Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet radiation, also known as

simply UV, is electromagnetic radiation
of wavelengths of 10–400 nanometers,
shorter than that of visible light, but
longer than X-rays. UV radiation is
present in sunlight, and constitutes about
10% of the total electromagnetic radiation
output from the Sun. It is also produced
by electric arcs, Cherenkov radiation, and
specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor
Portable ultraviolet UV radiation is also produced by electric
lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights.
lamp (UVA and arcs. Arc welders must wear eye
UVB) protection and cover their skin to prevent
The photons of ultraviolet have greater
photokeratitis and serious sunburn.
energy than those of visible light, from
about 3.1 to 12 electron volts, around the
minimum energy required to ionize atoms. Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an
ionizing radiation because its photons lack sufficient energy, it can induce chemical reactions and cause
many substances to glow or fluoresce. Many practical applications, including chemical and biological
effects, are derived from the way that UV radiation can interact with organic molecules. These
interactions can involve absorption or adjusting energy states in molecules, but do not necessarily involve
heating. Short-wave ultraviolet light is ionizing radiation. Consequently, short-wave UV damages DNA
and sterilizes surfaces with which it comes into contact.

For humans, suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of exposure of the skin to UV, along with an
increased risk of skin cancer. The amount of UV radiation produced by the Sun means that the Earth
would not be able to sustain life on dry land if most of that light were not filtered out by the
atmosphere.[1] More energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly
that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground.[2] However, UV (specifically, UVB) is also responsible
for the formation of vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans.[3] The UV spectrum, thus, has
effects both beneficial and detrimental to life.

The lower wavelength limit of the visible spectrum is conventionally taken as 400 nm. Although
ultraviolet rays are not generally visible to humans, 400 nm is not a sharp cutoff, with shorter and shorter
wavelengths becoming less and less visible in this range.[4] Insects, birds, and some mammals can see
near-UV (NUV), i.e., somewhat shorter wavelengths than what humans can see.[5]

Visibility
Ultraviolet rays are usually invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in
the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea.[6] Humans also
lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are
sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as
whitish-blue or whitish-violet.[4] Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet
down to wavelengths around 310 nm.[7][8] Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and
some birds. Birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this, coupled with eye structures that
transmit more UV gives smaller birds "true" UV vision.[9][10]

History and discovery

"Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest
frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency (thus a shorter wavelength) than violet
light.

UV radiation was discovered in February 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter
observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-
soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He announced the discovery in a very brief letter to the
Annalen der Physik[11][12] and later called them "(de-)oxidizing rays" (German: de-oxidierende Strahlen)
to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the previous year
at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted soon afterwards,
and remained popular throughout the 19th century, although some said that this radiation was entirely
different from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"[13][14]). The terms
"chemical rays" and "heat rays" were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation,
respectively.[15][16] In 1878, the sterilizing effect of short-wavelength light by killing bacteria was
discovered. By 1903, the most effective wavelengths were known to be around 250 nm. In 1960, the
effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.[17]

The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named "vacuum ultraviolet"
because it is strongly absorbed by the oxygen in air, was made in 1893 by German physicist Victor
Schumann.[18]

Subtypes
The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10–
400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO
21348:[19]
 Name
Photon energy
Wavelength Notes/alternative names
Abbreviation (eV, aJ)
(nm)

Ultraviolet A 3.10–3.94 Long-wave UV, blacklight, not absorbed by the ozone

UVA 315–400 0.497–0.631 layer: soft UV.

Ultraviolet B 3.94–4.43 Medium-wave UV, mostly absorbed by the ozone layer:

UVB 280–315 0.631–0.710 intermediate UV; Dorno radiation.

Ultraviolet C Short-wave UV, germicidal UV, ionizing radiation at

4.43–12.4
shorter wavelengths, completely absorbed by the ozone
0.710–1.987
UVC 100–280 layer and atmosphere: hard UV.

Near ultraviolet 3.10–4.13

Visible to birds, insects, and fish.
NUV 300–400 0.497–0.662

Middle ultraviolet 4.13–6.20

MUV 200–300 0.662–0.993

Far ultraviolet 6.20–10.16

Ionizing radiation at shorter wavelengths.
FUV 122–200 0.993–1.628

Hydrogen
Lyman-alpha 10.16–10.25
Spectral line at 121.6 nm, 10.20 eV.
1.628–1.642
H Lyman‑α 121–122
Extreme ultraviolet 10.25–124 Entirely ionizing radiation by some definitions; completely
EUV 10–121 1.642–19.867 absorbed by the atmosphere.

Far-UVC 5.28–6.20 Germicidal but strongly absorbed by outer skin layers, so

200–235 0.846–0.993 does not reach living tissue.

Vacuum ultraviolet 6.20–124 Strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen, though 150–

VUV 10–200 0.993–19.867 200 nm wavelengths can propagate through nitrogen.

Several solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum.
Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted
response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and
photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive UV
photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV
radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum.[20]

Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in
the air, though the longer wavelengths around 150–200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific
instruments can, therefore, use this spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (pure
nitrogen, or argon for shorter wavelengths), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant
examples include 193-nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular
dichroism spectrometers.[21]
Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While
optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general, detectors can
be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of solar-blind devices has been
an important area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff
photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.[22]

Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with
matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms,
while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner-shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of
the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most
known materials, but synthesizing multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50% of EUV radiation at
normal incidence is possible. This technology was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets
in the 1990s, and it has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet
Explorer satellite.

Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV" and "soft UV". For instance, in the case of astrophysics,
the boundary may be at the Lyman limit (wavelength 91.2 nm, the energy needed to ionise a hydrogen
atom from its ground state), with "hard UV" being more energetic;[23] the same terms may also be used in
other fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. The numerical values of the boundary between
hard/soft, even within similar scientific fields, do not necessarily coincide; for example, one applied-
physics publication used a boundary of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions.[24]

Solar ultraviolet
Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body
radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all
wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where
it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars
(such as O- and B-type) emit proportionally more UV
radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of
Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed
of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and
10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about
1400 W/m2 in vacuum.[25]

The atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV,

Levels of ozone at various altitudes (DU/km) and
when the Sun is highest in the sky (at zenith), with blocking of different bands of ultraviolet radiation:
absorption increasing at shorter UV wavelengths. At In essence, all UVC is blocked by diatomic
ground level with the sun at zenith, sunlight is 44% oxygen (100–200 nm) or by ozone (triatomic
visible light, 3% ultraviolet, and the remainder oxygen) (200–280 nm) in the atmosphere. The
infrared. [26][27] Of the ultraviolet radiation that ozone layer then blocks most UVB. Meanwhile,
UVA is hardly affected by ozone, and most of it
reaches the Earth's surface, more than 95% is the
reaches the ground. UVA makes up almost all UV
longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder
light that penetrates the Earth's atmosphere.
UVB. Almost no UVC reaches the Earth's surface.[28]
The fraction of UVA and UVB which remains in UV
radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric
conditions. On "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of
(scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue
light from those parts of the sky. UVB also plays a major role in plant development, as it affects most of
the plant hormones.[29] During total overcast, the amount of absorption due to clouds is heavily
dependent on the thickness of the clouds and latitude, with no clear measurements correlating specific
thickness and absorption of UVA and UVB.[30]

The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are
absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by
UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking
most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.

Blockers, absorbers, and windows

Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV
radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves
degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary.

In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone[31] and octyl
methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic
absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation such as carbon black, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.

For clothing, the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without
and with the protection of the fabric, similar to sun protection factor (SPF) ratings for sunscreen. Standard
summer fabrics have UPFs around 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.

Suspended nanoparticles in stained-glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical reactions that change
image colors. A set of stained-glass color-reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color
cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV
present at the surface of Mars.

Common soda–lime glass, such as window glass, is partially transparent to UVA, but is opaque to shorter
wavelengths, passing about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocking over 90% of the light below
300 nm.[32][33][34] A study found that car windows allow 3–4% of ambient UV to pass through, especially
if the UV was greater than 380 nm.[35] Other types of car windows can reduce transmission of UV that is
greater than 335 nm.[35] Fused quartz, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV
wavelengths. Crystalline quartz and some crystals such as CaF2 and MgF2 transmit well down to 150 nm
or 160 nm wavelengths.[36]
Wood's glass is a deep violet-blue barium-sodium silicate glass with about 9% nickel(II) oxide developed
during World War I to block visible light for covert communications. It allows both infrared daylight and
ultraviolet night-time communications by being transparent between 320 nm and 400 nm and also the
longer infrared and just-barely-visible red wavelengths. Its maximum UV transmission is at 365 nm, one
of the wavelengths of mercury lamps.

Artificial sources

"Black lights"

Two black light fluorescent tubes, showing use. The longer tube is a F15T8/BLB 18 inch, 15 watt tube,
shown in the bottom image in a standard plug-in fluorescent fixture. The shorter is an F8T5/BLB 12 inch,
8 watt tube, used in a portable battery-powered black light sold as a pet urine detector.

A black light lamp emits long-wave UVA radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps
work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UVA
radiation instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that
blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometers.[37] The purple glow given
off by these tubes is not the ultraviolet itself, but visible purple light from mercury's 404 nm spectral line
which escapes being filtered out by the coating. Other black lights use plain glass instead of the more
expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating.

Incandescent black lights are also produced, using a filter coating on the envelope of an incandescent
bulb that absorbs visible light (see section below). These are cheaper but very inefficient, emitting only a
small fraction of a percent of their power as UV. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with
UV-emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays.

Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be minimized; mainly to
observe fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances give off when exposed to UV light. UVA /
UVB emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-husbandry.

Short-wave ultraviolet lamps

Shortwave UV lamps are made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no phosphor coating, composed of
fused quartz or vycor, since ordinary glass absorbs UVC. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two
peaks in the UVC band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some
visible light. From 85% to 90% of the UV produced by these
lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5–10% is at 185 nm.[38] The
fused quartz tube passes the 253.7 nm radiation but blocks the
185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UVC 9 watt germicidal UV bulb, in
power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure compact fluorescent (CF) form
factor
lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30–40%,
meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the
lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV
output. They also emit bluish-white visible light, due to mercury's
other spectral lines. These "germicidal" lamps are used
extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food-
processing industries.[39]
Commercial germicidal lamp in
butcher shop
Incandescent lamps
'Black light' incandescent lamps are also made from an incandescent light bulb with a filter coating which
absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light
sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black-body
spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent
of its energy as UV, as explained by the black body spectrum.

Gas-discharge lamps
Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation at particular
spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources,
either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride.[40] These are often the emitting
sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis.

Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as
sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, and metal-halide arc lamps.

The excimer lamp, a UV source developed in the early 2000s, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields.
It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands
into the vacuum ultraviolet.

Ultraviolet LEDs
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the ultraviolet range. In 2019,
following significant advances over the preceding five years, UVA LEDs of 365 nm and longer
wavelength were available, with efficiencies of 50% at 1.0 W output. Currently, the most common types
of UV LEDs are in 395 nm and 365 nm wavelengths, both of which are in the UVA spectrum. The rated
wavelength is the peak wavelength that the LEDs put out, but light at both higher and lower wavelengths
are present.

The cheaper and more common 395 nm UV LEDs are much closer to the visible spectrum, and give off a
purple color. Other UV LEDs deeper into the spectrum do not emit as much visible light.[41] LEDs are
used for applications such as UV curing applications, charging glow-in-the-dark objects such as paintings
or toys, and lights for detecting counterfeit money and bodily fluids. UV LEDs are also used in digital
print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities
approaching 3 W/cm2 (30 kW/m2) are now possible, and this, coupled
with recent developments by photo-initiator and resin formulators, makes
the expansion of LED cured UV materials likely.

UVC LEDs are developing rapidly, but may require testing to verify
effective disinfection. Citations for large-area disinfection are for non-
LED UV sources[42] known as germicidal lamps.[43] Also, they are used
as line sources to replace deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography
instruments.[44]

Ultraviolet lasers A 380 nanometer UV LED

makes some common
Gas lasers, laser diodes, and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit household items fluoresce.
ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available that cover the entire UV range.
The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to
emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm in
wavelength. Another type of high-power gas lasers are excimer lasers. They are widely used lasers
emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride excimer
lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The
current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar2*
excimer laser.

Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm.[45] UV diode-pumped solid state lasers have
been demonstrated using cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride crystals (Ce:LiSAF), a
process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[46] Wavelengths shorter than
325 nm are commercially generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be
made by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers.

Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and
keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free-air secure communications, computing (optical storage), and
manufacture of integrated circuits.

Tunable vacuum ultraviolet (VUV)

The vacuum ultraviolet (V‑UV) band (100–200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in
gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is
generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm)[47] or
metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the V‑UV can be tuned. If one of the
lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the V‑UV production is intensified. However,
resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range
of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (i.e., f1 + f2 − f3) has an advantage over sum
frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning.[47]

In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable
visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable V‑UV covering
from 100 nm to 200 nm.[47] Practically, the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the
lithium fluoride cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable V‑UV
wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window-free configurations.[48]

Plasma and synchrotron sources of extreme UV

Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (E‑UV) radiation at 13.5 nm for
extreme ultraviolet lithography. The E‑UV is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in
an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser.[49] This technique does not
require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X‑ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources
can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X‑ray spectra at
10 nm.

Human health-related effects

The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun
exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun
exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.[50]

Beneficial effects
UV (specifically, UVB) causes the body to produce vitamin D,[51] which is essential for life. Humans
need some UV radiation to maintain adequate vitamin D levels. According to the World Health
Organization:[52]

There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5–15 minutes of casual sun
exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is
sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.

Vitamin D can also be obtained from food and supplementation.[53] Excess sun exposure produces
harmful effects, however.[52]

Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the
degree of bright sunlight the body receives.[54] Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness,
well-being and serenity to human beings.[55]

Skin conditions
UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat
psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma.[56][57] In addition, UV
radiation, in particular UVB radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the
most common type of skin cell.[58] As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of
conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly
than usual or necessary.[59]

Harmful effects
In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute
and chronic harmful effects on the eye's dioptric system and
retina. The risk is elevated at high altitudes and people living in
high latitude areas where snow covers the ground right into early
summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are particularly
at risk.[60] Skin, the circadian system, and the immune system can
also be affected.[61]

The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the

human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action Sunburn effect (as measured by the
spectrum". [62] The action spectrum shows that UVA does not UV index) is the product of the
cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause sunlight spectrum (radiation
intensity) and the erythemal action
photokeratitis and skin redness (with lighter skinned individuals
spectrum (skin sensitivity) across
being more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning
the range of UV wavelengths.
of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. Sunburn production per milliwatt of
The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265– radiation intensity is increased by
275 nm, which is in the lower UVC band. At still shorter nearly a factor of 100 between the
wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt near UVB wavelengths of 315–
effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. 295 nm.
The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized
measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause
sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and
location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of
the UVA and UVB bands.

Skin damage
Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but
also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness
and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not
predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the
direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.[63]

All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate

aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin,
which may cause further damage.[64]
Ultraviolet photons harm the DNA
molecules of living organisms in
UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage.[65] This cancer
different ways. In one common
connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and damage event, adjacent thymine
the ozone hole. bases bond with each other, instead
of across the "ladder". This "thymine
The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is dimer" makes a bulge, and the
mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UVA radiation. distorted DNA molecule does not
This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature function properly.
mutation in 92% of all melanoma.[66] Occasional overexposure
and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than
long-term moderate exposure.[67] UVC is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet
radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.[68]
In the past, UVA was considered not harmful or less harmful than UVB, but today it is known to
contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species).[69]
UVA can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which
in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UVA consists mostly of single-
strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UVB includes direct formation of thymine dimers or
cytosine dimers and double-strand DNA breakage.[70] UVA is immunosuppressive for the entire body
(accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for
basal cell keratinocytes in skin.[71]

UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UVB radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells,
causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most
UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair
that employs about 30 different proteins.[65] Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can
induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to
mutation.

As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when
exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan.
The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting
the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UVA gives a quick tan that lasts for
days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from
melanocytes. UVB yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to
produce more melanin.

Sunscreen safety debate

Medical organizations recommend that patients protect themselves
from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five sunscreen ingredients
have been shown to protect mice against skin tumors. However,
some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances
if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells.[72][73]
The amount of sunscreen that penetrates into the lower layers of
the skin may be large enough to cause damage.[74]

Demonstration of the effect of

Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn, by
sunscreen. The left image is a blocking UVB, and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively
regular photograph of his face; the this radiation is blocked. SPF is, therefore, also called UVB-PF,
right image is of reflected UV light. for "UVB protection factor".[75] This rating, however, offers no
The man's face has sunscreen on data about important protection against UVA,[76] which does not
his right side only. It appears darker
primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful, since it causes
because the sunscreen absorbs the
indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic. Several
UV light.
studies suggest that the absence of UVA filters may be the cause of
the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users
compared to non-users. [77][78][79][80][81] Some sunscreen lotions contain titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and
avobenzone, which help protect against UVA rays.
The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen
chemicals cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore, if
sunscreen ingredients penetrate into the lower layers of the skin, the amount of reactive oxygen species
may be increased.[82][72][73][83] The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum corneum
may or may not be large enough to cause damage.

In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen
species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes, the film
of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes,
however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the
sunscreen-treated skin than in the untreated skin.[82] The study indicates that sunscreen must be reapplied
within 2 hours in order to prevent UV light from penetrating to sunscreen-infused live skin cells.[82]

Aggravation of certain skin conditions

Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions and diseases, including[84] systemic lupus
erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, Sinear Usher syndrome, rosacea, dermatomyositis, Darier's disease,
Kindler–Weary syndrome and Porokeratosis.[85]

Eye damage
The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower UVC
band at 265–275 nm. Radiation of this wavelength is almost
absent from sunlight at the surface of the Earth but is emitted by
artificial sources such as the electrical arcs employed in arc
Signs are often used to warn of the
welding. Unprotected exposure to these sources can cause
hazard of strong UV sources.
"welder's flash" or "arc eye" (photokeratitis) and can lead to
cataracts, pterygium and pinguecula formation. To a lesser extent,
UVB in sunlight from 310 to 280 nm also causes photokeratitis ("snow blindness"), and the cornea, the
lens, and the retina can be damaged.[86]

Protective eyewear is beneficial to those exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes
from the sides, full-coverage eye protection is usually warranted if there is an increased risk of exposure,
as in high-altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed to higher-than-ordinary levels of UV
radiation, both because there is less atmospheric filtering and because of reflection from snow and
ice.[87][88] Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection. Most plastic lenses give more protection
than glass lenses, because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA and the common acrylic plastic
used for lenses is less so. Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inherently block most
UV.[89]

Degradation of polymers, pigments and dyes

UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that affects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem
appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or disintegration. The effects of attack
increase with exposure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV absorbers inhibits the effect.
 Sensitive polymers
include thermoplastics
and speciality fibers
like aramids. UV
absorption leads to
chain degradation and
UV damaged polypropylene rope
loss of strength at
(left) and new rope (right)
sensitive points in the
chain structure.
IR spectrum showing carbonyl absorption
Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of thermoplastic
due to UV degradation of polyethylene
if it is to retain its strength.

Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so

paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent lamps, two common
sources of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra
shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for
example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV.
Various forms of picture framing glass, including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings, offer
different degrees of UV (and visible light) protection.

Applications
Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet
radiation has a number of applications. The following table[90] gives some uses of specific wavelength
bands in the UV spectrum.

13.5 nm: Extreme ultraviolet lithography

30–200 nm: Photoionization, ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, standard integrated
circuit manufacture by photolithography
230–365 nm: UV-ID, label tracking, barcodes
230–400 nm: Optical sensors, various instrumentation
240–280 nm: Disinfection, decontamination of surfaces and water (DNA absorption has a
peak at 260 nm), germicidal lamps[43]
200–400 nm: Forensic analysis, drug detection
270–360 nm: Protein analysis, DNA sequencing, drug discovery
280–400 nm: Medical imaging of cells
300–320 nm: Light therapy in medicine
300–365 nm: Curing of polymers and printer inks
350–370 nm: Bug zappers (flies are most attracted to light at 365 nm)[91]

Photography
Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation
shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking filters are often used for outdoor photography to
prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near UV, special filters
may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz lenses which do
not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters
that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these
internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external
visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography. A few
cameras are designed for use in the UV.

Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical,

scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as
detecting bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work
on paintings. Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet
illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.

In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical A portrait taken using only
UV light between the
composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and
wavelengths of 335 and
composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV 365 nanometers
frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV
observations are made from space.[92]

Electrical and electronics industry

Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its
ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical
insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide.[93]
Aurora at Jupiter's north pole as
EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) are seen in ultraviolet light by the
erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a Hubble Space Telescope
transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the
UV radiation in.

Fluorescent dye uses

Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and
fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present and causes the
colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.

UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to
enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps.
Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic
applications.

Amusement parks often use UV lighting to fluoresce ride artwork and backdrops. This often has the side
effect of causing rider's white clothing to glow light-purple.

To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as driver's licenses
and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor fibers that are visible
under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows under UV rays to permit
automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter.
UV fluorescent dyes are used in many applications (for example,
biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of pepper spray will
leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off
on a pepper-sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the
attacker later.

In some types of nondestructive testing UV stimulates fluorescent

dyes to highlight defects in a broad range of materials. These dyes A bird appears on many Visa credit
may be carried into surface-breaking defects by capillary action cards when they are held under a
(liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite UV light source.
particles caught in magnetic leakage fields in ferrous materials
(magnetic particle inspection).

Analytic uses

Forensics
UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids such as
semen, blood, and saliva.[94] For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high-power UV
sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon.[95] UV–vis
microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint chips, as well as
questioned documents.

Other applications include the authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit
currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have distinctive fluorescence
under UV exposure or may fluoresce differently under short-wave versus long-wave ultraviolet.

Enhancing contrast of ink

Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa
of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves taking pictures of
the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture
certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from
paper on the papyrus surface.

Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron-based ink on vellum.[96]

Sanitary compliance
Ultraviolet helps detect organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning and
sanitizing may have failed. It is used in the hotel industry, manufacturing, and other industries where
levels of cleanliness or contamination are inspected.[97][98][99][100]

Perennial news features for many television news organizations involve an investigative reporter using a
similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.[101][102]

Chemistry
UV/Vis spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to
analyze chemical structure, the most notable one being conjugated
systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample
where the fluorescent emission is measured with a
spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV radiation is used
for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins. In environmental
chemistry, UV radiation could also be used to detect Contaminants
of emerging concern in water samples.[103]
After a training exercise involving
fake body fluids, a healthcare
In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to
worker's personal protective
detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury, equipment is checked with
and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil-fired power ultraviolet to find invisible drops of
plants.[104] Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled fluids. These fluids could contain
oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV deadly viruses or other
wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of contamination.
UV created by Raman scattering in water.[105] UV absorbance can
also be used to quantify contaminants in wastewater. Most
commonly used 254 nm UV absorbance is genrally used as a surrogate parameters to quantify NOM.[103]
Another form of light-based detection method uses a wide spectrum of excitation emission matrix (EEM)
to detect and identify contaminants based on their flourense properties.[103][106] EEM could be used to
discriminate different groups of NOM based on the difference in light emission and excitation of
fluorophores. NOMs with certain molecular structures are reported to have fluorescent properties in a
wide range of excitation/emission wavelengths.[107][103]

Ultraviolet lamps are also used as part of the analysis of some

minerals and gems.

Material science uses

Fire detection
In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, A collection of mineral samples
such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a fluorescing brilliantly at various
gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are wavelengths as seen while being
irradiated by UV
sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation
by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for
instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region,
whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire
detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone.
Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is
absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not
cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.

UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and
ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment
(though this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV
detection system. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a
fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to detect flames. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist
in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect.

Photolithography
Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical
called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The exposure causes
chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern
determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch" away, deposit on or
otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.

Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components,[108] and

printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits
presently use 193 nm UV and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography.

Polymers
Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic panels and
sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC
emissions and rapid curing.

Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with

photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light,
polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure,
usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and
plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV
Effects of UV on finished surfaces in
coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and 0, 20 and 43 hours
decorative fingernail "gels".

UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and excimer flash lamps. Fast
processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving
substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized
with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static
applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via
liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.

The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of
polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum
ultraviolet.[109]
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV
will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has
been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger.

Biology-related uses

Air purification
Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC exposure, oxidation of organic matter
converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts. However, the reaction of
titanium dioxide and UVC is not a straight path. Several hundreds of reactions occur prior to the inert
byproducts stage and can hinder the resulting reaction creating formaldehyde, aldehyde, and other VOC's
en route to a final stage. Thus, the use of titanium dioxide and UVC requires very specific parameters for
a successful outcome. The cleansing mechanism of UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the
indoor environment are almost entirely organic carbon-based compounds, which break down when
exposed to high-intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet radiation can destroy DNA in
living microorganisms.[110] UVC's effectiveness is directly related to intensity and exposure time.

UV has also been shown to reduce gaseous contaminants such as carbon monoxide and
VOCs.[111][112][113] UV lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low concentrations of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide if the air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber. This
arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by
passing by a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone
produced by the UV lamp.

Sterilization and disinfection

Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used
in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially
available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of
their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the
peak germicidal effectiveness curve. UV at these germicidal
wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA/RNA so that it
cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism
may not be killed).[114] Since microorganisms can be shielded
from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these A low-pressure mercury vapor
lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization discharge tube floods the inside of a
techniques. hood with shortwave UV light when
not in use, sterilizing microbiological
UVC LEDs are relatively new to the commercial market and are contaminants from irradiated
gaining in popularity.[115] Due to their monochromatic nature surfaces.

(±5 nm) these LEDs can target a specific wavelength needed for
disinfection. This is especially important knowing that pathogens vary in their sensitivity to specific UV
wavelengths. LEDs are mercury free, instant on/off, and have unlimited cycling throughout the day.[116]
Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is finding an
increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection
equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection[117] has been researched for cheaply treating
contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UVA irradiation and increased water temperature kill
organisms in the water.

Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV can be used
to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high-intensity ultraviolet source. The effectiveness of
such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice.

Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad
spectrum, rich in UVC between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with xenon flash lamps that can
produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV.[118]

The antimicrobial effectiveness of filtered far-UVC (222 nm) light on a range of pathogens, including
bacteria and fungi showed inhibition of pathogen growth, and since it has lesser harmful effects, it
provides essential insights for reliable disinfection in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and long-term
care homes.[119] UVC has also been shown to be effective at degrading SARS-CoV-2 virus.[120]

Biological
Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such as bees, can see near-ultraviolet wavelengths.
Many fruits, flowers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the background in ultraviolet wavelengths
as compared to human color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green color under UV
illumination, thus assisting in the control of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their plumage
that are invisible at usual wavelengths but observable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions of
some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings, are much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine
trails of rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for proper treatment of infested dwellings.

Butterflies use ultraviolet as a communication system for sex recognition and mating behavior. For
example, in the Colias eurytheme butterfly, males rely on visual cues to locate and identify females.
Instead of using chemical stimuli to find mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet-reflecting color of
female hind wings.[121] In Pieris napi butterflies it was shown that females in northern Finland with less
UV-radiation present in the environment possessed stronger UV signals to attract their males than those
occurring further south. This suggested that it was evolutionarily more difficult to increase the UV-
sensitivity of the eyes of the males than to increase the UV-signals emitted by the females.[122]

Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions from celestial objects as references for flight
navigation. A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navigation process and will eventually
attract the flying insect.

The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is often used in genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as
proteins, have significant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet that are of interest in biochemistry and
related fields. UV-capable spectrophotometers are common in such laboratories.
Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to eliminate various
small flying insects. They are attracted to the UV and are killed
using an electric shock, or trapped once they come into contact
with the device. Different designs of ultraviolet radiation traps are
also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during
faunistic survey studies.

Therapy
Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions Entomologist using a UV lamp for
collecting beetles in Chaco,
such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to UVA, while the skin is
Paraguay
hyper-photosensitive, by taking psoralens is an effective treatment
for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to
the liver, PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of times over a patient's lifetime.

UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic
benefit; only the exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction
with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic
treatments such as methotrexate and Soriatane.[123]

Herpetology
Reptiles need UVB for biosynthesis of vitamin D, and other metabolic processes.[124] Specifically
cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), which is needed for basic cellular / neural functioning as well as the
utilization of calcium for bone and egg production. The UVA wavelength is also visible to many reptiles
and might play a significant role in their ability survive in the wild as well as in visual communication
between individuals. Therefore, in a typical reptile enclosure, a fluorescent UV a/b source (at the proper
strength / spectrum for the species), must be available for many captive species to survive. Simple
supplementation with cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) will not be enough as there is a complete biosynthetic
pathway that is "leapfrogged" (risks of possible overdoses), the intermediate molecules and metabolites
also play important functions in the animals health. Natural sunlight in the right levels is always going to
be superior to artificial sources, but this might not be possible for keepers in different parts of the world.

It is a known problem that high levels of output of the UVa part of the spectrum can both cause cellular
and DNA damage to sensitive parts of their bodies – especially the eyes where blindness is the result of
an improper UVa/b source use and placement photokeratitis. For many keepers there must also be a
provision for an adequate heat source this has resulted in the marketing of heat and light "combination"
products. Keepers should be careful of these "combination" light/ heat and UVa/b generators, they
typically emit high levels of UVa with lower levels of UVb that are set and difficult to control so that
animals can have their needs met. A better strategy is to use individual sources of these elements and so
they can be placed and controlled by the keepers for the max benefit of the animals.[125]

Evolutionary significance
The evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is attributed in modern models of evolutionary
theory to ultraviolet radiation. UVB causes thymine base pairs next to each other in genetic sequences to
bond together into thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproductive enzymes cannot copy. This
leads to frameshifting during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually killing the cell. Before
formation of the UV-blocking ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the surface of the ocean,
they almost invariably died out. The few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored the genetic
material and removed thymine dimers by nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and
proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are similar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be
evolved modifications of the enzymes originally used to overcome DNA damages caused by UV.[126]

Elevated levels of ultraviolet radiation, in particular UV-B, have also been speculated as a cause of mass
extinctions in the fossil record.[127]

Photobiology
Photobiology is the scientific study of the beneficial and harmful interactions of non-ionizing radiation in
living organisms, conventionally demarcated around 10 eV, the first ionization energy of oxygen. UV
ranges roughly from 3 to 30 eV in energy. Hence photobiology entertains some, but not all, of the UV
spectrum.

See also
Biological effects of high-energy visible Ultraviolet catastrophe
light Ultraviolet index
Bowen fluorescence UV marker
Infrared UV stabilizers in plastics
Ultraviolet astronomy Weather testing of polymers

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Further reading
Allen, Jeannie (6 September 2001). Ultraviolet Radiation: How it Affects Life on Earth (http
s://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/UVB/). Earth Observatory. NASA, USA.
Hockberger, Philip E. (2002). "A History of Ultraviolet Photobiology for Humans, Animals and
Microorganisms". Photochemistry and Photobiology. 76 (6): 561–569. doi:10.1562/0031-
8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2 (https://doi.org/10.1562%2F0031-8655%282002%29
0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2). PMID 12511035 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12511035).
S2CID 222100404 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222100404).
Hu, S; Ma, F; Collado-Mesa, F; Kirsner, R. S. (July 2004). "UV radiation, latitude, and
melanoma in US Hispanics and blacks". Arch. Dermatol. 140 (7): 819–824.
doi:10.1001/archderm.140.7.819 (https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchderm.140.7.819).
PMID 15262692 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15262692).
Strauss, CEM; Funk, DJ (1991). "Broadly tunable difference-frequency generation of VUV
using two-photon resonances in H2 and Kr". Optics Letters. 16 (15): 1192–4.
Bibcode:1991OptL...16.1192S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991OptL...16.1192S).
 doi:10.1364/ol.16.001192 (https://doi.org/10.1364%2Fol.16.001192). PMID 19776917 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19776917).

External links
Media related to Ultraviolet light at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of ultraviolet at Wiktionary

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