous in the
buck-boost converter. These drawbacks can be overcome by a Cuk converter circuit in which
additional capacitors and inductors are used. In a buck-boost converter, the energy transfer is
associated with an inductor, whereas in the Cuk converter, the energy transfer is associated with a
capacitor. The input current is continuous in the Cuk converter.
Circuit Diagram of Cuk Converter:
The below shows the circuit arrangement of the Cuk converter using a power MOSFET. The circuit
of the Cuk converter is formed by combining the input side of a boost converter and the output side
of a buck converter with a capacitor connected in between them.

Figure 2.8 Circuit Diagram of Cuk Converter

Working of Cuk Converter:
In order to simplify and easily understand the working of the Cuk converter, the circuit operation is
divided into four modes. Before starting the operation it should be noted that all the storage
components in the circuit do not hold any charge in it.

During this condition, the inductor current starts rising and it will store energy with polarity from
positive to negative in the direction of current flow. Also, there is no flow of source current to the
load in this mode.
Mode-2 (When MOSFET is OFF):
Once the MOSFET is turned OFF, due to a sudden drop in current through the inductor, the polarity
of the inductor will be reversed. Now the charged inductor L 1 in the previous mode will start
discharging in the reverse direction. Here in addition to the energy dissipating from the inductor, the
current will flow from the source to the inductor.

Thus the input voltage will be added to the inductor voltage, due to which the current starts flowing
through the capacitor and the capacitor gets charged by the inductor. This flow of current through the
capacitor makes the diode forward biased. The capacitor allows the flow of current through it
because it is not completely DC (since the current provided by the inductor is not constant).
The current flow path when the MOSFET is turned OFF is from the source to inductor L 1, capacitor
C1, diode, and back to the source as shown above. Similar to mode-1 no power is supplied to the load
in this mode.
Mode-3 (When MOSFET is ON):
Now when the MOSFET has turned ON again, the inductor L 1 will be charged again similarly as seen
in mode-1. As capacitor C1 is charged in mode-2, it starts discharging and dissipates energy to the
load. The discharging of the capacitor C1 will be through MOSFET, capacitor C2, load, inductor L2,
and back to the capacitor as shown below.

Simultaneously when the capacitor is discharging, inductor L 2 will be charged with energy provided
by the capacitor C1 as shown above. Due to flow reverse current, the diode will be in reverse bias and
hence it remains in the OFF state in this mode.
Mode-4 (When MOSFET is OFF):
Again when the MOSFET is turned OFF, mode-2 will be repeated in which capacitor C 1 will be
charged with inductor energy by forward biasing the diode. In addition to this, the charged inductor
L2 in mode-3 will start discharging in the reverse direction through the same diode and transfers its
energy to the load as shown below.
Therefore from the above four operation modes of the Cuk converter, we can conclude that. When
the MOSFET is in the ON state, inductor L1 gets charged and capacitor C1 will supply its energy to
load.
When the MOSFET is in the OFF state, capacitor C1 gets charged and inductor L2 supplies its energy
to load. The capacitor C1 acts as the medium for transferring energy from source to load. The below
shows the waveforms for voltages and currents.
Waveforms of Cuk Converter

Figure 2.9 Waveforms of Cuk Converter.

Various voltage and current waveforms when the circuit reaches its steady state are shown in Fig. 3.9
assuming the load current to be continuous.
Advantages of Cuk Converter
Some of the major advantages of the Cuk converter are as follows:
 1. The cuk converter operation is based on the transfer of capacitor energy. Hence the input
current is continuous.
2. This circuit has low switching losses.
3. It has a high efficiency.
Disadvantages of Cuk Converter
Some of the major disadvantages of the Cuk converter are as follows :
1. A high value peak current flows through the transistor.
2. Ripple current of the capacitor C1 is high.
3. This circuit requires an additional capacitor and an inductor.
Applications of Cuk Converter :
 The Cuk converter circuit is used to maintain fixed output voltage in dc applications services.
 This type of converter circuit is used as a voltage regulator in renewable energy-based power
generation systems to supply constant output voltage to the load.
 It can be used as the power factor correction circuit.
10.Explain the various types cuk converter with relevant diagram.
The Ćuk converter is a type of buck-boost converter with low ripple current. A Ćuk converter can
be seen as a combination of boost converter and buck converter, having one switching device and a
mutual capacitor, to couple the energy.
Similar to the buck-boost converter with inverting topology, the output voltage of non-isolated Ćuk
converter is typically inverted, with lower or higher values with respect to the input voltage. Usually
in DC converters, the inductor is used as a main energy-storage component. In a Ćuk converter, the
main energy-storage component is the capacitor. It is named after Slobodan Ćuk of the California
Institute of Technology, who first presented the design.
1. NON-ISOLATED ĆUK CONVERTER

There are variations on the basic Ćuk converter. For example, the coils may share a single magnetic
core, which drops the output ripple, and adds efficiency. Because the power transfer flows
continuously via the capacitor, this type of switcher has minimized EMI radiation. The Ćuk converter
allows energy to flow bidirectionally by using a diode and a switch.
Operating principle

A non-isolated Ćuk converter comprises two inductors, two capacitors, a switch (usually a transistor),
and a diode. Its schematic can be seen in figure 3.10. It is an inverting converter, so the output
voltage is negative with respect to the input voltage. The main advantage of this converter is the
continuous currents at the input and output of the converter. The main disadvantage is the high
current stress on the switch.

Fig.2.10. Cuk converter circuit diagram

The capacitor C1 is used to transfer energy. It is connected alternately to the input and to the output of
the converter via the commutation of the transistor and the diode (see figures 2.11 and 2.12).

The two inductors L1 and L2 are used to convert respectively the input voltage source (Vs) and the
output voltage source (Vo) into current sources. At a short time scale, an inductor can be considered
as a current source as it maintains a constant current. This conversion is necessary because if the
capacitor were connected directly to the voltage source, the current would be limited only by the
parasitic resistance, resulting in high energy loss. Charging a capacitor with a current source (the
inductor) prevents resistive current limiting and its associated energy loss.
As with other converters (buck converter, boost converter, buck–boost converter) the Ćuk converter
can either operate in continuous or discontinuous current mode. However, unlike these converters, it
can also operate in discontinuous voltage mode (the voltage across the capacitor drops to zero during
the commutation cycle).

Fig.2.11 The two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter.

Continuous mode
In steady state, the energy stored in the inductors has to remain the same at the beginning and at the
end of a commutation cycle. The energy in an inductor is given by:

This implies that the current through the inductors has to be the same at the beginning and the end of
the commutation cycle. As the evolution of the current through an inductor is related to the voltage
across it:

it can be seen that the average value of the inductor voltages over a commutation period have to be
zero to satisfy the steady-state requirements.
If we consider that the capacitors C1 and C2 are large enough for the voltage ripple across them to be
negligible, the inductor voltages become:
 in the off-state, inductor L1 is connected in series with Vs and C1 (see figure 2). Therefore
. As the diode D is forward biased (we consider zero voltage drop), L2 is directly
connected to the output capacitor. Therefore
 in the on-state, inductor L1 is directly connected to the input source. Therefore .

Inductor L2 is connected in series with C and the output capacitor, so

Fig. 2.12: The two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter. In this figure, the diode and the
switch are either replaced by a short circuit when they are on or by an open circuit when they are off.
It can be seen that when in the off-state, the capacitor C is being charged by the input source through
the inductor L1. When in the on-state, the capacitor C transfers the energy to the output capacitor
through the inductance L2.
The converter operates in on state from to (D is the duty cycle), and in off

state from D·T to T (that is, during a period equal to ). The average values
of VL1 and VL2 are therefore:

As both average voltages have to be zero to satisfy the steady-state conditions, using the last equation
we can write:

So the average voltage across L1 becomes:

This can be written as:

It can be seen that this relation is the same as that obtained for the buck–boost converter.
Discontinuous mode
Like all DC/DC converters, Ćuk converters rely on the ability of the inductors in the circuit to
provide continuous current, in much the same way a capacitor in a rectifier filter provides continuous
voltage. If this inductor is too small or below the "critical inductance", then the inductor current slope
will be discontinuous where the current goes to zero. This state of operation is usually not studied in
much depth as it is generally not used beyond a demonstrating of why the minimum inductance is
crucial, although it may occur when maintaining a standby voltage at a much lower current than the
converter was designed for.
The minimum inductance is given by:

Where f is the switching frequency.

2. ISOLATED ĆUK CONVERTER
For isolated version of Ćuk converter, an AC transformer and an additional capacitor must be added.
Because the isolated Ćuk converter is isolated, the output-voltage polarity can be chosen freely.
 Fig.2.13 Coupled inductor isolated Ćuk converter.

Fig.2.14 Integrated magnetics Ćuk converter.

As the non-isolated Ćuk converter, the isolated Ćuk converter can have an output voltage magnitude
that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude, even with a 1:1 AC transformer.
However, the turns ratio can be controlled to reduce device stress on the input side. Additionally, the
parasitic elements of the transformer, namely leakage inductance and magnetizing inductance can be
used to modify the circuit into a resonant converter circuit which has much improved efficiency.

Fig.2.15 Isolated Ćuk converter with gapless AC transformer.

11. Describe the operation of design of SMPS with neat sketch.

SMPS stands for switched mode power supply. It is known by a wide range of names like power
supply, supply unit, regulator, or switcher in an electronic power supply. It incorporates a switching
regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. It is mainly used for obtaining a controlled dc power
supply as output.
It is used to convert power (voltage) using switching devices that are turned on and off alternatively
at high frequencies. It uses storage components like inductors or capacitors to supply power when the
switching device is in its non-conduction state (off-state). SMPS possesses high efficiency and is
widely used in various electronic equipment such as computers, battery chargers, and other sensitive
equipment requiring a stable and efficient power supply.

Design & Working

The working & design of SMPS is divided into various sections and stages.

Fig.2.16 Working and Design of SMPS

1: Input Stage
The AC input supply of frequency (50-60) Hz feds directly to the rectifier and filter circuit. Its
output contains many variations and the capacitance value of the capacitor should be higher enough
to handle the input fluctuations. Finally, the unregulated dc is given to the central switching section
of SMPS in order to regulate it. This section does not contain any transformer for the step down
in input voltage supply.
2: Switching Section
It consists of fast switching devices like a Power transistor or a MOSFET, which switches ON and
OFF according to the variations in the voltage. The output obtained is given to the primary of
the transformer which is present in this section.
The transformer used here is a much smaller, lighter, and highly effective one that steps down
voltage. These are much efficient compared to other step-down methods. Hence, the power
conversion ratio is higher.
3: Output Stage
The output that is derived from the switching section is again rectified and filtered. It uses a
rectification and filter circuit to get the desired DC voltage. The obtained regulated output
voltage is then given to the control circuit.
4: Control Unit
This unit is all about feedback, which has many sections contain in it. Lets see the brief information
about this section.

Fig.2.17 Control circuit of SMPS

The inner control unit consists of an oscillator, amplifier, sensor, etc. The sensor senses the output
signal and feedback to the control unit. All the signals are isolated from each other so that, any
sudden spikes should not affect the circuitry. The reference voltage is given as one input along with
the signal to the error amplifier. The amplifier is a comparator that compares the signal with the
required signal level.
The next stage is controlling the chopping frequency. The final voltage level is controlled by
comparing the inputs given to the error amplifier, whose output helps to decide whether to increase or
to decrease the chopping frequency. The oscillator produces a standard PWM wave with a fixed
frequency.

Fig.2.18
The SMPS is mostly used where switching of voltages is not at all a problem, but where the
efficiency of the system really matters. The design and working of SMPS of based on the same
concept.
12. Explain the various types of SMPS with neat sketch.
 Fig.2.19 Types of SMPS
1: Non-isolated
Non-isolated converters are mostly used when the change in the voltage is comparatively small. The
non-isolated SMPS are the ones whose input and output circuitry are not isolated from each other.
The major disadvantage is that it cannot provide protection from high electrical voltages and it
poses more noise. They are of 3 types.
I: Buck
In a typical non-isolated step-down (buck) converter the output voltage VOUT depends on the input
voltage VIN and the switching duty cycle of the power switch.
II: Boost
It is used to boost voltage and it uses the same number of passive components but arranged to step up
the input voltage so that the output is higher than that of the input.
III: Buck-Boost
This converter allows the input voltage to be either stepped-up or stepped-down, depending on the
duty cycle. The output voltage is given by the relation
VOUT = -VIN *D/ (1-D)
2: Isolated
Isolated SMPS are the ones where there is isolation maintained between the input and output
circuitry. The supplies make use of a transformer to separate the switching from the output. The
secondary winding of the transformer acts as the energy storing element.
I: Fly-back Converter:
The working of this converter is similar to the buck-boost converter of the non-isolating category.
The only difference is that it uses a transformer to store energy instead of an inductor in the circuit.
II: Forward Converter
The working of this converter makes use of the transformer to send the energy, between the input and
output in a single step.
Application of Switched Mode power supply (SMPS)
• It is used in servers, power stations, and personal computers.
• It is used in vehicles for charging batteries.
• It is used in factories and industries for power.
• It is used in the railway system, security system.
• It is also used in mobile and also as lighting.

Advantages & Disadvantages of SMPS

Advantages
• Smaller in size and light-weighted.
• Better power efficiency of around 60 to 70 percent.
• Strong anti-interference.
• Wide range of output.
• Produces less heat.
Disadvantages
• The SMPS design & working is more complex.
• Has higher output ripple and its regulation is not satisfactory.
• Mostly limited to the step-down regulator.
• Has high-frequency electrical noise.
• Leads to harmonic distortion.
12. Decribe the introduction to design of magnetic components for SMPS using relevant
software.
Designing magnetic components for SMPS can be challenging due to the increasing demands of
modern electronics designs. The following parameters are essential for designing SMPS magnetic
components:
 Input voltage range
 Output voltage
 Output power or output current
 Switching frequency
 Operating mode
 Maximum duty cycle of the IC
 Safety requirements
 Ambient temperature
 Size requirements
Step 1: Core Choice
 Make your preliminary core choice based upon the power requirements of the application, the
switching topology, and the frequency. Ferrite cores are the best choice for high-frequency
applications. For operation below 500 KHz, most designers will use a core material with a
permeability of 2000 to 2500. Permeability varies significantly with temperature rise and
operating flux density. In general, this will not affect operation of the converter as long as the
core is not close to saturation as the inductance (which controls the mode of operation) is
primarily determined by the air gap. However, temperature rise, and operating flux density
will affect core losses, and this must be taken into account to ensure reliable operation.

Core Shape

The core shape and window configuration are important for high-frequency transformer design to
minimize losses. The winding window area should be as wide as possible to maximize winding
breadth and minimize the number of layers. This minimizes AC winding resistance.

 EFD and EPC cores are used when a low profile is required.
 EE and EF are good choices and generally used with either vertical or horizontal bobbins (vertical
bobbins are good when footprint space is at a premium).
 ETD and EER cores are usually larger, but have a wide winding area, which makes them
particularly good for higher power designs and multiple output designs.
 PQ cores are more expensive but take up slightly less PC board space and require less turns than
E cores.
 Larger core size will be needed for a margin wound type transformer than for a triple insulated
type to allow room for the margins.
Core Size
There are many variables involved in estimating the appropriate core size.
 One way to select the proper core is to refer to the manufacture’s core selection guide.
 The core area product (WaAc), obtained by multiplying the core cross-section area by window area
available for winding is widely used for an initial estimate of core size for a given application.
 Core Power handling capability does not scale linearly with area product or core volume. A larger
transformer must operate at a lower power density because the surface area dissipating heat does
not increase in proportion to the volume producing the heat.
 The table below gives an overview of core types as a function of power throughput:

Output power level (watts) Recommended core types

0–10 EFD15, EF16, EE19, EFD20, EFD25

10–20 EE19, EFD20, EF20, EI22, EFD25

20–30 EI25, EFD25, EFD30, ETD29, EER28(L)

30–50 EI28, EER28(L), ETD29, EFD30, EER35

50–70 EER28L, ETD34, EER35, ETD39

70–100 ETD34, EER35, ETD39, EER40

100–150 EI50, EE40, EER42

150–200 EI60, EE50, EE60, EER49

200–500 ETD44, ETD49, E55

> 500 ETD59, E65, E70, E80

The WaAc / power output relationship is obtained by:

Kf = Form factor; for square wave Kf = 4

Ku = Window utilization factor
J = Current density
Bmax = Operating flux density
F = Switching frequency
Po = Output power
Step 2: Volt-Time Product (V-µSec) Value
Determine the V-T value based upon the maximum allowable duty cycle and the frequency

Step 3: Primary Turns

Determine the minimum number of primary turns required to support the worst case V-T value.

Note : B < 0.3T for ferrite

Step 4: Turns Ratio
Calculate the secondary/primary turns ratio

Note: Diode drop Vd = 0.5-1V

Step 5: Secondary Turns
Choose the exact primary and secondary turn counts to be used based upon the Np and Ns/Np.
Step 6: Primary Inductance
Calculate the required primary inductance:

The table below shows typical efficiency figures:

Topology Efficiency Range (η)

Flyback > 70%

Forward > 85%

 Topology Efficiency Range (η)

Push-Pull > 90%

Half-Bridge > 90%

Full-Bridge > 90%

Step 7: Air Gap
The smallest size and lowest cost transformer is achieved by fully utilizing the core. In a specific
application, optimum core utilization is associated with a specific optimum core gap length.
The core gap will be determined by the number of primary turns and the inductance specification.
The designer will verify that the gap is sufficient to prevent core saturation.

Note: Push-pull, forward, half-bridge, and full bridge converter topologies typically do not require an
air gap, since it is actually true transformer action.
Step 8: Wire Size
Once all the winding turns are determined, the wire size should be properly chosen to minimize the
winding conduction loss and leakage inductance. The winding loss depends on the RMS current
value, the length and the width of wire, also the transformer structure.
 The wire size could be determined by the RMS current of the winding.
 Winding loss is a function of the amount of resistance in the wire.
 The resistance is composed of DC resistance and AC Resistance. At low frequencies, R DC >> RAC,
RAC can effectively be ignored.
 At high frequencies, it may be necessary to use stranded/Litz wire or foil to minimize AC
resistance.
 Due to the skin effect and proximity effect of the conductor, the diameter of the wire/strand
should be less than 2*Δd (Δd = skin effect depth)
 Assume current density is typically 3–6 A/mm2.
Step 9: Fill Factor
The fill factor means the winding area to the whole window area of the core (should be < 1). For
initial designs, it is recommended that a fill factor no greater than about 50% to be used. For
transformers of high power density and multiple outputs, this factor may need to be reduced further.
 After the wire sizes have been determined, it is necessary to check whether the window area with
the selected core can accommodate the windings calculated. The window area required by each
 winding should be calculated respectively and added together, the area for inter-winding
insulation, bobbin, and spaces existing between the turns should also be taken into consideration.
 Based on these considerations, the total required window area is then compared to the available
window area of a selected core. If the required window area is larger than the selected one, either
the wire size must be reduced, or a larger core must be chosen. Of course, reduction in wire size
increases the copper loss of the transformer.
Step 10: Core Loss
In a transformer, core loss is a function of the voltage applied across the primary winding. In an
inductor, it is a function of the varying current applied through the inductor. In either case, the
operating flux density level needs to be determined to estimate the core loss. With the frequency and
B level known, core loss can be estimated from the material core loss curves.
Step 11: Copper Loss
In a transformer, copper loss is a function of AC and DC resistances.
Step 12: Temperature Rise
Temperature rise is important for overall circuit reliability. Staying below a given temperature
ensures that wire insulation is valid, that nearby active components do not go beyond their rated
temperature, and overall temperature requirements are met. Thermal runaway can occur causing the
core to heat up to its Curie temperature resulting in a loss of all magnetic properties and catastrophic
failure. Total loss is measured in watts and surface area is in cm2.

Transformer Construction
Transformer construction has a large effect on the leakage inductance of the primary winding.
Leakage inductance leads to a voltage spike at turn off of the semiconductor switch, so minimizing
the leakage inductance will result in a lower voltage spike and lower or even no requirement for the
snubber circuit on the primary.
The following techniques are used to minimize leakage inductance:
 Transformer windings should always be concentric i.e. on top of each other to maximize the
coupling, for this reason, split and multi-section bobbins should not be used.
 Use of a split primary winding, where the first layer of the winding is the inner-most winding and
the second layer is wound on the outside.
 In a multiple output transformer, the secondary with the highest output power should be placed
closest to the primary for the best coupling and lowest leakage.
 Secondary windings with only a few turns should be spaced across the width of the bobbin
window instead of being bunched together in order to maximize coupling to the primary. Using
multiple parallel strands of wire is an additional technique of increasing the fill factor and
coupling of a winding with few turns
 To minimize leakage inductance and still meet isolation requirements, design the windings using
triple insulated wires and minimal tape layers.

Margin wound construction or triple insulated wire construction is used to meet international safety
standards.
Transformer shielding: Using a flux band (copper shield) around the entire transformer will provide
a circumferential radiation shield for the eddy currents in the transformer. This shield is simply a
grounded loop of copper foil around the entire assembly. Use of this technique requires careful
consideration of isolation requirements and creepage and clearance issues.
Vacuum Impregnation: High-performance applications such as military, aerospace, medical, and
high voltage often require an extra level of protection and isolation. Vacuum impregnation with
epoxies and/or varnishes can ensure this high level of performance and endurance.
13. Explain the simulation of bidirectional dc-dc converter (both non-isolated and isolated)
considering EV as an example application.
The large number of automobiles in use around the world has caused and continues to cause serious
problems of environment and human life. Air pollution, global warming, and the rapid depletion of
the earth’s petroleum resources are now serious problems. Electric Vehicles (EVs), Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (HEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) have been typically proposed to replace
conventional vehicles in the near future. Most electric and hybrid electric configurations use two
energy storage devices, one with high energy storage capability, called the “main energy system”
(MES), and the other with high power capability and reversibility, called the “rechargeable energy
storage system” (RESS). MES provides extended driving range, and RESS provides good
acceleration and regenerative braking. Energy storage or supply devices vary their output voltage
with load or state of charge and the high voltage of the DC-link create major challenges for vehicle
designers when integrating energy storage / supply devices with a traction drive. DC-DC converters
can be used to interface the elements in the electric power train by boosting or chopping the voltage
levels.

Due to the automotive constraints, the power converter structure has to be reliable, lightweight, small
volume, with high efficiency, low electromagnetic interference and low current/voltage ripple. Thus,
in this chapter, a comparative study on three DC/DC converters topologies (Conventional step-up dc-
dc converter, interleaved 4-channels step-up dc-dc converter with independent inductors and Full-
Bridge step-up dc-dc converter) is carried out. The modeling and the control of each topology are
presented. Simulations of 30KW DC/DC converter are carried out for each topology. This study
takes into account the weight, volume, current and voltage ripples, Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) and the efficiency of each converter topology.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES POWERTRAIN
An Electric Vehicle is a vehicle that uses a combination of different energy sources, Fuel Cells (FCs),
Batteries and Super capacitors (SCs) to power an electric drive system as shown in Fig. 1. In EV the
main energy source is assisted by one or more energy storage devices. Thereby the system cost, mass,
and volume can be decreased, and a significant better performance can be obtained. Two often used
energy storage devices are batteries and SCS. They can be connected to the fuel cell stack in many
ways. A simple configuration is to directly connect two devices in parallel, (FC/battery, FC/SC, or
battery/SC). However, in this way the power drawn from each device cannot be controlled, but is
passively determined by the impedance of the devices. The impedance depends on many parameters,
e.g. temperature, state-of-charge, health, and point of operation. Each device might therefore be
operated at an inappropriate condition, e.g. health and efficiency. The voltage characteristics also
have to match perfectly of the two devices, and only a fraction of the range of operation of the
devices can be utilized, e.g. in a fuel cell battery configuration the fuel cell must provide almost the
same power all the time due to the fixed voltage of the battery, and in a battery/super capacitor
configuration only a fraction of the energy exchange capability of the super capacitor can be used.
This is again due to the nearly constant voltage of the battery. By introducing DC/DC converters one
can chose the voltage variation of the devices and the power of each device can be controlled.
 Fig.2.20 Electric vehicle drive system.
The system volume, mass, efficiency, and battery lifetime were compared. It is concluded that when
SCs are the only energy storage device the system becomes too big and heavy. A fuel
cell/battery/super capacitors hybrid provides the longest life time of the batteries. It can be noticed
that the use of high power DC/DC converters is necessary for EV power supply system. The power
of the DC/DC converter depends on the characteristics of the vehicle such as top speed, acceleration
time from 0 to 100 Km/h, weight, maximum torque, and power profile (peak power, continuous
power). Generally, for passenger cars, the power of the converter is more than 20 KW and it can go
up to 100 KW.
DC/DC converters for electric vehicles
The different configurations of EV power supply show that at least one DC/DC converter is
necessary to interface the FC, the Battery or the Super capacitors module to the DC-link.
In electric engineering, a DC to DC converter is a category of power converters and it is an electric
circuit which converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another, by storing
the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output at a different voltage. The
storage may be in either magnetic field storage components (inductors, transformers) or electric field
storage components (capacitors).

DC/DC converters can be designed to transfer power in only one direction, from the input to the
output. However, almost all DC/DC converter topologies can be made bi-directional. A bi-directional
converter can move power in either direction, which is useful in applications requiring regenerative
braking.
The amount of power flow between the input and the output can be controlled by adjusting the duty
cycle (ratio of on/off time of the switch). Usually, this is done to control the output voltage, the input
current, the output current, or to maintain a constant power. Transformer-based converters may
provide isolation between the input and the output. The main drawbacks of switching converters
include complexity, electronic noise and high cost for some topologies. The most common DC/DC
converters can be grouped as follows:
1. Non-isolated converters
The non-isolated converters type is generally used where the voltage needs to be stepped up or down
by a relatively small ratio (less than 4:1). And when there is no problem with the output and input
having no dielectric isolation. There are five main types of converter in this non-isolated group,
usually called the buck, boost, buck-boost, Cuk and charge-pump converters. The buck converter is
used for voltage step-down, while the boost converter is used for voltage step-up. The buck-boost and
Cuk converters can be used for either step-down or step-up. The charge-pump converter is used for
either voltage step-up or voltage inversion, but only in relatively low power applications.
2. Isolated converters
Usually, in this type of converters a high frequency transformer is used. In the applications where the
output needs to be completely isolated from the input, an isolated converter is necessary. There are
many types of converters in this group such as Half-Bridge, Full-Bridge, Fly-back, Forward and
Push-Pull DC/DC converters. All of these converters can be used as bi-directional converters and the
ratio of stepping down or stepping up the voltage is high.
Electric vehicle converters requirements
In case of interfacing the Fuel Cell, the DC/DC converter is used to boost the Fuel Cell voltage and to
regulate the DC-link voltage. However, a reversible DC/DC converter is needed to interface the SCs
module. A wide variety of DC-DC converters topologies, including structures with direct energy
conversion, structures with intermediate storage components (with or without transformer coupling).
However some design considerations are essential for automotive applications:
 Light weight,
 High efficiency,
 Small volume,
 Low electromagnetic interference,
 Low current ripple drawn from the Fuel Cell or the battery,
 The step up function of the converter,
Control of the DC/DC converter power flow subject to the wide voltage variation on the converter
input. Each converter topology has its advantages and its drawbacks. For example, The DC/DC boost
converter does not meet the criteria of electrical isolation. Moreover, the large variance in magnitude
between the input and output imposes severe stresses on the switch and this topology suffers from
high current and voltage ripples and also big volume and weight.

A basic interleaved multichannel DC/DC converter topology permits to reduce the input and output
current and voltage ripples, to reduce the volume and weight of the inductors and to increase the
efficiency. These structures, however, can not work efficiently when a high voltage step-up ratio is
required since the duty cycle is limited by circuit impedance leading to a maximum step-up ratio of
approximately 4. Hence, two series connected step-up converters would be required to achieve the
specific voltage gain of the application specification.

A full-bridge DC/DC converter is the most frequently implemented circuit configuration for fuel-cell
power conditioning when electrical isolation is required. The full bridge DC/DC converter is suitable
for high-power transmission because switch voltage and current are not high. It has small input and
output current and voltage ripples. The full-bridge topology is a favorite for zero voltage switching
(ZVS) pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques.

Electromagnetic compatibility regulation

Fast semiconductor devices make it possible to have high speed and high frequency switching in
power electronics converters. High speed switching helps to reduce weight and volume of equipment;
however, it causes some undesirable effects such as radio frequency interference (RFI) emission. It is
believed that high dv/dt or di/dt due to modern power device switching is mainly responsible for the
EMI emissions. Application of electrical equipment especially static power electronic converters in
different equipment is increasing more and more. Power electronics converters are considered as an
important source of electromagnetic interference and have undesirable effects on the electric
networks. Some residential, commercial and especially medical consumers are very sensitive to
power system disturbances including voltage and frequency variations. Also, for Electric vehicle,
there is limitation of the EMI.

The best solution to reduce the interference and improve the power quality is complying national or
international EMC regulations. CISPR, IEC, FCC and VDE are among the best known organizations
from Europe, USA and Germany who are responsible for determining and publishing the most
important EMC regulations. Compliance of regulations is evaluated by comparison of measured or
calculated conducted interference level in the mentioned frequency range with the stated
requirements in regulations. In European community compliance of regulation is mandatory and
products must have certified label to show covering of requirements. For Electric Vehicle, the
maximum interference level should meet the DIN VDE 0879 standard. The limits in this standard are
almost the same as the class B of VDE 0871 requirement and limitation on conducted emission.
Electromagnetic conducted interference measurement
A Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN) is typically designed to allow for measurements of
the electromagnetic interference existing on the power line, it is a device used to create known
impedance on power lines of electrical equipment during electromagnetic interference testing. The
stated situation is shown in Fig. .

Figure 2.21.
LISN placement to measure conducted interference.
Variation of level of signal at the output of LISN versus frequency is the spectrum of interference.
The electromagnetic compatibility of a device can be evaluated by comparison of its interference
spectrum with the standard limitations. The level of signal at the output of LISN in frequency range
10 kHz up to 30 MHz or 150 kHz up to 30 MHz is criteria of compatibility and should be under the
standard limitations. Converting the results to dBuV (Equation 1) makes it possible to compare the
spectrum of interference with standard requirements. In practical situations, the LISN output is
connected to a spectrum analyzer and interference measurement is carried out. But for modeling and
simulation purposes, the LISN output spectrum must be calculated using appropriate software.
Losses in a power converter
The considered losses in a power converter are the losses produced by the semiconductors switches
(IGBTs and DIODES) and the passive components (capacitors and inductors). The aim of this
explanation is only to give an idea about the losses estimation. This estimation is used in this study to
calculate the efficiency. The efficiency of a power converter is given by:
η = P Input _ power − ∑ Losses P Input _ power E2
IGBT conduction and switching losses
The IGBT conduction losses are given by:
P IGBT _ cond = V CE0 I IGBT + r CE I IGBT _ rms 2 E3
The IGBT characteristics (VCE0 and rCE) are given in the datasheet of the IGBT. <IIGBT> and
IIGBT_rms are the average current and the rms current of the IGBT, respectively.
The IGBT switching losses are given by:
P IGBT _ switch= ( E on + E off ) f s E4
Where, fs is the switching frequency. Eon and Eoff are the switching losses during the switching on
and switching off, respectively.
Energy values are generally given for specific test conditions (Voltage test condition VCC). Thus, to
adapt these values to others test conditions, as an estimation the IGBT switching losses are given by :
P IGBT_ switch= V IGBTVCC ( Eon ( I IGBT_ on ) + E off ( I IGBT_ off ) ) fsE5

Diode conduction and switching losses

The Diode conduction losses are given by:
P D _ cond = V F0 ID + r FID _ rms 2 E6
The Diode characteristics (VF0 and rF) are given in the Diode datasheet. <ID> and ID_rms are the
average current and the rms current of the Diode, respectively.
The Diode switching losses are given by:
P D _ switch= E rrf s E7
Where, fs is the switching frequency. Err is the recovery energy.
The recovery energy is given as a function of the voltage, the current, the turn-on and turn off
resistances and for a specific test conditions. To adapt the previous expression to another test
conditions, as estimation the diode switching losses are given by:
P D _ switch = V D VCC Err ( ID ) f s E8

Capacitor losses
The capacitor losses are calculated thanks to the equivalent resistance of the capacitor, which is
usually given in the datasheets. The capacitor losses are given by:
P Capacitor = r CIC _ rms 2 E9
Where, rC is the equivalent resistance of the capacitor and IC_rms is the rms current value of the
capacitor.
Inductors losses
In an inductor, there are iron and copper losses. Core losses (or iron losses) are energy losses that
occur in electrical transformers and inductors using magnetic cores. The losses are due to a variety of
mechanisms related to the fluctuating magnetic field, such as eddy currents and hysteretic
phenomena. Most of the energy is released as heat, although some may appear as noise. These losses
are estimated based on charts supplied by magnetic core manufacturer. To estimate the total iron
losses, the weight of core should be multiplied by the obtained value for a specific flux density and
switching frequency. The inductor iron losses are given by:
P L _ Core = W core P core E10
Where, Wcore is the weight of the core and Pcore is the iron losses per Kg.
The copper losses or the conduction losses in the inductor are given by:
P L _ copper = r LIL _ rms 2 E11
Where, rL is the resistance of the inductor and IL_rms is the rms current value of the inductor.

Design, modeling, control and simulation results of DC/DC converters

The modeling of studied converters is done by using the Simpower tools of Matlab/Simulink, and it
takes into account the IGBT and Diodes parameters (real components) and the inductors and
capacitors losses. To achieve accurate voltage regulation, two control loops are used as shown in Fig.
3.22. This control mode (current mode control) requires knowledge of the inductor current, which is
controlled via the inner loop. The outer loop manages the output voltage error by commanding the
necessary current. The control was done using RST controllers.

Figure 2.22. Block diagram of control mode.

RST controller
The canonical structure of the RST controller is presented in Fig. 3.23. This structure has two degrees
of freedom, i.e., the digital filters R and S are designed in order to achieve the desired regulation
performance, and the digital filter T is designed afterwards in order to achieve the desired tracking
and regulation. This structure allows achievement of different levels of performance in tracking and
regulation. The case of a controller operating on the regulation error (which does not allow the
independent specification of tracking and regulation performance) corresponds to T=R. Digital PID
controller can also be represented in this form, leading to particular choices of R, S and T.
 Figure 2.24. The RST canonical structure of a digital controller

The equation of the RST canonical controller is give by:

S ( z − 1 ) U ( z − 1 ) + R ( z − 1 ) Y ( z − 1 ) = T ( z − 1 ) C ( z − 1 ) E12
Where:
U(z-1) : the input of the plant H(s),
Y(z-1) : the output of the plant H(s),
C(z-1) : the desired tracking trajectory.
The polynomials R(z-1), S(z-1) and T(z-1) have the following form:
{ R ( z − 1 ) = r 0 + r 1 z − 1 + ... + r n R z − n R S ( z − 1 ) = s 0 + s 1 z − 1 + ... + s n S z − n S T ( z
− 1 ) = t 0 + t 1 z − 1 + ... + t n T z − n T E13
The plant and closed-loop models are expressed by expression 14 and expression 15 respectively:
H ( s ) = Y ( s ) U ( s ) = B ( s ) A ( s ) E14
H C L ( s ) = Y ( s ) C ( s ) = B C L ( s ) A C L ( s ) E15
A formal discretization leads to both discrete-time transfer functions as follows, with m<=n and d is a
pure time delay.
H ( z − 1 ) = z − d B ( z − 1 ) A ( z − 1 ) = z − d b 1 z − 1 + b 2 z − 2 + ... + b m z − m a 1 z − 1 + a 2
z − 2 + ... + a n z − n E16
H C L ( z − 1 ) = Y ( z − 1 ) C ( z − 1 ) = B C L ( z − 1 ) A C L ( z − 1 ) E17
The closed-loop transfer operator (between C(z-1) and Y(z-1)) is given by:
HCL(z−1)=B(z−1)T(z−1)A(z−1)S(z−1)+B(z−1)R(z−1)=BCL(z−1)
A C L ( z − 1 ) E18
R, S and T polynomials are determined in order to obtain an imposed closed-loop system. Resolving
the Diophantine equation (or Bezout’s identity) AS+BR=ACL leads to the identification of S and R
polynomials. The polynomial T is determined from the equation BT=BCL.
Calculation of RST parameters used in this study
The current and voltage control loops controllers of the three DC/DC topologies compared in this
study use the same type of transfer function in open loop which is given by:
H ( s ) = Y ( s ) U ( s ) = 1 k s E19
A formal discretization leads to the discrete-time transfer function as follows:
H(z−1)=(1−z−1)TFZ(1sH(s))=(1−z−1)Tskz(z−1)2=Tskz−11−z−1=
B ( z − 1 ) A ( z − 1 ) E20

The sampling period Ts used in the control is equal to the switching frequency of PWM signals.
Choosing the polynomials R(z-1) and S(z-1):
The system in closed-loop should be a two order system (deg(ACL(z-1))=2).
Error Specification: no error in steady state step response and rejection of disturbance.
The polynomials R(z-1) and S(z-1) are given by:
deg ( S ( z − 1 ) ) = deg ( R ( z − 1 ) ) = deg ( A C L ( z − 1 ) ) − 1 ⇒ { S ( z − 1 ) = 1 − z − 1 R ( z − 1
) = r 0 + r 1 z − 1 E21
In addition, in order to guarantee a unity static gain in closed-loop:
{ lim z → 1 H C L ( z − 1 ) = B ( 1 ) ⋅ T A ( 1 ) S ( 1 ) + B ( 1 ) R ( 1 ) = 1 S ( 1 ) = 0 ⇒ T = R ( 1 ) =
r 0 + r 1 E22
Calculation of S(z-1) and R(z-1) coefficients:
The desired closed loop polynomial is given by:
A C L ( z − 1 ) = A ( z − 1 ) S ( z − 1 ) + B ( z − 1 ) R ( z − 1 ) = 1 + p 1 z − 1 + p 2 z − 2 E23
Replacing A(z-1), S(z-1), B(z-1) and R(z-1) by their expressions in Equation 23. The obtained
polynomial of the desired closed-loop is represented by:
A C L ( z − 1 ) = 1 + p 1 z − 1 + p 2 z − 2 = 1 + ( T s k r 0 − 2 ) z − 1 + ( T s k r 1 − 2 ) z − 2 E24
By identification the coefficients r0 and r1 are given by:
{ r 0 = k T s ( p 1 + 2 ) r 1 = k T s ( p 2 − 1 ) E25
The coefficients p1 and p2 are determined according to the desired current and voltage closed-loop
dynamics.
Finally, the desired closed loop polynomial can be represented by:
A C L ( z − 1 ) = ( 1 − z − 1 e − ω n T s ) 2 E26
Where, ωn is the bandwidth of the control loop.
Boost DC/DC converter
A boost DC/DC converter (step-up converter shown in Fig. 2.25.) is a power converter with an output
DC voltage greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply containing
at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a switch) and at least one energy storage element
(capacitor and/or inductor). Filters made of capacitors are normally added to the output of the
converter to reduce output voltage ripple and the inductor connected in series with the input DC
source in order to reduce the current ripple.

Figure 2.25 Standard step-up DC-DC converter

The smoothing inductor L is used to limit the current ripple. The filter capacitor C can restrict the
output voltage ripples. The ripple current in the inductor is calculated by neglecting the output
voltage ripple. The inductance value is given by the following equation:
L = V out 4 × F × Δ I L max = 400 μ H E27
The capacitor must be able to keep the current supply at peak power. The output voltage ripple is a
result of alternative current in the capacitor.
C = ILmax 4 × F × Δ V out _ max = 781 μ F E28
Where:
Vout : the output voltage,
∆ILmax : the inductor current ripple,
F : the switching frequency.
ILmax : the maximum input current,
∆Vout_max : the maximum output voltage ripple.

Table 1 shows the specifications of the converter. The inductor current ripple value is desired to be
less than 5% of the maximum input current in the case of interfacing a Fuel Cell. A ripple factor less
than 4% for the Fuel Cell’s output current will have negligible impact on the conditions within the
Fuel Cell diffusion layer and thus will not severely impact the Fuel Cell lifetime.

∆Vout_max Output voltage ripple (1% of Vout = 4 V)

Vout Output voltage (400 V)
F Switching frequency (20 KHz)
ILmax Inductor current (250 A)
∆ILmax Inductor current ripple (5% of ILmax = 12.5 A)
Table 2.2 Standard boost DC-DC converter parameters
Modeling and control
The output voltage is adjustable via the duty cycle α of the PWM signal switching the IGBT as given
in the following expression:
V o u t V i n = 1 1 − α E29
The input voltage Vin is considered as constant (200V). The inductor and capacitor resistances are
not taken into account in the analysis of the converter. The converter can be modeled by the
following system of equations:
{ v i n = L d i L d t + ( 1 − u ) v o u t i L ( 1 − u ) = C d v o u t d t + i o u t E30
This model can be used directly to simulate the converter. By replacing the variable u by its average
value which is the duty cycle during a sampling period makes it possible to obtain the average model
of the converter as illustrated in the following system of differential equations:
{ v i n = L d i L d t + ( 1 − α ) v o u t i l ( 1 − α ) = C d v o u t d t + i o u t E31
Current control loop
The current control loop guarantees limited variations of the current trough the inductor during
important load variations. The inductor current and voltage models are given by Equation
32 and Equation 33, respectively.
I L ( s ) = 1 L s ( V i n ( s ) − ( 1 − α ( s ) ) V o u t ( s ) ) E32
V L ( s ) = V i n ( s ) − ( 1 − α ( s ) ) V o u t ( s ) E33
To make it simple to define a controller, the behavior of the system should be linearized. The
linearization is done by using an inverse model. Thus an expression between the output of corrector
and the voltage of the inductor should be found. Thus, the following expression is proposed:
α ( s ) = 1 + V L ′ ( s ) − V i n ( s ) V o u t ( s ) E34
Where, VL’ is a new control variable represents the voltage reference of the inductor.
Thus, a linear transfer between VL’(s) and IL(s) is obtained by:
T 1 ( s ) = I L ( s ) V L ′ ( s ) = 1 L s E35
The structure of the regulator is a RST form. The polynomials R, S and T are calculated using the
methodology explained above. The bandwidth of the current loop ωi should be ten times lower than
the switching frequency.
f i ≤ f 10 , ω i ≤ 2 π f 10 E36
The inductor current loop is shown in Fig. 2.26.

Figure 2.26. Boost converter inductor current loop

From the reference value of the current and its measured value, The RST current controller block will
calculate the duty cycle as explained above.
Voltage control loop
The output voltage loop was designed following a similar strategy to the current loop. To define the
voltage controller, it is assumed that the current control loop is perfect. The capacitor current and
voltage models are given by Equation 37 and Equation 38, respectively.
I C ( s ) = ( 1 − α ( s ) ) I L ( s ) − I o u t ( s ) E37
V C ( s ) = 1 C s ( ( 1 − α ( s ) ) I L ( s ) − I o u t ( s ) ) E38
The linearization of the system is done by the following expression:
IL(s)=(IC′(s)+Iout(s))(1−α(s))⇒ILref(s)=Vout(s)Vin(s)(IC′(s)+
I o u t ( s ) ) E39
Where IC’ is a new control variable represents the current reference of the capacitor.
Thus, a linear transfer between Vout(s) and IC’(s) is obtained by:
T 2 ( s ) = V o u t ( s ) I C ′ ( s ) = 1 C s E40
The bandwidth of the voltage loop ωv should be ten times lower than the current loop bandwidth
ωi which means hundred times lower than the switching frequency.
f v ≤ f 100 , ω v ≤ 2 π f 100 E41
The output voltage control loop is shown in Fig. 2.27.

Figure 2.27 Boost converter output voltage control loop.

The RST voltage controller operates in the same as the current controller and it has to calculate the
current reference which will be the input of the current controller.

Simulation results
The current and voltage ripples are about 10 Amps and 2 Volts, respectively. The results show that
the converter follows the demand on power thanks to the good control.
The efficiency of the boost dc/dc converter is about 83% at full load as shown in Fig. 2.28.
Fig. 2.29 shows the spectrum of the output signal of the LISN as described in the section
“Electromagnetic compatibility regulation”. It is seen that the level of conducted interference due to
converter is not tolerable by the regulations. As a consequence EMI filter suppression is necessary to
meet the terms the regulations.

Figure 2.28. Boost converter efficiency versus current load

 Figure 2.29. EMI simulation results of boost DC/DC converter.
Interleaved 4-channel DC/DC converter
Fig. 2.30 shows a basic interleaved step-up converter of 4 identical levels where the inductances L1
to L4 are built by a separate magnetic core. The gate signals to the power switching devices are
successively phase shifted by T/N where T is the switching period and N the number of channels.
Thus, the current delivered by the electric source is shared equally between each basic step-up
converter level and has a ripple content of period T/N (Destraz et al., 2006).

Figure 2.30. Interleaved 4-channels step-up DC-DC converter.

The design of the 4-channels converter is the same like the boost one. The output voltage is
adjustable via the duty cycle α of the PWM signal switching the IGBTs as given in the following
expression:
V out Vin = 1 1 − α E42
Where:
α : the duty cycle,
in
out
The inductor value of each channel is given by the following expression:
L k = V out 4 × F × N × Δ I I n _ max = 100 μ H E43
Where:
N : the number of channels,
In_max
F : the switching frequency.
In_max
out_max
As control signals are interleaved and the phase angle is 360°/N, the frequency of the total current is
N times higher than the switching frequency F. The filter capacitor of the interleaved N-channel dc-
dc converter is given by the following expression:
C f min = I I n _ max 4 × F × N × Δ V o u t _ max = 195 μ F E44
Table 2 shows the specifications of the converter.
∆Vout_max Output voltage ripple (1% of Vout = 4 V)
Vout Output voltage (400 V)
F Switching frequency (20 KHz)
IIn_max Inductor current (250 A)
∆IIn_max Input current ripple (5% of IIn_max = 12.5 A)
Table 2.3 Interleaved 4-channels DC-DC converter parameters

Modeling and control

The 4-channel converter is modeled in the same way of the boost converter. The current and voltage
loop are designed also using the same methodology used for boost converter. The calculated current
reference is divided by 4 (number of channels). The output voltage control loop is shown is Fig. 2.31.
 Figure 2.31. channels converter output voltage control loop.
In the proposed control, the duty cycle is calculated from one reference channel. The same duty cycle
is applied to the other channels. The PWM signals are shifted by 360/4°.
Simulation results
Thanks to the interleaving technique, the total current ripples are reduced and can be neglected; the
voltage ripples are about 0.5V. The results show that the converter follows the demand on power.
The efficiency of the 4-channels dc/dc converter is about 92% at full load as shown in Fig. 2.32. The
drop in efficiency is due to the changing from discontinuous mode (DCM) to continuous mode (CM).
In DCM, the technique of zero voltage switching (ZVS) is operating which permits to reduce the
switching losses in the switch, thus the efficiency is increased. Fig. 2.33 shows the EMI of the
interleaved 4-channels DC/DC converter. It is seen that the level of conducted interference due to
converter is not tolerable by the regulations. As a consequence this converter without EMI filter
suppression does not meet the terms of the regulations. Thus, EMI filter suppression is required.

Figure 2.32 channels converter efficiency versus current load.

 Figure 2.33 EMI simulation results of interleaved 4-channels DC/DC converter.
Full-bridge DC/DC converter
The structure of this topology is given in Fig.2.34. The transformer turns ratio n must be calculated in
function of the minimum input voltage .
n = N s N p = 1 2 α × V o u t V i n _ min E45

Figure 2.34 Full-bridge step-up DC-DC converter

The output filter inductor and capacitor values could be calculated based on maximum ripple current
and ripple voltage magnitudes. The calculations are done considering the converter is working in
CCM.
L = n × α × V i n 2 × Δ I L max × F = 1 .2mH E46
The filter capacitor value is given by the following relation based on the inductor current ripple value
and the output voltage ripple.
C = Δ I L max 8 × Δ V o u t _ max × F = 14 .64 μ F E47
Where:
α : the duty cycle,
Ns : the number of turns in the secondary winding of the transformer,
NP : the number of turns in the primary winding of the transformer,
in
∆ILmax : the inductor current ripple,
F : the switching frequency,
∆Vout_max is the maximum output voltage ripple.
Table 2.4 shows the simulations parameters of the converter.
∆Vout_max Output voltage ripple (1% of Vout = 4 V)
Vout Output voltage (400 V)
F Switching frequency (40 KHz)
∆ILmax Inductor current ripple (5% of ILmax = 3.75 A)
n Transformer turns ratio (= 4)
Table 2.4 Full-Bridge DC-DC converter parameters.
Modeling and control
The Full-Bridge DC/DC converter will have to maintain a constant 400V DC output. By increasing
and decreasing the duty cycle α=t/T of the PWM signals, the output voltage can be held constant with
a varying input voltage. The output voltage can be calculated as follows:
V o u t = 2 T ∫ 0 t V i n n d t ⇒ V o u t = 2 × n × α × V E48
Where, T is the switching period (T=1/F), n is the transformer turns ration (n=Ns/Np), and t is the
pulse width time.

The inductor current and voltage models are obtained by expressions 49 and 50, respectively.
I L ( s ) = 1 L s ( 4 n 2 π α ( s ) × V i n ( s ) − V o u t ( s ) ) E49
V L ( s ) = 4 n 2 π α ( s ) × V i n ( s ) − V o u t ( s ) E50

The linearization of the system is done by using an inverse model. Thus an expression between the
output of corrector and the voltage of the inductor should be found. Thus, the following expression is
proposed:
α ( s ) = V L ' ( s ) + V o u t ( s ) 4 n 2 π α ( s ) × V i n ( s ) E51
Where, VL’ is a new control variable represents the voltage reference of the inductor.
Thus, a linear transfer between VL’(s) and IL(s) is obtained by:
T 1 ( s ) = I L ( s ) V L ' ( s ) = 1 L s E52

The bandwidth of the current loop ωi should be ten times lower than the switching frequency.
f i ≤ f 10 , ω i ≤ 2 π f 10 E53
The inductor current loop is shown in Fig. 2.35.

Figure 2.35. Full-bridge converter inductor current control loop.

The output voltage loop was designed following a similar strategy to the current loop. To define the
voltage controller, it is assumed that the current control loop is perfect. The capacitor current and
voltage models are obtained by expressions 54 and 55:
I C ( s ) = I L ( s ) − I o u t ( s ) E54
V C ( s ) = 1 C s ( I L ( s ) − I o u t ( s ) ) E55

The linearization of the system is done by the following expression:

I L ( s ) = I C ' ( s ) + I o u t ( s ) ⇒ I L r e f ( s ) = I C ' ( s ) + I o u t ( s ) E56
Where I’c is a new control variable represents the current reference of the capacitor.

Thus, a linear transfer between Vout(s) and I’c(s) is obtained by:

T 2 ( s ) = V o u t ( s ) I C ' ( s ) = 1 C s E57

The bandwidth of the voltage loop ωv should be ten times lower than the current loop bandwidth
ωi which means hundred times lower than the switching frequency.
f v ≤ f 100 , ω v ≤ 2 π f 100 E58
The output voltage control loop is shown in Fig. 2.36.
 Figure.2.36 Full-bridge converter output voltage control loop.
Simulation results
The efficiency of the Full-bridge dc/dc converter is about 91.5% at full load as shown in Fig. 2.37.
The efficiency of this converter can be increased by using phase shifted PWM control and zero
voltage switching ZVS technique.

Figure 2.37. Full-bridge converter efficiency versus current load.

Fig. 2.38 shows the spectrum of the EMI of the Full-Bridge converter. The level of conducted
interference is not tolerable by the regulations. As a consequence EMI filter suppression is necessary
to meet the terms the regulations.

Figure 2.38 EMI simulation results of Full-Bridge DC/DC converter.