Chapter-5 Fundamentals of Solid State Physics

5.1 Introduction

Matter, consisting of one or more elements or their chemical combinations, exists in nature in the
form of solid, liquid and gaseous state. The atoms or molecules in solid are attached to one another
with strong force of attraction. The solid maintains a definite shape and size with definite volume
also. If a solid is heated, it does not change its shape easily.

Liquid and Gas are bounded by weak bond and they have no definite shape and size and
volume also.

Solid may be classified into two types: (a) Crystalline solid and (b) Amorphous solid.

Crystalline solid: Crystalline solids have definite shape with its atoms or molecules arranged in some
regular repetitious three dimensional patterns. They are anisotropic and have high melting points.
e.g. rock salt, calcite, sugar, quartz, etc.

Amorphous Solids: Amorphous solids are those solids in which the atoms or molecules are not
arranged in regular repetitious three dimensional geometrical patterns. They are isotropic (chemical
properties like conductivity, elasticity remain same and do not vary with direction) and have low
melting points. e.g. ordinary glass, sulphur, plastics, etc.

5.2 Terminologies

Crystal: A solid of definite shape with its atoms or molecules arranged in some regular repetitious
three dimensional patterns.

Crystal lattice: In a crystalline solid, the atoms are regularly arranged. The periodic arrangement of
atoms in a crystal is crystal lattice.

Basis: The structure of all crystals can be described in terms of a lattice with a group of atoms
attached to each lattice point. The group of atoms is called basis. A basis is the assembly of atoms
identical in composition, arrangement and orientation.

Unit Cell: A unit cell is defined as the volume of the

solid from which the the entire crystal can be
constructed by the translational repetition in three
dimensions. Therefore, a minimum volume of cell in
lattice which can generate the complete crystal by
repeating its own dimension in various directions is
Fig 5.1: Unit Cell
called unit cell.
Primitive and Non-Primitive Cell: A primitive cell is a
type of unit cell which contains only one lattice point at
each corners and is a minimum volume unit cell. It is
shown in fig 5.2.

A non-primitive cell is a type of unit cell which contains Fig 5.2: Primitive and non primitive unit cell
more than one lattice points.

5.3 Types of Lattices

The periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal reflects the symmetry of their internal atomic
arrangements in the symmetry relating their terminal faces. There are various ways of positioning the
structureless points in space such that all points have identical surroundings, called Bravais lattices.
There are 5 two dimensional and 14 three dimensional Bravais lattices.

1) Two dimensional Bravais lattices:

(a) Oblique lattice
 In this case, .
 It is invariant under rotation of .
 Conventional unit cell is a parallelogram.

(b) Square lattice

 In this case, .
 It is invariant under rotation of .
 Conventional unit cell is a square.

(c) Hexagonal lattice

 In this case, .
 It is invariant under rotation of .
 Conventional unit cell is a rhombus.

(d) Primitive Rectangular lattice

 In this case, .
 It is invariant under mirror reflection.
 Conventional unit cell is a rectangle.

(e) Centered Rectangular lattice

 In this case, .
 It is invariant under inversion operation.
  Conventional unit cell is a rectangle.

The two dimensional Bravais lattices are shown in fig 5.3.

Fig 5.3: Two DImensional Bravais Lattice

2) Three dimensional Bravais lattices:

In three dimensional crystals, there are three lattice
translational vectors ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ and angle between them are
as shown in fig 5.4. There are 7 types of crystal
lattices having 14 different lattices shown in fig 5.5 below.

Fig 5.4: Lattice vectors with angles

(a) Cubic
In this case, . There are
three types:
i) Simple cubic (SCC) e.g Polonium
ii) Face centered cubic (FCC) e.g. Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Gold, NaCl, diamond
iii) Body centered cubic (BCC) e.g.Iron, Barium, Chromium

(b) Tetragonal
In this case, . There are two types:
i) Simple tetragonal
ii) Body centered
(c) Hexagonal
In this case,

(d) Triagonal
In this case,

(e) Orthorhombic
In this case, . There are four types:
i) Simple
ii) Base centered
iii) Body centered
iv) Face centered

(f) Monoclinic
In this case, . There are two types:
i) Simple
ii) Base centered

(g) Monoclinic
In this case,
Fig 5.5: Three DImensional Bravais Lattice
5.4 Characteristics of Cubic Bravais lattice

(a) Atoms per unit cell

Total number of atoms per unit cell is given as

where , and

1) For SCC crystal, , and

2) For BCC crystal, , and

3) For FCC crystal, , and

(b) Coordination Number

The number of nearest neighbours to the atom in a given structure is called coordination number. It
gives an idea of the closest of the packing of the atom.

1) For SCC crystal, coordination number =6

2) For BCC crystal, coordination number =8
3) For FCC crystal, coordination number =12

(c) Atomic Radius (r)

The atomic radius is the half the distance between the centers of the two neighbouring atoms.

1) For SCC crystal, atomic radius,

2) For BCC crystal, atomic radius, √
3) For FCC crystal, atomic radius, √

(d) Packing Fraction (f)

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of atoms in unit cell to the volume of unit cell or volume
available for cubic structure.

i.e

Therefore,
 1) For SCC crystal, [TU 2075]

( )
Then packing fraction,

2) For BCC crystal,

√ √
( ) √
Then packing fraction,

3) For FCC crystal,

√ √
( )
Then packing fraction,
√

e) Lattice constant (a)

For a cubic crystal of lattice constant a and density ,

We have, Volume f unit cell= and mass of each unit cell, (1)

If n be no. of molecules per unit cell, then

mass of each molecule=

Mas of each unit cell, (2)

From equations (1) and (2), we get,

⁄
( )
5.5 Crystal Bonding

The atoms in a solid are closely packed but are in a state of vibration about their fixed position. The
ability to hold the atoms or ions together in a crystal is called crystal boning. The particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) in a crystal are bounded by different types of bonding. They are described below:

(a) Ionic Bonding: Ionic crystals are formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another atom. The atoms in a ionic crystals are bounded by electrostatic force. It is also known
as electrovalent bonding.
 Ionic bonds are very strong.
 They have high melting and boiling point.
 Soluble in ordinary liquids like water but insoluble in organic liquid like ether.
 They are transparent to visible light.
 They behave as insulator at room temperature and conducts at high temperature.
 They are non-directional.
Examples: NaCl, CsCl, CaO, LiF, ZnS, etc
The crystal structures of NaCl and CsCl are shown below.

Fig 5.5: Crystal structure of NaCl and CsCl

(b) Covalent Bonding: Covalent bonding arises

when the valence electron of the atoms share to
have inert gas like structure. The covalent bonding
between two hydrogen atoms is shown below.
Fig 5.6: Covalent Bond in Hydrogen Molecule
 Covalent bonds are very hard.
 They have high melting and boiling point.
 Soluble in organic liquid like ether and insoluble in ordinary liquids like water.
 They are transparent to infrared and opaque to visible light.
 Some are insulators and some are semiconductors.
 They are strongly directional.
 Have high dielectric constant.
 Examples: Diamond, SiC, Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), etc

(c) Van der Waal's Bonding: Van der Waals bonding arises between the atoms which do not
have tendency either to lose or gain electrons. The
inert gas like atoms are bounded together by weak
force called Van der Waal force and this type of
bonding is called Van der Waal's Bonding .
 It is due to force of attraction between the
dipoles.
 It includes dispersive, orientational and Fig 5.7: Van der Waal Bonding

induced type of interaction.

 It is the weakest of all types of bonds.
 They have low melting and boiling point.
 They are insulators.
 They are transparent to electromagnetic radiation.
 Van der Waal's interaction between two molecules at a distance 'r' apart is proportional
to . i.e
Examples: Solid argon (Ar), solid methane (CH4), etc

(d) Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonding arises

between the hydrogen and a electronegative atom
like F, Cl, I, etc .
 It is stronger than Van der Waal bonding.
 It is weaker than ionic and covalent bond.
 The positive hydrogen on tends to draw the
two atoms more closely together than their
Fig 5.8: Hydrogen Bond
normal separation in crystals.
 It is larger than covalent bond.
Examples: ice, NH3, HF, HCl, etc

(e) Metallic Bonding: In metals, the valence electrons

are loosely bounded to the nucleus and so they
easily come out of atomic core and become free.
The free electrons move randomly throughout the
boundary of the crystal. The atoms left behind are
now positively charged and behave like positive
spheres, called kernels. The electron the stays Fig 5.9: Metallic Bond
between two kernels. The kernels are linked with
 one another through these free electrons. The bond between two such kernels is called
metallic bond.

5.6 Classical Free Electron Model (CFE)

The first successful attempt to understand the electrical properties of metals was presented by Paul
Drude in 1900 and was extended by H. A. Lorentz in 1909. The results of these two investigators, as
well as the work of others, is now called the classical free electron model (CFE).

Assumptions of the Classical Free Electron Model (CFE)

1) The main assumption of the CFE model is that a metal is composed of an array of ions with
valence electrons that are free to roam through the ionic array with the only restriction that
they remain confined within the boundaries of the solid. Because these valence electrons are
responsible for the electrical conduction of the solid, they are called conduction electrons.
2) The mutual repulsion between the negatively charged electrons is neglected. In addition, the
potential energy due to the ions is assumed to be constant everywhere.
3) In the absence of an electric field, these electrons are moving with their random thermal
velocities given by the relation , where is the average of the square of the
thermal speeds, is Boltzmann's constant and T is the absolute
temperature of the solid.
4) When an electric field E is applied to the solid, the free electrons acquire an average drift
velocity in the direction opposite to the electric field, thus producing an electric current.

Despite the many simplifying assumptions, this CFE model was able to explain many properties of
metals in a quantitative and satisfactory way. As we will show, it was able to predict Ohm's law,
Wiedemann Franz law, electrical and thermal conductivities of the metal.

5.7 Applications of CFE Model

a) Ohm's Law (Derivation of Electrical Conductivity)

According to CFE model, when a conductor does not have applied electric field, conduction electrons
move randomly with different thermal velocities given by . Since there is no net flow of
charged, so there is no flow of current as well. If electric field is applied, the free electrons tend to
move in the direction opposite to the direction of
applied electric field with a drift velocity.

Consider a uniform metallic conductor XY of

length l and cross sectional area A. A potential
difference of magnitude V is applied across the ends

Fig 5.10: Flow of electrons in a conductor

of the conductor. It produces an electric field E at each point of the conductor, given as

(1)

Due to this electric field E, the electrons gain a drift velocity opposite to the direction of electric
field. If q is the charge passing through the cross section of the metallic conductor in seconds, then
current flowing through the conductor is given by

(2)

If n is the number of free electrons in the conductor per unit volume, then the number of free
electrons in the conductor is given as

 (3)

If e is the single charge of electron, then the total charge flowing in the conductor is given by

or, (4)

where is relaxation time of free electrons.

From equations (2) and (4), we get

(5)

This is the relation between current and drift velocity. Now the current density is defined as the
current flowing per unit cross sectional area of the conductor.

So, (6)

Here the force experienced by electron due to electric field is

(7)

According to Newton's second law of motion, force is given as

(8)

From equations (7) and (8), we get

or,
or,

(9)

Integrating equation (9) both sides,

∫ ∫

or,

or,

(10)

Substituting value of in equation (6), we get

(11)

Equation (11) represents Ohm's law.

Comparing equation (11) with

(12)

Thus is an expression for electrical conductivity of the conductor.

b) Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of a metallic conductor is a measure of the ability to conduct heat
through the conductor. It is defined as steady flow of heat per unit area per unit temperature
gradient.

Let be the number of free

electrons in the conductor per
unit volume and is the velocity
of each electron. Let us consider
three planes AB, CD and EF with
temperatures given
for AB and EF such that .
Planes AB and EF are at a equal Fig 5.11:Three planes in a conductor
distance from CD where is
mean free path as shown in fig (HK p217]

The number of electrons per unit area per unit time is given as
 

The electrons are moving randomly in all possible directions. i.e total of six directions as
. In average, only one sixth of them have the motion in one direction because of the
vector directions. Therefore, the number of electrons crossing the plane CD upward and downwards
per unit area per unit time is given as

(1)

The heat energy carried downwards by electron crossing plane CD per unit area per unit time from
plane AB is

(2)

where is thermal heat capacity of the electron.

The heat energy carried upwards by electron crossing plane CD per unit area per unit time from
plane EF is

(3)

Net heat energy carried by electron crossing plane CD per unit area per unit time is

or, (4)

Temperature gradient is defined as the change of temperature per unit change of length. So, in this
case, temperature gradient is given by

(5)

From equations (4) and (5), we get

(6)

By definition of thermal conductivity, we have

(7)
From equators (6) and (7), we get

(8)

For (9)

where is mean free path.

For Fermi gas, thermal heat capacity , Fermi energy are given by

and

Now, equation (9) becomes,

( ) 

or, ( ) 

or, ( )

or, ( ) 

or, ( )

(10)

This is the required expression for thermal conductivity.

c) Wiedemann-Franz law

It states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the conductor.

i.e

Proof:

We have,
 and

Now, ( ) (11)

Also, ( ) (12)

where L is Lorentz unit.

5.8 Failures of CFE Model

The CFE model is conceptually easy and succeeds in explaining certain important experimental facts
such as Ohm's law, electrical and thermal conductivity of conductor. It fails to explain other
experimental results like specific heat capacity, temperature dependence of electrical conductivity,
etc.

1) Specfic Heat Capacity

As we indicated earlier, according to the CFE model, the valence electrons in a solid behave as an
ideal neutral gas. The contribution of the conduction electrons to the specific heat capacity of a solid
at constant volume is given as , where R is the universal gas constant. But experimentally
the specific heat capacity per mole is . (1)

CFE model predicts that the is temperature independent, whereas the experiment shows that

is proportional to T. This represents an outstanding failure of the model.

2) Temperature Dependence of Electrical Conductivity

Experimentally, for a metal (except at very low temperatures) the electrical conductivity is inversely
proportional to the temperature T i.e .

According to the CFE model, (2)

i.e it does not show temperature Dependence of Electrical Conductivity.

The average mean free path will become smaller with increasing temperature because the ions
vibrate with larger amplitude, thus increasing the chances of collision and therefore reducing the
effective . The thermal velocity is also temperature dependent and is given by
 √ (3)

Since . This shows that (4)

√

From equation (2), we get

. This is not in agreement with the experimental value.

√

5.9 Quantum Mechanical Free Electron Model (QMFE)

Many of the difficulties encountered by the classical free electron model were removed with the
advent of quantum mechanics. In 1928, A. Sommerfeld modified the free electron model in two
important ways:

1) The electrons must be treated quantum mechanically. This will quantize the energy spectrum
of the electron gas.
2) The electrons must obey Pauli's exclusion principle; that is, no two electrons can have the same
set of quantum numbers.

5.10 Fermi Level and Fermi Energy

According to Pauli's exclusion principle, no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers.
In solid, an electron in a conduction electronic state have quantum number and . For each
valueof , can have two values +1/2 and -1/2. i.e quantum state can accomodate maximum of two
electrons, one with spin up and another with spin down. For example, if there are 7 electrons, then
there will be 4 energy states each containg two electrons with opposite spins and the fourth energy
state will contains last unpaired electron. So the energy level with would be occupied and
energy level with will be unoccupied or empty. The topmost filled energy level at 0K
temperature is known as Fermi level and corresponding energy is called Fermi energy .

5.11 Fermi Energy in Three Dimensional Potential Well

Consider an electron of mass m is confined to remain in an infinite

potential well at the ends of length L as shown in fig 5.12. The
potential energy for free electron in infinite potential well is given
as

Fig 5.12: Infinite potential well

Now, Schrodinger wave equation or free particle (electron) in three dimensons is given as

or, (1)

where



(2)

Solution of equation (1) will be

⃗⃗ ⃗

( )
(3)

The boundary condition is given as,

Using boundary conditions,

( ) ( )
or,

or,

or,

or,

Similarly, we have

and

Now, equation (2) becomes, Fig 5.13:Fermi sphere

 
( ) (4)
In the ground state for n free elctrons, the occupied orbitals may be represented by points inside k-
space as shown in fig 5.13. The energy of the surface of the k-sphere is Fermi energy and the wave
vector have a magnitude of such that


(5)

The allowed values of and shows the n free electrons inside the sphere of volume in k-
Space. The total number of orbitals in K-space will be

or,
( )

or, 

⁄
⁄
( ) * + (6)

So, equation (5) becomes,

 ⁄  ⁄
( ) (7)

5.12 Density of States (DOS)

It is defined as the number of orbitals (Quantum states or electronic states) per unit energy range. It is
denited by and given as

I) Density of States in Three Dimension

The total number of orbitals in K-sphere in 3D is given as

or,
( )
or, 

⁄
⁄
( ) * + (1)

Fermi energy is given by

 ⁄
( )

⁄
( ) (2)


Now, Density of states is given by

⁄
( ( ) )


⁄
⁄
or, ( ) ( )


⁄
⁄
or, ( )


⁄
⁄
or, ( ) (3)


Density of states in 3D is directly proportional to the square

root of Fermi energy. It is shown in graph in fig 5.14.
Fig 5.14: D(E) vs E curve in 3D
⁄
⁄
or, ( )


⁄
or, ( )


⁄
* ( ) + (4)


II) Density of States in Two Dimension

The total number of orbitals in K-circle in 2D is given as

or,
( )

or, 

⁄
( ) (5)

Fermi energy is given by

 

( ) (6)


Now, Density of states is given by

( ( ))


or,


(7) Fig 5.15:Density of states in 2D



Density of states in 2D is independent of Fermi energy. It is shown in graph as shown in fig 5.15.

III) Density of States in One Dimension

The total number of orbitals in K-line in 1D is given as

or,
( )

or,

(8)

Fermi energy is given by

  

⁄
( ) (9)


Now, Density of states is given by

⁄
(( ) )


⁄
⁄
or, ( )

Fig 5.16: Density of states in 1D
⁄
⁄
or, ( )


⁄
⁄
( ) (10)


Density of states in 1D is inversely proportional to square root of Fermi energy. It is shown in graph as
shown in fig 5.16.

5.13 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Dirac Distribution

The probabiltity that an orbital at energy E will be occupied in an ideal electron gas in thermal
equilibrium is given by Fermi Dirac Distribution . It is given as

5.14 Concept of Band Energy in Solid

Free electron theory explained the electical and thermal properties of metals but fails to explain
distinction between conductor, semicondctor and insulator as well as the occurrence of positive value
of Hall coefficient.

According to Bohr's theory, the electron in an isolated atom have some well defined energy states
know as energy levels. An electron in an atom can be present in one of those enery levels only.
However, when another atom is brought near the first, their outer electrons interact with each other.
Due to its interacion, permitted energy states of those outermost electrons are slightly modified. In a
solid, there are very large number of interacting atoms, thus each permitted energy levels in the
outermost shell split up into same number of intearcting atoms. The permitted energy levels form a
band of continous energy distribution, called energy band. If the energy bands are well separated
from one another, the gap betwen them is called energy gap or forbidden gap.

Typers of Energy Band

1) Valence Band
The elctrons in the outermost shells are called valence electrons. The range of energies
possessed by valence electrons is called valence band and energy of that band is called valence
band energy. The valence band may be partially or fullly fulled but never be empty.

2) Conduction Band
In metals, valence electrons are loosely bounded to the nucleus. These electrons are
responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor and hence they are called conduction
electrons. The range of energy occupied by these
electrons is called conduction band and energy to that
band is called conduction band energy. This band may
be empty or partially filled.

3) Forbidden energy gap

The separation between the conduction band and the
valene band is called forbidden band energy gap or
forbidden band. It is denoted by Eg. There is no allowed
energy state in this gap and hence no electrons can
Fig 5.17: Energy bands in solid
stay in the forbidden gap.

These three different bands are shown in fig 5.17.

5.15 Distinction between conductor, insulator and semiconductor

Conductor:

 The valence band is overlapping with conduction band. Due to overlapping, there is no
forbidden gap.
 There are plenty of free electrons for the conduction in the conduction band.
 If small electric field is applied, free electrons start moving in the direction opposite to the
direction of electric field.
 Examples: Metals like Na, Cu, Ag, Be, etc.

Insulator:

 Insulators have completely filled valence band and empty conduction band with large energy
gap between them.
  The energy gap is about 6 eV. Due to this, electrons can not jump from valence band to
conduction band.
 Large electric field is required to push the valence electron to the conduction band.
 Examples: Glass, paper, bakelite, resin, ceramic,etc

Semiconductor

The conductivity and the resitivity lies between conductor and insulator,
There is narrow band gap of about 1 eV.
At absolute zero, the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty. Thus semiconductor is perfect insulator at OK.
As temperature increases, it conducts because some valence electrons jump to the conduction
band.
Examples: Silicon , Germanium, Graphite, etc.

Fig 5.18:Energy band diagram of insulator, semiconductor and conductor

The energy band of conductor, insulator and semiconductor is shown in fig 5.18.

5.16 Bloch Theorem

F. Bloch proved the important theoerm that the solutions of Schrdinger wave equation for a periodic
potential must be of a special form
⃗⃗ ⃗
where has the period of the crystal lattice with .

This is called Bloch function.

Bloch theroem states that, " the eigen functions of the wave equation for a periodic potential are
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
the product of plane wave and a function with the periodicity of the crystal lattice."
⃗⃗ ⃗
i.e (1)
The Schrodinger wave equation is given as

(2)


the solution of equation (2) will be

where a is lattice constant. (3)

For periodic potential,

and (4)

The function represenrd by equation (3) is called Bloch function.

So,

or,

or, [ From equation (4)]

[ From equation (3)]

5.17 Kronig-Penny Model(motion of electron in Periodic Potental)]

Kronig Penny model illustrates the behavior of electrons in periodic potential. It assumes that the
potential energy of an electron in a linear array of positive nuclei has the force of periodic array of
square well as shown in fig 5.19.

Fig 5.19: Square Well Potential

The potential energy of electron in square well is given as

 { (1)

The schrodinger wave equation in 1D is given as

(2)


where is periodic potential and E is energy eigen value.

Case-I: In the region

Then schrodinger wave equation will be

(3)


Also, (4)

where (5)


Case-II: In the region

Then schrodinger wave equation will be

or, for (6)



Also, (7)

where (8)


Now the solutions of equations (4) and (7) will be

(9)

and (10)

Since the potential is periodic, we have

 (11)

thus the solution in the region must be related to the solution in region
as shown in equation (10).

Therefore,

or, (12)

Applying boundary conditions at ,

(a)
or, (13)

and (b)

or, (14)

Applying boundary conditions at ,

(b)
or, (15)

and (b)

or, (16)

These are four homogenous eqautions with four unknown values A,B,C and D. The non-trivial solution
of these equations will be possible only when the determinant of coefficient vanish.

i.e | |

On simplifying determinant, we get

(17)

If and , we get

or, (18)

wherer (19)
If P is increasaed, the area of the potential barrier is increased and the given electron is bound more
strongly to a particular well.

When , the potential becomes very weak,i.e the electron is free. Then equation (19) becomes,

(20)

Squaring both sides,

or,

or, [ From equation (5)]




(21)

This is relation for energy of free electron.

Equation (19) gives the condition which must be satisifefd so that the solution of wave equation
may exist. SInce lies between -1 and +1. So, | |

The values of satisfying above condition are allowed values and other values are not allowed or
forbidden values.

The plot of | | versus is shown in fig 5.20. The allowed bands are marked by
thick lines.

Fig 5.20: plot of |P/αa sinαa+cosαa | versus αa

Dispersion Relation

The relation between the energy of the particle and its wave vector is called dispersion relation. The
graph between energy E and wave vector K is called dispersion curve. The dashes curve is a parabolic

curve is a plot of E vs K curve. Since, as shown in fig 5.21, the discontinuties occur at
.

For and , there exists first Brilloiun zone. The region between and is
second Brilloiun zone.

Fig 5.21: Graph between E and k

5.18 Effective Mass of Electron and Hole

The elctrons in a crystal are not completely free but interact with the periodc potential of the crystal
latice. As a result, their motion is different from that of an electron in free space, so that mass is
altered. This change in mass of the electron is called effective mass of electron. Similarly, the effective
mass of hole is also altered.

The group velocity is given as

(1)

Also, 

or,


Diffrentiating with repect to k,

(2)
 Fig 5.22: Variation of effective mass with k
From equations (1) and (2), we get

(3)


Differentiating (3) with respect to t, we get

( )


or, ( ) 
 

or, ( )


( ) (4)


Now acceleration is defined as therate of change of velovity.

So, ( ) (5)


we know that

( )  (6)

From euations (5) and (6),we get

(7)


Comparing equation (7) with , we get


(8)

This gives the effective mass of elecron and hole in the crystal. In case of free electron and hole, the

effective mass is given as

When electron and hole are free, the effective mass is the true mass. but when electron and hole
are in crystal, efffective mass is different from the true value.
 The variation of effective mass with wave vector k is shown in fig 5.22. Effective mass depends
upon as is function of k.

Since, ,

This also gives the variation of with k. Now, is the slope of vs k curve.

a) For , , it represents the lower half of energy band.

b) For , , it represents the upper half of energy band.

In other words, effetive mass is positive at bottom and negative at top.

Possible Short Questions:

1) Discuss effective mass of electrons and holes. [TU 2074]

2) What do you mean by Bloch Theorem? Discuss its use in Krining Penny model and hence in
band theory. [TU 2074 Model, 2075]
3) What is density of state? Derive an expression for density of state.
4) What is crystal bonding? Discuss its types.
5) Define Fermi level and Fermi energy.
6) Distinguish between electrical and thermal conductivity.
7) Write about energy band diagram.
8) Differentiate between valence band and consuction band.
9) Explain concept of conductor, semiconductor and insulator on the basis of band theory.

Possible Long Questions:

1) Define coordination number. Find packing fraction of simple cubic and body centered cubic
crystal.
2) Considering assumptions of classical free electron model, establish Ohm's law ⃗ ⃗⃗ and
hence show that the electrical conductivity becomes equal to where symbols have
their usual meanings.
3) What do you understand by Fermi energy? Prove that in a metal, it is independent of
temperature and depend only on the concentration of particles in metals.
4) What is energy band in solid?Explain the energy band diagram of solid and describe band
energy.
5) Explain how the energy bands are formed in a crystalline solid. On the basis of band theory of
solid, make a clear distinction between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
 6) Show that the density of states of a free electron gas in three dimension is proportional to the
square root of Fermi energy.
7) Explain free electron Fermi gas.

Possible Numericals:

1) Copper has a face-centered cubic structure with a one-atom basis. The density of copper
is 8.96 g/cc and its atomic weight is 63.5 g/mole. What is the length of the unit cube of
the structure? [Ans:3.61A0]

2) Sodium has a body-centered cubic structure with a one-atom basis. The density and the
atomic weight of sodium are 0.971 g/cm3 and 23 g/mole, respectively. What is the length
of the unit cube of the structure?
[Ans:4.29A0]

3) Assuming that atoms in a crystal structure are arranged as close-packed spheres, what is
the ratio of the volume of the atoms to the volume available for the simple cubic
structure? Assume a one-atom basis.
[Ans:0.52]

4) Repeat Problem 3 for the body-centered cubic structure. [Ans: 0.68]

5) Repeat Problem 3 for the face-centered cubic structure. [Ans:0.74]

6) Consider a copper wire of cross-sectional area A = 1 mm2 carrying a current i = 1 amp.

What is the drift velocity vd of the electrons? Cu is monovalent, that is, there is one free
electron per atom. The density and the molecular weight of Cu are 9 g/cc and 64 g/mole,
respectively. [Ans: 7*105m/sec]

7) The number of free electrons in copper is 8.4 x 1028 electrons/m3• (a) Calculate the Fermi
energy for Cu. (b) At what temperature Tf will the average thermal energy kBTf of a gas
be equal to that energy?
[Ans: 6.95 eV, 80,500 K]

8) The electrical conductivity of Cu at room temperature is 5.9 x 107Ω-1 m-1. As we have

shown earlier, the Fermi energy for copper is 6.95 eV and the carrier density n = 8.4 X
1028 electrons/m3. Calculate the mean free path of the electrons.
[Ans: 390 A0]

9) Gold is monovalent. The atomic weight and the density of gold are 197 g/mole and 19.3
g/cm3, respectively. Calculate the number of free electrons per unit volume.
[Ans:5.87*1028/m3]
10) The electrical conductivity of copper at 300 K is 5.9*107Ω-1 m-1. (a) What should be the
conductivity at 77 K according to the CFE model? (b) How does it compare with the
experimentally measured value of 4*108Ω-1 m-1?
[Ans:1.2*108Ω-1 m-1]

11) The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cc and its molecular weight is 26.98 g/mole. (a)
Calculate the Fermi energy. (b) If the experimental value of EF is 12 eV, what is the
electron effective mass in aluminum? Aluminum is trivalent.
[Answer: (a) 11.6 eV, (b) 0.97 m, where m is the free electron mass]

12) The energy gaps of some alkali halides are KCl=7.6eV, KBr=6.3eV and KI=5.6eV.
Which of these are transparent to visible light?At what wavelength does each become
opaque? [Ans: all transparent, will be opaue for wavlength between (380-750)nm]