Scanning tunneling microscope

A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is a type of scanning

probe microscope used for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.
Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and
Heinrich Rohrer, then at IBM Zürich, the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1986.[1][2][3] STM senses the surface by using an extremely
sharp conducting tip that can distinguish features smaller than
0.1 nm with a 0.01 nm (10 pm) depth resolution.[4] This means
that individual atoms can routinely be imaged and manipulated.
Most scanning tunneling microscopes are built for use in ultra-
high vacuum at temperatures approaching absolute zero, but
variants exist for studies in air, water and other environments, and
Image of reconstruction on a clean
for temperatures over 1000 °C.[5][6] (100) surface of gold

STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When the tip

is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias voltage
applied between the two allows electrons to tunnel through the
vacuum separating them. The resulting tunneling current is a
function of the tip position, applied voltage, and the local density
of states (LDOS) of the sample. Information is acquired by
monitoring the current as the tip scans across the surface, and is
usually displayed in image form.[5] Scanning tunneling microscope
operating principle
A refinement of the technique known as scanning tunneling
spectroscopy consists of keeping the tip in a constant position
above the surface, varying the bias voltage and recording the resultant change in current. Using this
technique, the local density of the electronic states can be reconstructed.[7] This is sometimes performed
in high magnetic fields and in presence of impurities to infer the properties and interactions of electrons
in the studied material.

Scanning tunneling microscopy can be a challenging technique, as it requires extremely clean and stable
surfaces, sharp tips, excellent vibration isolation, and sophisticated electronics. Nonetheless, many
hobbyists build their own microscopes.[8]

Procedure
The tip is brought close to the sample by a coarse positioning mechanism that is usually monitored
visually. At close range, fine control of the tip position with respect to the sample surface is achieved by
piezoelectric scanner tubes whose length can be altered by a control voltage. A bias voltage is applied
between the sample and the tip, and the scanner is gradually elongated until the tip starts receiving the
tunneling current. The tip–sample separation w is then kept somewhere in the 4–7 Å (0.4–0.7 nm) range,
slightly above the height where the tip would experience repulsive interaction (w < 3 Å), but still in the
region where attractive interaction exists
[5] The tunneling current, being in the
(3 < w < 10 Å).
sub-nanoampere range, is amplified as close to the
scanner as possible. Once tunneling is established, the
sample bias and tip position with respect to the
sample are varied according to the requirements of the
experiment.

As the tip is moved across the surface in a discrete x–

y matrix, the changes in surface height and population
of the electronic states cause changes in the tunneling
current. Digital images of the surface are formed in
one of the two ways: in the constant-height mode Schematic view of an STM
changes of the tunneling current are mapped directly,
while in the constant-current mode the voltage that
controls the height (z) of the tip is recorded while the tunneling current is kept at a predetermined level.[5]

In constant-current mode, feedback electronics adjust the height by a voltage to the piezoelectric height-
control mechanism. If at some point the tunneling current is below the set level, the tip is moved towards
the sample, and conversely. This mode is relatively slow, as the electronics need to check the tunneling
current and adjust the height in a feedback loop at each measured point of the surface. When the surface
is atomically flat, the voltage applied to the z-scanner mainly reflects variations in local charge density.
But when an atomic step is encountered, or when the surface is buckled due to reconstruction, the height
of the scanner also have to change because of the overall topography. The image formed of the z-scanner
voltages that were needed to keep the tunneling current constant as the tip scanned the surface thus
contain both topographical and electron density data. In some cases it may not be clear whether height
changes came as a result of one or the other.

In constant-height mode, the z-scanner voltage is kept constant as the scanner swings back and forth
across the surface, and the tunneling current, exponentially dependent on the distance, is mapped. This
mode of operation is faster, but on rough surfaces, where there may be large adsorbed molecules present,
or ridges and groves, the tip will be in danger of crashing.

The raster scan of the tip is anything from a 128×128 to a 1024×1024 (or more) matrix, and for each
point of the raster a single value is obtained. The images produced by STM are therefore grayscale, and
color is only added in post-processing in order to visually emphasize important features.

In addition to scanning across the sample, information on the electronic structure at a given location in
the sample can be obtained by sweeping the bias voltage (along with a small AC modulation to directly
measure the derivative) and measuring current change at a specific location.[4] This type of measurement
is called scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) and typically results in a plot of the local density of
states as a function of the electrons' energy within the sample. The advantage of STM over other
measurements of the density of states lies in its ability to make extremely local measurements. This is
how, for example, the density of states at an impurity site can be compared to the density of states around
the impurity and elsewhere on the surface.[9]

Instrumentation
The main components of a scanning tunneling microscope are the
scanning tip, piezoelectrically controlled height (z axis) and lateral
(x and y axes) scanner, and coarse sample-to-tip approach
mechanism. The microscope is controlled by dedicated electronics
and a computer. The system is supported on a vibration isolation
system.[5]

The tip is often made of tungsten or platinum–iridium wire,

though gold is also used.[4] Tungsten tips are usually made by A 1986 STM from the collection of
Musée d'histoire des sciences de la
electrochemical etching, and platinum–iridium tips by mechanical
Ville de Genève
shearing. The resolution of an image is limited by the radius of
curvature of the scanning tip. Sometimes, image artefacts occur if
the tip has more than one apex at the end; most frequently double-
tip imaging is observed, a situation in which two apices contribute
equally to the tunneling.[4] While several processes for obtaining
sharp, usable tips are known, the ultimate test of quality of the tip
is only possible when it is tunneling in the vacuum. Every so often
the tips can be conditioned by applying high voltages when they
are already in the tunneling range, or by making them pick up an
atom or a molecule from the surface.

In most modern designs the scanner is a hollow tube of a radially

polarized piezoelectric with metallized surfaces. The outer surface
is divided into four long quadrants to serve as x and y motion
electrodes with deflection voltages of two polarities applied on the
opposing sides. The tube material is a lead zirconate titanate
ceramic with a piezoelectric constant of about 5 nanometres per
volt. The tip is mounted at the center of the tube. Because of some
crosstalk between the electrodes and inherent nonlinearities, the A large STM setup at the London
motion is calibrated, and voltages needed for independent x, y and Centre for Nanotechnology
z motion applied according to calibration tables.[5]

Due to the extreme sensitivity of the tunneling current to the separation of the electrodes, proper vibration
isolation or a rigid STM body is imperative for obtaining usable results. In the first STM by Binnig and
Rohrer, magnetic levitation was used to keep the STM free from vibrations; now mechanical spring or
gas spring systems are often employed.[5] Additionally, mechanisms for vibration damping using eddy
currents are sometimes implemented. Microscopes designed for long scans in scanning tunneling
spectroscopy need extreme stability and are built in anechoic chambers—dedicated concrete rooms with
acoustic and electromagnetic isolation that are themselves floated on vibration isolation devices inside the
laboratory.
Maintaining the tip position with respect to the sample, scanning the sample and acquiring the data is
computer-controlled. Dedicated software for scanning probe microscopies is used for image processing as
well as performing quantitative measurements.[10]

Some scanning tunneling microscopes are capable of recording images at high frame rates.[11][12] Videos
made of such images can show surface diffusion[13] or track adsorption and reactions on the surface. In
video-rate microscopes, frame rates of 80 Hz have been achieved with fully working feedback that
adjusts the height of the tip.[14]

Principle of operation
Quantum tunneling of electrons is a functioning concept of STM that arises from quantum mechanics.
Classically, a particle hitting an impenetrable barrier will not pass through. If the barrier is described by a
potential acting along z direction, in which an electron of mass me acquires the potential energy U(z), the
electron's trajectory will be deterministic and such that the sum E of its kinetic and potential energies is at
all times conserved:

The electron will have a defined, non-zero momentum p only in regions where the initial energy E is
greater than U(z). In quantum physics, however, the electron can pass through classically forbidden
regions. This is referred to as tunneling.[5]

Rectangular barrier model

The simplest model of tunneling between the sample
and the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope is that
of a rectangular potential barrier.[15][5] An electron of
energy E is incident upon an energy barrier of height
U, in the region of space of width w. An electron's
behavior in the presence of a potential U(z), assuming
one-dimensional case, is described by wave functions
that satisfy Schrödinger's equation

The real and imaginary parts of the wave function

in a rectangular potential barrier model of the
scanning tunneling microscope
where ħ is the reduced Planck constant, z is the
position, and me is the electron mass. In the zero-
potential regions on two sides of the barrier, the wave function takes on the forms

for z < 0,
for z > w,

where . Inside the barrier, where E < U, the wave function is a superposition of two
terms, each decaying from one side of the barrier:
 for 0 < z < w,

where .

The coefficients r and t provide measure of how much of the incident electron's wave is reflected or
transmitted through the barrier. Namely, of the whole impinging particle current only
is transmitted, as can be seen from the probability current expression

which evaluates to . The transmission coefficient is obtained from the continuity condition
on the three parts of the wave function and their derivatives at z = 0 and z = w (detailed derivation is in
the article Rectangular potential barrier). This gives where
. The expression can be further simplified, as follows:

In STM experiments, typical barrier height is of the order of the material's surface work function W,
which for most metals has a value between 4 and 6 eV.[15] The work function is the minimum energy
needed to bring an electron from an occupied level, the highest of which is the Fermi level (for metals at
T = 0 K), to vacuum level. The electrons can tunnel between two metals only from occupied states on one
side into the unoccupied states of the other side of the barrier. Without bias, Fermi energies are flush, and
there is no tunneling. Bias shifts electron energies in one of the electrodes higher, and those electrons that
have no match at the same energy on the other side will tunnel. In experiments, bias voltages of a fraction
of 1 V are used, so is of the order of 10 to 12 nm−1, while w is a few tenths of a nanometre. The barrier
is strongly attenuating. The expression for the transmission probability reduces to
The tunneling current from a single level is therefore[15]

where both wave vectors depend on the level's energy E, and

Tunneling current is exponentially dependent on the separation of the sample and the tip, typically
reducing by an order of magnitude when the separation is increased by 1 Å (0.1 nm).[5] Because of this,
even when tunneling occurs from a non-ideally sharp tip, the dominant contribution to the current is from
its most protruding atom or orbital.[15]

Tunneling between two conductors

As a result of the restriction that the tunneling from an occupied energy level on one side of the barrier
requires an empty level of the same energy on the other side of the barrier, tunneling occurs mainly with
electrons near the Fermi level. The tunneling current can be related to the density of available or filled
states in the sample. The current due to an applied voltage V (assume tunneling occurs from the sample to
the tip) depends on two factors: 1) the number of electrons between the Fermi level EF and EF − eV in the
sample, and 2) the number among them which have corresponding free states to tunnel into on the other
side of the barrier at the tip.[5] The higher the density of available states in the tunneling region the
greater the tunneling current. By convention, a
positive V means that electrons in the tip tunnel into
empty states in the sample; for a negative bias,
electrons tunnel out of occupied states in the sample
into the tip.[5]

For small biases and temperatures near absolute zero,

the number of electrons in a given volume (the
electron concentration) that are available for tunneling
is the product of the density of the electronic states
ρ(EF) and the energy interval between the two Fermi Negative sample bias V raises its electronic levels
by e⋅V. Only electrons that populate states
levels, eV.[5] Half of these electrons will be travelling
between the Fermi levels of the sample and the
away from the barrier. The other half will represent tip are allowed to tunnel.
the electric current impinging on the barrier, which is
given by the product of the electron concentration,
charge, and velocity v (Ii = nev),[5]

The tunneling electric current will be a small fraction of the impinging current. The proportion is
determined by the transmission probability T,[5] so\

In the simplest model of a rectangular potential barrier the transmission probability coefficient T equals
|t|2.

Bardeen's formalism
A model that is based on more realistic wave
functions for the two electrodes was devised by John
Bardeen in a study of the metal–insulator–metal
junction.[16] His model takes two separate
orthonormal sets of wave functions for the two
electrodes and examines their time evolution as the
systems are put close together.[5][15] Bardeen's novel
method, ingenious in itself,[5] solves a time-dependent
perturbative problem in which the perturbation
emerges from the interaction of the two subsystems Tip, barrier and sample wave functions in a model
rather than an external potential of the standard of the scanning tunneling microscope. Barrier
Rayleigh–Schrödinger perturbation theory. width is w. Tip bias is V. Surface work functions
are ϕ.
Each of the wave functions for the electrons of the
sample (S) and the tip (T) decay into the vacuum after
hitting the surface potential barrier, roughly of the size of the surface work function. The wave functions
are the solutions of two separate Schrödinger's equations for electrons in potentials US and UT. When the
time dependence of the states of known energies and is factored out, the wave functions have the
following general form

If the two systems are put closer together, but are still separated by a thin vacuum region, the potential
acting on an electron in the combined system is UT + US. Here, each of the potentials is spatially limited
to its own side of the barrier. Only because the tail of a wave function of one electrode is in the range of
the potential of the other, there is a finite probability for any state to evolve over time into the states of the
other electrode.[5] The future of the sample's state μ can be written as a linear combination with time-
dependent coefficients of and all :

with the initial condition .[5] When the new wave function is inserted into the Schrödinger's
equation for the potential UT + US, the obtained equation is projected onto each separate (that is, the
equation is multiplied by a and integrated over the whole volume) to single out the coefficients
All are taken to be nearly orthogonal to all (their overlap is a small fraction of the total wave
functions), and only first-order quantities retained. Consequently, the time evolution of the coefficients is
given by

Because the potential UT is zero at the distance of a few atomic diameters away from the surface of the
electrode, the integration over z can be done from a point z0 somewhere inside the barrier and into the
volume of the tip (z > z0).

If the tunneling matrix element is defined as

the probability of the sample's state μ evolving in time t into the state of the tip ν is

In a system with many electrons impinging on the barrier, this probability will give the proportion of
those that successfully tunnel. If at a time t this fraction was at a later time t + dt the total
fraction of would have tunneled. The current of tunneling electrons at each instance is
therefore proportional to divided by which is the time derivative of
[15]

The time scale of the measurement in STM is many orders of magnitude larger than the typical
femtosecond time scale of electron processes in materials, and is large. The fraction part of the
formula is a fast-oscillating function of that rapidly decays away from the central peak,
where . In other words, the most probable tunneling process, by far, is the elastic one, in which
the electron's energy is conserved. The fraction, as written above, is a representation of the delta function,
so

Solid-state systems are commonly described in terms of continuous rather than discrete energy levels.
The term can be thought of as the density of states of the tip at energy giving

The number of energy levels in the sample between the energies and is When
occupied, these levels are spin-degenerate (except in a few special classes of materials) and contain
charge of either spin. With the sample biased to voltage tunneling can occur only
between states whose occupancies, given for each electrode by the Fermi–Dirac distribution , are not the
same, that is, when either one or the other is occupied, but not both. That will be for all energies for
which is not zero. For example, an electron will tunnel from energy
level in the sample into energy level in the tip ( ), an electron at in the sample
will find unoccupied states in the tip at ( ), and so will be for all energies in between.
The tunneling current is therefore the sum of little contributions over all these energies of the product of
three factors: representing available electrons,
for those that are allowed to tunnel, and the probability factor for
those that will actually tunnel:

Typical experiments are run at a liquid-helium temperature (around 4 K), at which the Fermi-level cut-off
of the electron population is less than a millielectronvolt wide. The allowed energies are only those
between the two step-like Fermi levels, and the integral becomes

When the bias is small, it is reasonable to assume that the electron wave functions and, consequently, the
tunneling matrix element do not change significantly in the narrow range of energies. Then the tunneling
current is simply the convolution of the densities of states of the sample surface and the tip:
How the tunneling current depends on distance between the two electrodes is contained in the tunneling
matrix element

This formula can be transformed so that no explicit dependence on the potential remains. First, the
part is taken out from the Schrödinger equation for the tip, and the elastic tunneling condition is
used so that

Now is present in the Schrödinger equation for the sample and equals the kinetic plus the potential
operator acting on However, the potential part containing US is on the tip side of the barrier nearly
zero. What remains,

can be integrated over z because the integrand in the parentheses equals

Bardeen's tunneling matrix element is an integral of the wave functions and their gradients over a surface
separating the two planar electrodes:

The exponential dependence of the tunneling current on the separation of the electrodes comes from the
very wave functions that leak through the potential step at the surface and exhibit exponential decay into
the classically forbidden region outside of the material.

The tunneling matrix elements show appreciable energy dependence, which is such that tunneling from
the upper end of the eV interval is nearly an order of magnitude more likely than tunneling from the states
at its bottom. When the sample is biased positively, its unoccupied levels are probed as if the density of
states of the tip is concentrated at its Fermi level. Conversely, when the sample is biased negatively, its
occupied electronic states are probed, but the spectrum of the electronic states of the tip dominates. In this
case it is important that the density of states of the tip is as flat as possible.[5]

The results identical to Bardeen's can be obtained by considering adiabatic approach of the two electrodes
and using the standard time-dependent perturbation theory.[15] This leads to Fermi's golden rule for the
transition probability in the form given above.
Bardeen's model is for tunneling between two planar electrodes and does not explain scanning tunneling
microscope's lateral resolution. Tersoff and Hamann[17][18][19] used Bardeen's theory and modeled the tip
as a structureless geometric point.[5] This helped them disentangle the properties of the tip—which are
hard to model—from the properties of the sample surface. The main result was that the tunneling current
is proportional to the local density of states of the sample at the Fermi level taken at the position of the
center of curvature of a spherically symmetric tip (s-wave tip model). With such a simplification, their
model proved valuable for interpreting images of surface features bigger than a nanometre, even though it
predicted atomic-scale corrugations of less than a picometre. These are well below the microscope's
detection limit and below the values actually observed in experiments.
In sub-nanometre-resolution experiments, the convolution of the tip and sample surface states will always
be important, to the extent of the apparent inversion of the atomic corrugations that may be observed
within the same scan. Such effects can only be explained by modeling of the surface and tip electronic
states and the ways the two electrodes interact from first principles.

Gallery of STM images

One-atom-thick silver The characteristic A 7 nm long part of a Atoms on the surface

islands grown on reconstruction fringes single-walled carbon of a crystal of silicon
terraces of the (111) on the (100) surface nanotube. carbide (SiC) are
surface of palladium. of gold are 1.44 nm arranged in a
Image size is 250 nm wide[20] and consist hexagonal lattice and
by 250 nm. of six atomic rows are 0.3 nm apart.
that sit on top of five
rows of the crystal
bulk. Image size is
approximately 10 nm
by 10 nm.

STM
nanomanipulation of
PTCDA molecules on
graphite to inscribe
the logo of the Center
for NanoScience
(CeNS), Munich.

Early invention
An earlier invention similar to Binnig and Rohrer's, the Topografiner of R. Young, J. Ward, and F. Scire
from the NIST, relied on field emission.[21] However, Young is credited by the Nobel Committee as the
person who realized that it should be possible to achieve better resolution by using the tunnel effect.[22]

Other related techniques

Many other microscopy techniques have been developed based upon STM. These include photon
scanning microscopy (PSTM), which uses an optical tip to tunnel photons;[4] scanning tunneling
potentiometry (STP), which measures electric potential across a surface;[4] spin-polarized scanning
tunneling microscopy (SPSTM), which uses a ferromagnetic tip to tunnel spin-polarized electrons into a
magnetic sample;[23] multi-tip scanning tunneling microscopy, which enables electrical measurements to
be performed at the nanoscale; and atomic force microscopy (AFM), in which the force caused by
interaction between the tip and sample is measured.

STM can be used to manipulate atoms and change the topography of the sample. This is attractive for
several reasons. Firstly the STM has an atomically precise positioning system, which enables very
accurate atomic-scale manipulation. Furthermore, after the surface is modified by the tip, the same
instrument can be used to image the resulting structures. IBM researchers famously developed a way to
manipulate xenon atoms adsorbed on a nickel surface.[4] This technique has been used to create electron
corrals with a small number of adsorbed atoms and observe Friedel oscillations in the electron density on
the surface of the substrate. Aside from modifying the actual sample surface, one can also use the STM to
tunnel electrons into a layer of electron-beam photoresist on the sample, in order to do lithography. This
has the advantage of offering more control of the exposure than traditional electron-beam lithography.
Another practical application of STM is atomic deposition of metals (gold, silver, tungsten, etc.) with any
desired (pre-programmed) pattern, which can be used as contacts to nanodevices or as nanodevices
themselves.

See also
Scanning probe microscopy
Atomic force microscope
Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope
Microscopy
Electron microscope
Multi-tip scanning tunneling microscopy
IBM (atoms)

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13. Swartzentruber BS (January 1996). "Direct measurement of surface diffusion using atom-
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14. Rost MJ, et al. (2005). "Scanning probe microscopes go video rate and beyond" (https://ope
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(https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F61253). ISSN 1369-7021 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1
369-7021).
15. Lounis S (2014-04-03). "Theory of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy". arXiv:1404.0961 (http
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18. Tersoff J, Hamann DR (January 1985). "Theory of the scanning tunneling microscope" (http
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doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.31.805 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.31.805).
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h.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8979).
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90289-V). S2CID 95739038 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95739038).

Further reading
Chen CJ (1993). Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20221218190343/http://www.columbia.edu/~jcc2161/documents/STM_book.pdf) (PDF).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507150-4. Archived from the original (http://www.co
lumbia.edu/~jcc2161/documents/STM_book.pdf) (PDF) on 2022-12-18.
Wiesendanger R (1994). Scanning probe microscopy and spectroscopy: methods and
applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=EXae0pjS2vwC). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42847-7.
Wiesendanger R, Güntherodt HJ, eds. (1996). Scanning Tunneling Microscopy III – Theory
of STM and Related Scanning Probe Methods. Springer Series in Surface Sciences.
Vol. 29. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-80118-1 (https://doi.org/1
0.1007%2F978-3-642-80118-1). ISBN 978-3-540-60824-0.
Bai C (2000). Scanning tunneling microscopy and its applications (https://books.google.com/
books?id=3Q08jRmmtrkC&pg=PA345). New York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-65715-
6.
Voigtländer B (2015). Scanning Probe Microscopy (https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/9
78-3-662-45240-0). NanoScience and Technology. Bibcode:2015spma.book.....V (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015spma.book.....V). doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45240-0 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-45240-0). ISBN 978-3-662-45239-4. ISSN 1434-4904 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/issn/1434-4904). S2CID 94208893 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:94208893).
Lounis S (2014-04-03). "Theory of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy". arXiv:1404.0961 (http
s://arxiv.org/abs/1404.0961) [cond-mat.mes-hall (https://arxiv.org/archive/cond-mat.mes-hal
l)].
Binnig G, Rohrer H, Gerber C, Weibel E (1983-01-10). "7 × 7 Reconstruction on Si(111)
Resolved in Real Space" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.50.120). Physical Review
Letters. 50 (2): 120–123. Bibcode:1983PhRvL..50..120B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1983PhRvL..50..120B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.120 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysR
evLett.50.120). ISSN 0031-9007 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
Binnig G, Rohrer H, Gerber C, Weibel E (1982-07-05). "Surface Studies by Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.49.57). Physical Review
Letters. 49 (1): 57–61. Bibcode:1982PhRvL..49...57B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
82PhRvL..49...57B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.57 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevL
ett.49.57). ISSN 0031-9007 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
Binnig G, Rohrer H, Gerber C, Weibel E (1982-01-15). "Tunneling through a controllable
vacuum gap" (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.92999). Applied Physics Letters. 40 (2): 178–
180. Bibcode:1982ApPhL..40..178B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982ApPhL..40..178
B). doi:10.1063/1.92999 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.92999). ISSN 0003-6951 (https://sear
ch.worldcat.org/issn/0003-6951).
Bardeen J (1961-01-15). "Tunnelling from a Many-Particle Point of View" (https://link.aps.or
g/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.57). Physical Review Letters. 6 (2): 57–59.
Bibcode:1961PhRvL...6...57B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961PhRvL...6...57B).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.57 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.6.57). ISSN 0031-
9007 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007).
Tersoff J, Hamann DR (January 1985). "Theory of the scanning tunneling microscope" (http
s://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.31.805). Physical Review B. 31 (2): 805–813.
Bibcode:1985PhRvB..31..805T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985PhRvB..31..805T).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.31.805 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.31.805).
PMID 9935822 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9935822).
Chen CJ (July 1990). "Origin of atomic resolution on metal surfaces in scanning tunneling
microscopy" (https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.65.448). Physical Review Letters.
65 (4): 448–451. Bibcode:1990PhRvL..65..448C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990Ph
RvL..65..448C). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.65.448 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.
65.448). PMID 10042923 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10042923).
 Fujita D, Sagisaka K (January 2008). "Active nanocharacterization of nanofunctional
materials by scanning tunneling microscopy" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
C5099790). Science and Technology of Advanced Materials. 9 (1): 013003.
Bibcode:2008STAdM...9a3003F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008STAdM...9a3003F).
doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/1/013003 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1468-6996%2F9%2F1%2F0
13003). PMC 5099790 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5099790).
PMID 27877921 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27877921).

External links
A scanning tunelling microscope filmed during operation by an electron microscope (https://
www.fz-juelich.de/en/pgi/pgi-3/groups/research/multi-tip-spm-instrument-development/a-sca
nning-tunelling-microscope-filmed-during-operation-by-an-electron-microscope)
The Inner Workings of an STM - An Animated Explanation (https://wecanfigurethisout.org/V
L/easyScan_STM.htm) WeCanFigureThisOut.org
Build a simple STM with a cost of materials less than $100 excluding oscilloscope (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20091028073926/http://www.geocities.com/spm_stm/Project.html)
Animations and explanations on various types of microscopes including electron
microscopes (http://toutestquantique.fr/en/microscopy/) (Université Paris Sud)
Introduction to STM in plain English (https://hoffman.physics.harvard.edu/research/STMintr
o.php) (Harvard University)

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