Stern–Gerlach experiment

In quantum physics, the Stern–Gerlach experiment

demonstrated that the spatial orientation of angular
momentum is quantized. Thus an atomic-scale system
was shown to have intrinsically quantum properties.
In the original experiment, silver atoms were sent
through a spatially-varying magnetic field, which
deflected them before they struck a detector screen,
such as a glass slide. Particles with non-zero magnetic
moment were deflected, owing to the magnetic field
gradient, from a straight path. The screen revealed
discrete points of accumulation, rather than a
Stern–Gerlach experiment: Silver atoms
continuous distribution,[1] owing to their quantized
travelling through an inhomogeneous magnetic
spin. Historically, this experiment was decisive in field, and being deflected up or down depending
convincing physicists of the reality of angular- on their spin; (1) furnace, (2) beam of silver
momentum quantization in all atomic-scale atoms, (3) inhomogeneous magnetic field, (4)
systems.[2][3][4] classically expected result, (5) observed result

After its conception by Otto Stern in 1921, the

experiment was first successfully conducted with Walther Gerlach in early 1922.[1][5][6]

Description
The Stern–Gerlach experiment involves sending
silver atoms through an inhomogeneous magnetic
field and observing their deflection. Silver atoms
were evaporated using an electric furnace in a
vacuum. Using thin slits, the atoms were guided
into a flat beam and the beam sent through an
inhomogeneous magnetic field before colliding
0:00
with a metallic plate. The laws of classical
physics predict that the collection of condensed
silver atoms on the plate should form a thin solid Video explaining quantum spin versus classical
line in the same shape as the original beam. magnet in the Stern–Gerlach experiment
However, the inhomogeneous magnetic field
caused the beam to split in two separate
directions, creating two lines on the metallic plate.

The results show that particles possess an intrinsic angular momentum that is closely analogous to the
angular momentum of a classically spinning object, but that takes only certain quantized values. Another
important result is that only one component of a particle's spin can be measured at one time, meaning that
the measurement of the spin along the z-axis destroys information about a particle's spin along the x and
y axis.

The experiment is normally conducted using electrically neutral particles such as silver atoms. This
avoids the large deflection in the path of a charged particle moving through a magnetic field and allows
spin-dependent effects to dominate.[7][8]

If the particle is treated as a classical spinning magnetic dipole, it will precess in a magnetic field because
of the torque that the magnetic field exerts on the dipole (see torque-induced precession). If it moves
through a homogeneous magnetic field, the forces exerted on opposite ends of the dipole cancel each
other out and the trajectory of the particle is unaffected. However, if the magnetic field is inhomogeneous
then the force on one end of the dipole will be slightly greater than the opposing force on the other end,
so that there is a net force which deflects the particle's trajectory. If the particles were classical spinning
objects, one would expect the distribution of their spin angular momentum vectors to be random and
continuous. Each particle would be deflected by an amount proportional to the dot product of its magnetic
moment with the external field gradient, producing some density distribution on the detector screen.
Instead, the particles passing through the Stern–Gerlach apparatus are deflected either up or down by a
specific amount. This was a measurement of the quantum observable now known as spin angular
momentum, which demonstrated possible outcomes of a measurement where the observable has a
discrete set of values or point spectrum.[9]

Although some discrete quantum phenomena, such as atomic spectra, were observed much earlier, the
Stern–Gerlach experiment allowed scientists to directly observe separation between discrete quantum
states for the first time.

Theoretically, quantum angular momentum of any kind has a discrete spectrum, which is sometimes
briefly expressed as "angular momentum is quantized".

Experiment using particles with +1/2 or −1/2 spin

If the experiment is conducted using charged particles like electrons, there will be a Lorentz force that
tends to bend the trajectory in a circle. This force can be cancelled by an electric field of appropriate
magnitude oriented transverse to the charged particle's path.

Electrons are spin-1/2 particles. These have only two possible spin angular
momentum values measured along any axis, or , a purely quantum
mechanical phenomenon. Because its value is always the same, it is regarded as
an intrinsic property of electrons, and is sometimes known as "intrinsic angular
momentum" (to distinguish it from orbital angular momentum, which can vary
and depends on the presence of other particles). If one measures the spin along a
vertical axis, electrons are described as "spin up" or "spin down", based on the
magnetic moment pointing up or down, respectively.
Spin values for
fermions To mathematically describe the experiment with spin particles, it is easiest
to use Dirac's bra–ket notation. As the particles pass through the Stern–Gerlach
device, they are deflected either up or down, and observed by the detector which resolves to either spin
up or spin down. These are described by the angular momentum quantum number , which can take on
one of the two possible allowed values, either or . The act of observing (measuring) the
momentum along the axis corresponds to the -axis angular momentum operator, often denoted . In
mathematical terms, the initial state of the particles is

where constants and are complex numbers. This initial state spin can point in any direction. The
squares of the absolute values and are respectively the probabilities for a system in the state

to be found in and after the measurement along axis is made. The constants

and must also be normalized in order that the probability of finding either one of the values be unity,
that is we must ensure that . However, this information is not sufficient to determine the
values of and , because they are complex numbers. Therefore, the measurement yields only the
squared magnitudes of the constants, which are interpreted as probabilities.

Sequential experiments
If we link multiple Stern–Gerlach apparatuses (the rectangles containing S-G), we can clearly see that
they do not act as simple selectors, i.e. filtering out particles with one of the states (pre-existing to the
measurement) and blocking the others. Instead they alter the state by observing it (as in light
polarization). In the figure below, x and z name the directions of the (inhomogenous) magnetic field, with
the x-z-plane being orthogonal to the particle beam. In the three S-G systems shown below, the cross-
hatched squares denote the blocking of a given output, i.e. each of the S-G systems with a blocker allows
only particles with one of two states to enter the next S-G apparatus in the sequence.[10]

Experiment 1
The top illustration shows that when a second, identical, S-G
apparatus is placed at the exit of the first apparatus, only z+ is
seen in the output of the second apparatus. This result is expected
since all particles at this point are expected to have z+ spin, as
only the z+ beam from the first apparatus entered the second
apparatus.[11]
Exp. 1 - Notice that no z- neutrons
are detected at the second S-G
Experiment 2 analyzer
The middle system shows what happens when a different S-G
apparatus is placed at the exit of the z+ beam resulting of the first
apparatus, the second apparatus measuring the deflection of the
beams on the x axis instead of the z axis. The second apparatus
produces x+ and x- outputs. Now classically we would expect to
have one beam with the x characteristic oriented + and the z
characteristic oriented +, and another with the x characteristic
oriented - and the z characteristic oriented +.[11] Exp. 2 - The z-spin is known, now
measuring the x-spin.

Experiment 3
The bottom system contradicts that expectation. The output of the
third apparatus which measures the deflection on the z axis again
shows an output of z- as well as z+. Given that the input to the
second S-G apparatus consisted only of z+, it can be inferred that
a S-G apparatus must be altering the states of the particles that
pass through it. This experiment can be interpreted to exhibit the
Exp. 3 - Neutrons thought to have
uncertainty principle: since the angular momentum cannot be only z+ spin are measured again,
measured on two perpendicular directions at the same time, the finding that the z-spin has been
measurement of the angular momentum on the x direction 'reset'.
destroys the previous determination of the angular momentum in
the z direction. That's why the third apparatus measures renewed
z+ and z- beams like the x measurement really made a clean slate of the z+ output.[11]

History
The Stern–Gerlach experiment was conceived by Otto Stern in 1921 and performed by him and Walther
Gerlach in Frankfurt in 1922.[10] At the time of the experiment, the most prevalent model for describing
the atom was the Bohr-Sommerfeld model,[12][13] which described electrons as going around the
positively charged nucleus only in certain discrete atomic orbitals or energy levels. Since the electron was
quantized to be only in certain positions in space, the separation into distinct orbits was referred to as
space quantization. The Stern–Gerlach experiment was meant to test the Bohr–Sommerfeld hypothesis
that the direction of the angular momentum of a silver atom is quantized.[14]

The experiment was first performed with an electromagnet that allowed the non-uniform magnetic field
to be turned on gradually from a null value.[1] When the field was null, the silver atoms were deposited as
a single band on the detecting glass slide. When the field was made stronger, the middle of the band
began to widen and eventually to split into two, so that the glass-
slide image looked like a lip-print, with an opening in the middle,
and closure at either end.[15] In the middle, where the magnetic
field was strong enough to split the beam into two, statistically
half of the silver atoms had been deflected by the non-uniformity
of the field.

Note that the experiment was performed several years before

George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit formulated their
hypothesis about the existence of electron spin in 1925.[16] Even A plaque at the Frankfurt institute
though the result of the Stern−Gerlach experiment has later turned commemorating the experiment

out to be in agreement with the predictions of quantum mechanics

for a spin-1/2 particle, the experimental result was also consistent with the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory.[17]

In 1927, T.E. Phipps and J.B. Taylor reproduced the effect using hydrogen atoms in their ground state,
thereby eliminating any doubts that may have been caused by the use of silver atoms.[18] However, in
1926 the non-relativistic scalar Schrödinger equation had incorrectly predicted the magnetic moment of
hydrogen to be zero in its ground state. To correct this problem Wolfgang Pauli considered a spin-1/2
version of the Schrödinger equation using the 3 Pauli matrices which now bear his name, which was later
shown by Paul Dirac in 1928 to be a consequence of his relativistic Dirac equation.

In the early 1930s Stern, together with Otto Robert Frisch and Immanuel Estermann improved the
molecular beam apparatus sufficiently to measure the magnetic moment of the proton, a value nearly
2000 times smaller than the electron moment. In 1931, theoretical analysis by Gregory Breit and Isidor
Isaac Rabi showed that this apparatus could be used to measure nuclear spin whenever the electronic
configuration of the atom was known. The concept was applied by Rabi and Victor W. Cohen in 1934 to
determine the spin of sodium atoms.[19]

In 1938 Rabi and coworkers inserted an oscillating magnetic field element into their apparatus, inventing
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[20][21] By tuning the frequency of the oscillator to the
frequency of the nuclear precessions they could selectively tune into each quantum level of the material
under study. Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1944 for this work.[22]

Importance
The Stern–Gerlach experiment was the first direct evidence of angular-momentum quantization in
quantum mechanics,[23] and it strongly influenced later developments in modern physics:

In the decade that followed, scientists showed using similar techniques, that the nuclei of
some atoms also have quantized angular momentum.[20] It is the interaction of this nuclear
angular momentum with the spin of the electron that is responsible for the hyperfine
structure of the spectroscopic lines.[24]
Norman F. Ramsey later modified the Rabi apparatus to improve its sensitivity (using the
separated oscillatory field method).[25] In the early sixties, Ramsey, H. Mark Goldenberg,
and Daniel Kleppner used a Stern–Gerlach system to produce a beam of polarized
hydrogen as the source of energy for the hydrogen maser.[26] This led to developing an
extremely stable clock based on a hydrogen maser. From 1967 until 2019, the second was
 defined based on 9,192,631,770 Hz hyperfine transition of a cesium-133 atom; the atomic
clock which is used to set this standard is an application of Ramsey's work.[27]
The Stern–Gerlach experiment has become a prototype for quantum measurement,
demonstrating the observation of a discrete value (eigenvalue) of a physical property,
previously assumed to be continuous.[28][29][30] Entering the Stern–Gerlach magnet, the
direction of the silver atom's magnetic moment is indefinite, but when the atom is registered
at the screen, it is observed to be at either one spot or the other, and this outcome cannot
be predicted in advance. Because the experiment illustrates the character of quantum
measurements, The Feynman Lectures on Physics use idealized Stern–Gerlach
apparatuses to explain the basic mathematics of quantum theory.[31][32][33]

See also
Photon polarization
Stern–Gerlach Medal
German inventors and discoverers

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Experiments and the Structure of Quantum Theory" (http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10701
-010-9429-z). Foundations of Physics. 41 (3): 396–405. arXiv:0909.4787 (https://arxiv.org/a
bs/0909.4787). Bibcode:2011FoPh...41..396U (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011FoP
h...41..396U). doi:10.1007/s10701-010-9429-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10701-010-942
9-z).

Further reading
Hsu, B.; Berrondo, M.; Van Huele, J.-F. (2011). "Stern-Gerlach dynamics with quantum
propagators" (https://zenodo.org/record/894868). Physical Review A. 83 (1): 012109–1–12.
Bibcode:2011PhRvA..83a2109H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvA..83a2109
H). doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.83.012109 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.83.012109).
Margalit, Yair; Zhou, Zhifan; Machluf, Shimon; Japha, Yonathan; Moukouri, Samuel; Folman,
Ron (2019-07-23). "Analysis of a high-stability Stern–Gerlach spatial fringe interferometer"
(https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1367-2630%2Fab2fdc). New Journal of Physics. 21 (7): 073040.
Bibcode:2019NJPh...21g3040M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NJPh...21g3040M).
doi:10.1088/1367-2630/ab2fdc (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1367-2630%2Fab2fdc).
 Reinisch, G. (1999). "Stern–Gerlach experiment as the pioneer—and probably the simplest
—quantum entanglement test?". Physics Letters A. 259 (6): 427–430.
Bibcode:1999PhLA..259..427R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhLA..259..427R).
doi:10.1016/S0375-9601(99)00472-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0375-9601%2899%2900
472-7).
Savitsky, Zack (2023-12-05). "The (Often) Overlooked Experiment That Revealed the
Quantum World" (https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-often-overlooked-experiment-that-re
vealed-the-quantum-world-20231205/). Quanta Magazine.
Venugopalan, A. (1997). "Decoherence and Schrödinger-cat states in a Stern−Gerlach-type
experiment". Physical Review A. 56 (5): 4307–4310. Bibcode:1997PhRvA..56.4307V (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PhRvA..56.4307V). doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.56.4307 (http
s://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.56.4307).
Zwiebach, Barton (2022). "12.2: The Stern–Gerlach experiment". Mastering Quantum
Mechanics: Essentials, Theory, and Applications. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-04613-8.

External links
Stern–Gerlach Experiment Java Applet Animation (http://www.if.ufrgs.br/~betz/quantum/SG
Peng.htm)
Stern–Gerlach Experiment Flash Model (http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim
=SternGerlach_Experiment)
Detailed explanation of the Stern–Gerlach Experiment (http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classe
s/252/Angular_Momentum/Angular_Momentum.html)
Animation, applications and research linked to the spin (http://www.toutestquantique.fr/en/sp
in) (Université Paris Sud)
Wave Mechanics and Stern–Gerlach experiment (https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/8-05-quantum
-physics-ii-fall-2013/resources/lecture-3-wave-mechanics-cont/) at MIT OpenCourseWare

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