Module 4

Environmental Pollution
 Definition, Cause, effects and control measures of Air pollution,
Water pollution, Soil pollution, Marine pollution, Noise pollution,
Thermal pollution, Nuclear hazards; Solid waste Management:
Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial
wastes; Role of an individual in prevention of pollution; Pollution
case studies; Disaster management: floods, earthquake, cyclone
and landslides.
 Air pollution is defined as “ substances put into air by the activity
of mankind into concentration sufficient to cause harmful effects
to his health, vegetables, property . ”
 “Air pollution is the presence in ambient atmosphere of
substance, generally resulting from the activity of man, in
sufficient concentration, present for a sufficient time and under
circumstances which interface significantly with the conformity.”

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Air pollutants exist in various quantities in the atmosphere and
they are found in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. They may be
classified # According to Origin:
• * Pollutants which enter in the air directly are known as Primary
Pollutants,
• * Which are created in the air from other pollutants under the
influence of electromagnetic radiation from sun are called
Secondary Pollutants.

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• There are five primary pollutants, which together contribute more
than 90% of global air pollution. These are;
1. Carbon monoxide CO
2. Nitrogen oxide NO x
3. Sulphur oxide SO x
4. Hydrocarbons HC
5. Particulates, Part.

According to Chemical Composition:

On this basis, air pollutants can be divided as- organic and
inorganic air pollutants.
1. Organic air pollutants are hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones,
carboxylic acids, Organic sulphur compounds, etc.
2. Inorganic air pollutants includes compounds, such as CO, CO2,
SOx , NOx , O3 , etc.

According to State of Matter:

1. On this basis, air pollutants are classified as- particulates and
gaseous air pollutants.
2. Particulate air pollutants includes finely divided solids and
liquids disappeared in gaseous media. Solid
particulates-Dust, smoke, fly ash, fumes, etc.
3. Liquid particulates-Mist, spray, fog, etc.
4. Gaseous air pollutants are organic gases like benzene,
methane, butane, aldehydes, ketones, etc. as well as
inorganic gases like CO2 , SOx , CO , NH3 , H2S , NOx , etc.

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CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

[Link] of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the

combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and other
factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps,
cars, trains, airplanes cause immense amount of pollution.
We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of
transportation. But, there overuse is killing our environment
as dangerous gases are polluting the environment. Carbon
Monooxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion
and generally emitted from vehicles is another major
pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is produced from
both natural and man made processes.

2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by

product from agriculture related activities and is one of the
most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown
quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can
also cause water pollution.

[Link] from factories and industries: Manufacturing

industries release large amount of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the
air thereby depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing
industries can be found at every corner of the earth and there
is no area that has not been affected by it. Petroleum
refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other
chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.

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• 4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals
below the earth are extracted using large equipments. During
the process dust and chemicals are released in the air
causing massive air pollution. This is one of the reason
which is responsible for the deteriorating health conditions
of workers and nearby residents.
• 5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products,
painting supplies emit toxic chemicals in the air and cause
air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint
walls of your house, it creates some sort of smell which
makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.
Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM,
is another cause of pollution. Referring to the particles afloat
in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.

• Effects of Air pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air

pollution are alarming. They are known to create several
respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among
other threats to the body. Several millions are known to have
died due to direct or indirect effects of Air pollution.
Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to
commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.
2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate
alterations that the world is witnessing due to Global
warming. With increased temperatures world wide, increase
in sea levels and melting of ice from colder regions and
icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already
signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation
and normalization aren’t undertaken soon.

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3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur
oxides are released into the atmosphere during the burning
of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines
with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on
the ground in the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great
damage to human, animals and crops.
4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high
amount of nitrogen present in some pollutants gets
developed on sea’s surface and turns itself into algae and
and adversely affect fish, plants and animal species. The
green colored algae that is present on lakes and ponds is due
to presence of this chemical only.
5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face
some devastating affects of air pollution. Toxic chemicals
present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new
place and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit
over the surface of the water and can also affect sea animals.
6. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earth’s
stratosphere and is responsible for protecting humans from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is
depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro
chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As ozone layer will
go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can
cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the
capability to affect crops.

Solutions for Air Pollution

1. Use public mode of transportation

2. Conserve energy
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
4. Emphasis on clean energy resources
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 5. Use energy efficient devices

WATER POLLUTION

Water makes 71% of the surface of Earth and more than

60% of human body. Though a major portion of the Earth’s
surface as well as our body consist of water, yet we continue
to pollute the different sources of water. As the population
increases, the pollution level in India is increasing at a
dangerous rate. Industrial effluents and chemicals, sewage
and other wastage are some of the common sources of water
pollution. In this blog, we discuss the causes, effects and
ways to prevent water pollution.

Types of Water Pollution

• Surface Water Pollution

• When hazardous substances come in contact with different
sources of water, it leads to surface water pollution. The
harmful contaminants from different sources mix or
physically dissolve with lakes, lagoons, oceans and lead to
surface water pollution.
• Ground Water Pollution
• Pesticides and chemicals applied on crops and soil are
washed deep into the ground when it rains. The pesticides
mix with underground water and lead to ground water
pollution.
• Suspended Matter Pollution
• In this type of pollution, the pollutants enter into water and
don’t mix with the water molecules. The suspended particles

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 in water form a silt on the waterbed that remove the
nutrients from water and make it polluted.

Microbial Pollution
A natural form of water pollution, microorganisms cause
this type of water pollution. Most of the microorganisms.
Though most of the microorganisms are harmless, however
some bacteria and viruses may cause serious health
problems.

Chemical Water Pollution

Many industries and farmers use chemicals when working
which end up polluting water that we use. Pollutants used to
control weeds, insects and pests leech into water and lead to
pollution. In addition, metals and solvents from industries
also lead to water pollution.

• Causes of water contamination

• Industrial wastes organic and inorganic compounds

• nitrogenous and phosphoric salts
• Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, zinc, lead, copper
and more.
• Agricultural wastes
• Animal by products
• Farm wastes
• Chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides which run off
from the land into the waters.

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 Sediments
Have you ever thought soil erosion could pollute water?
When excess sediments are washed into the water by wind
and other agents, these settle to the bottom. It chokes the
ecosystem by reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the
floor of the lake or river for the plants and animals to utilize.
It reduces the volume of water because of which less oxygen
is available for life cycles. This of course does not support
continuation of life.
Construction wastes and urban land erosion also add to the
sediments

Human and Domestic sewage

• In metropolitans, large cities and towns where population
densities are high , the quantity of human and domestic
wastes is large. Sewage treatment plants can use technology
to decontaminate the waste and then release the treated
water is into nearby seas, rivers or streams. In many cities,
insufficient treatment plants or inefficient technology lead to
water contamination.
• This form of contamination leads to Parasite and bacterial
contamination especially of fecal coliform bacteria, viruses
and protozoa leading to many diseases.
• Increased use of plastics which do not decompose but leach
out toxic chemicals, and clog all water bodies from drains to
lakes to seas.

Fall out of Air Pollution

• How can air pollutants such as oxides of sulphur, nitrogen

and phosphorus in large amounts add to water pollution?
Rain water combines with these salts and form droplets of
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 acids which fall to the ground .This is called Acid Rain.
When this rain falls or runs off from the land into the water
it causes the lake or pond to become acidic. This is an
unfavourable habitat for life.

Oil spilling
• Causing great danger to aquatic and marine life forms these
are isolated but large scale polluting factors. In addition to
being vast, it is very expensive to clean and take a long time
to do so.

Radioactive wastes
• As the name suggests various countries find ways and means
to dump their nuclear wastes where it may cause no harm to
humans. But is this even possible?

Thermal pollution
• Global warming causes the waters to get heated up changing
the ecological balance in them.
• Warm water which was used as coolants in the industries
being dumped as such in to the nearby water source causes
damage to its aquatic residents.

Eutrophication
• When material such as fertilizers especially those containing
nitrogen and phosphorus are flushed into water from farms,
they create a nutrient rich environment in the water. This is
called nutrient enrichment. This promotes the growth of
plants.
• Algae also benefit greatly from this nutrient rich
atmosphere. When they flourish and bloom they use up most
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 of the Oxygen in the water body leaving very little for the
remaining life forms. This leads to death of fish and other
organisms which cannot swim away to safety.
• Algae blooms prevent the penetration of sunlight into the
water which affects the photosynthesis of plants further
deplete the oxygen levels.
• Ultimately the water becomes unfit to support any form of
life.
• There are certain toxins also released from some algae
which travel up the food chain and affect higher life forms
adversely.
Effects of water pollution
 First and foremost the damage to the ecosystem and the
ecological balance. Because all systems are interdependent,
all forms of life not just aquatic are affected.
 The heavy metal pollutants entering into the food chain
causing birth defects, growth defects, reproductive problems
and early death.
 Various kinds of cancers occur with no apparent cause in the
communities affected
 Bacterial contamination leads to dysentery, cholera, food
poisoning and typhoid.

Control measures of water pollution :-

There is no easy way to solve water pollution; if there were,
it wouldn't be so much of a problem. Broadly speaking,
there are three different things that can help to tackle the
problem—education, laws, and economics and they work
together as a team.
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1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the
hands of state or central government Scientific techniques
should be adopted for environmental control of catchment
areas of rivers, ponds or streams.
1. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental
control of catchment areas of rivers, ponds or streams
2. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as
it helps prevent disposal of wastes into natural waters but
also extraction of products from waste.
3. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as
natural air conditioners.
4. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric
oxide pollutants and hence more trees should be planted.

• No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated)

should be discharged into any natural water body. Industries
should develop closed loop water supply schemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation

1. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from

time to time for effective control of water pollution.
2. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects
of water pollution using the media.
3. Laws, standards and practices should be established to
prevent water pollution and these laws should be modified
from time to time based on current requirements and
technological advancements.
4. Basic and applied research in public health engineering
should be encouraged.

1. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric

oxide pollutants and hence more trees should be planted.
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2. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated)
should be discharged into any natural water body. Industries
should develop closed loop water supply schemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation

SOIL POLLUTION

Introduction: Soil Pollution is a considered as a major

challenge for healthy environment. The weathering of
earth’s crust forms, soil over the centuries that supports the
variety of microscopic and macroscopic life-forms. Soil
Pollution can consist of anything that contaminates the
soil. Thus, it is also referred to as soil
contamination. It occurs whenpollutants in the soil reduce
soil quality and make it inhabitable to organisms such as
insects. Soil Pollution (also soil contamination) refers to the
degradation of soil quality either due to human activities or
due to natural phenomenon leading to:

• Decreased agricultural output,

• Deterioration in crop quality,
• Exposure to harmful and toxic chemicals
• Health risks of people living on it,
• Health threats to animals,
• Contamination of underground water further resulting in
polluted water supply,
• Imbalance of the soil ecosystem.

The top most layer of soil is composed of minerals of

various sizes and organic matters along with pores filled
with air and water. Soil is said to be contaminated when
there is the presence of excess Chemicals such as nitrate,
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 ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, naphthalene,
mercury, pesticides, etc. It is chiefly the lack of human
awareness that makes land lose its fertility simultaneously
increasing its alkalescency and acidity. As a result, the
surface of the soil erodes. This erosion is called soil
pollution.

Types of soil pollution.

Soil pollution tends to come from human activity.

The key types of soil pollution are enumerated
below.
1. Acidification of the soil:
The acids found in rainwater such as carbonic acid, and in
decomposing organic material such as humic and fulvic
acids, etccan stimulate leaching by dissociating into H+ ions
and their component anions which then displace or attract
base cations from the soil exchange complex.

2. Salinization of the soil:

It refers to an increase in salt content in the soil. It may lead
to soil erosion and may affect the crop output. Although
salinization occurs naturally in semi-arid and arid
environments, it is often exacerbated as a result of human
activity. In India, an extensive portion of desert region in
Rajasthan consists of saline soil. In parts of southwest
Australia, for example, removal of indigenous eucalyptus
forest has resulted in extensive salinization of soils. This has
occurred because the deeply rooted trees have been replaced
by shallow-rooted
grasses and crops, which are less effective in lowering the
ground-water level. Capillary action is most intense,and salinity is
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greatest in soils where the water table is within about 2 meter of
the surface.
1. Agro-chemical pollution:
In recent decades, the use of inorganic fertilizers has increased
dramatically at the expense of more traditional organic nutrient
treatments. Chemical runoff from pesticides and fertilizers can
degrade soil quality, whilst animal manure can change its
chemical composition. Inorganic fertilizers are used in preference
to organic treatments because the nutrients are in a more readily
available form and are released rapidly after
applications. Fertilizers are applied in a variety of orms —
solution, suspension, emulsion and solid. The solid forms vary in
particle size from fine powder to coarse granules and either
spread evenly (broadcast) over the soil surface or mechanically
placed, by drilling, into the rhizosphere. Generally the rate of
nutrient release decreases with increasing particle size. Fertilizers
are based on compounds of plant macro-nutrients.

NOISE POLLUTION :-
• Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air
or water, but it is a pollution problem that affects human
health and can contribute to a general deterioration of
environmental quality. Noise is undesirable and unwanted
sound. All sound is not noise. It may be considered as music
to one person and may be noise to another.
• Noise pollution refers to the excessive and troublesome
sound that is injurious, detrimental or hazardous to health. It
affects both human-beings and animals.
• Causes of Noise pollution

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• Noise pollution can be caused by several
phenomenon including industrial activity, and social activity
(such as explosion of fire crackers, loud parties), and surface
travel. The many causes of noise pollution are discussed
below:
1. Fire crackers: Fire crackers are exploded to make huge
sound during celebrations and festive occasions. It is
common sight to witness the firing of crackers at live
concerts. These high levels of sound is extremely
problematic for people, especially elderly and sick
people.

2. Transportation vehicles: Noise pollution is severest in

the cities. All forms of machine powered vehicles cause
noise pollution. The different modes of transportation
(land, air and water), produces enough sound and
collectively causes massive disturbance to the human
mind and body. During the last few decades, the world is
moving at unprecedented speed. People use surface
transportation vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trams,
bullet trains. There are metro rails in major cities. Long
distances are very often covered in an airplane or a bullet
train. Airports and railway stations are busy throughout
day and night. Far away places can be reached in hours.
People take the water route to travel via motor shops,
boats, yacht, and helicopters. Many people even own
private air-crafts. The ever-increasing usage of various
modes of transport is the major cause for noise pollution.

3. Microphones and Loud Speakers: Loud speakers and

microphones are used during social, political and other
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 special events. Large public gatherings are held. To make
sure that the announcements and speeches are audible a
large audience, microphones and loud speakers ate used.
Though these public gatherings are generally held for
welfare and entertainment of the public, the nearby
residents suffer from loud noise.

4. Factories and industries: In large cities, there are large

number of factories, mills and industries. Industries such
as steel industry, shipping industry, aircraft, wires, switch
gears and automobiles cause industrial noise.
These industrial sites produce immense environmental
noise to disturb the habitats of nearby residential areas.
Large scale industries are often sites as a major cause of
NIHL – Noise Induced Hearing Loss .The workers and
employees working in factories suffer from occupational
noise .They are constantly exposed to noise of the
working machinery. Their auditory system is at risk.
Long-term exposure to industrial noise may lead to
hearing disability.

5. Domestic household appliances: A majority of domestic

household appliances that we use in everyday life causes
noise pollution. Home theaters and televisions are played
non-stop. The air cooler is supported by a large and
powerful fan. The mixer grinders are used in grinding food
materials. The juicer extracts juices from the fruits. The air
purifier is used to purify the air. Washing machines are used
for washing clothes. Loud music are played on advanced
music systems. The smart phone keeps ringing.

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 6. Building and construction sites near residential areas:
The building and construction activity involves use of sound
producing equipment such as cement-mixer, road-roller,
crane, etc. Cement mixers uses a revolving drum to mix
cement, sand, small stones and water to create concrete. The
sound of cement mixers are annoying.

7. Office Equipment: In offices, a wide variety of

equipment is used. Many of the office equipment make
noise. Paper shredders are used to cut papers. Printers are
widely used for printing texts and pictures. A manual type
writer, is used for typing. Fax machines are used to send or
receive scanned texts or images through telecommunication
lines. Phones keep ringing. And people keep talking to
business partners, and clients over phone. When doors are
opened and shut hard, it makes noise.

• Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Effect on Human beings: Noise pollution affects the
human mind and body negatively. The ill-effects of
noise pollution are many. It is the major cause for several
ailments. The quality of human life gets disrupted. The
lives of the children, the aged or the ailing people become
miserable.
2. Loss of hearing and deafness: Noise above the tolerable
threshold is the leading cause for loss of hearing and
deafness.
3. Sleeplessness: Noise may make people restless and tired.
It may cause disrupted sleeping pattern or may keep
people away from sound sleep. In the long-term, due to
tiredness and lack of sleep, the immune system may get
compromised.
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 4. Headache: Human mind can tolerate sound only to a
limited extent. Excess noise causes headache.
5. Stress, tension and aggressiveness: Loud noises can be
very stressful. Constant exposure to irritating sound may
cause stress and tension. The behavior of people often
becomes aggressive. Other than psychological imbalance,
is causes physical illness such as increased blood
pressure, cardiac disturbance and insomnia.
6. Irregular blood pressure: For good health, it is very
important to maintain normal pressure in the arteries both
during the heartbeat and between the heartbeat. Noise
may contribute to fluctuations in the levels of blood
pressure.
7. Mental imbalance and nervous debility: Mental illness
is among the worst negative effects of noise pollution.
People may find it difficult to cope with their normal
routine life. Human mind cannot accept sound beyond a
certain level. Excess sound may lead to mental imbalance
and nervous disability.
8. Psychological imbalance: It may also cause
psychological imbalance.
9. Difficulty in talking: Due to excessive noise, it becomes
very difficult to talk on roads or inside malls.
Effect on Animals: Noise pollution is hazardous for animals,
both wild and domestic. It impairs hearing. Sometimes, it changes
the reproductive behavior of the animals. Noise disrupts the
communication among animals. Some animals cannot live in
noisy atmosphere resulting in loss of habitat. In the presence of
noise, some animals raise the level of their voice. For example,
many marine animals raises their voice when large ships passes
near them. The increased voice further adds to the noise already
present. Marine animals are sensitive to noise.
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Prevention of Noise Pollution
• Some effective measures should be taken to solve the
problem. The following measures can be taken to prevent
noise pollution:
• Better town planning and ensuring that residential towns
are set up at places away from heavy industrial units can
help in combating the problem of noise pollution.
• Significant control over noise pollution caused by
transportation vehicles can be controlled by making smooth
roads, and by disallowing heavy carriage vehicles on roads
near residential units.
• To prevent and control noise pollution it is necessary to
create public awareness. Only law is not sufficient. People
must be made aware of the harmful consequences and
irreversible injuries caused of noise pollution such as
deafness, mental illness, etc.
• There should be minimum use of sound producing
instruments. There should be proper regulations for the use
of loudspeakers, microphones, and other devices that
produce noise beyond that are beyond the toleration limits of
human-beings.

• The Pollution Control Board and the High Court have

already taken effective measures to bring sound pollution
under control. Adequate measures should be taken to ensure
that noise related restrictions are not violated.
• Anti-pollution laws should be enacted and enforced.
• Ban on fire crackers should be imposed and electric horns
should be replaced by bulb horns. Further, use of horns in
residential areas should be monitored and regulated.
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• Usage of quieter machinery should be encouraged.

• Thermal pollution - causes, effects and control measures

of thermal pollution
• Thermal pollution :-Thermal pollution is defined as the
addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal
pollution may also cause significant departures from nor
activities of aquatic communities.

Sources of Thermal Pollution:

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.
• Nuclear power plants
• Coal fired plants
• Industrial effluents
• Domestic sewage
Hydro-electric power

1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including

drainage from hospitals, research institutions, nuclear
experiments and explosions, discharge a lot of heat that is
not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into
nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and
processing installations are also responsible for increasing
the temperatures of water bodies. The operations of power
reactors and nuclear fuel processing units constitutes the
major contributor of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated
effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher
than the receiving waters that affects the aquatic flora and
fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute
a major source of thermal pollution. The condenser coils in
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such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes or
rivers. The resulting heated water is discharged into streams
thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated
effluent decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in
death of fish and other aquatic organisms. The sudden
fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock"
killing aquatic life that have become acclimatized to living
in a steady temperature.

3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp

and sugar manufacturing release huge amounts of cooling
water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies.
The waters polluted by sudden and heavy organic loads
result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into
rivers, lakes, canals or streams with minimal treatment or
without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic
temperature and organic load. This leads to decrease in
dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in
the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul
and offensive gases in water. Eventually, this leads to
development of anoxic conditions resulting in rapid death of
aquatic organisms.
5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric
power sometimes leads to negative thermal loading in water
systems. Apart from electric power industries, various
factories with cooling requirement contribute to thermal
loading.

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 Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
1. Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery
and discharge the warm water into a stream
2. Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation
providing shade are cut.
3. Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal
pollution
4. Removal of stream side vegetation
5. Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal polloution

Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) decreases with increase in temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the
toxicity of the poison present in water. A 10C increase in
temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect of potassium
cyanide, while 80C rise in temperature triples the toxic
effects of o-xylene causing massive mortality to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is
considered to be of vital significance to physiology,
metabolism and biochemical processes that control
respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall
development of aquatic organisms. Temperature changes
cause total disruption to the entire ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities
like nest building, spawning, hatching, migration and
reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly
responsible for mortality of aquatic organisms. Increase in
temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms
thereby shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain

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 temperature, fish die due to failure of respiratory system and
nervous system failure.
6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature
alters the seasonal variation in the type and abundance of
lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for fish at
the right time.
• Control measures for thermal pollution
The following methods can be adapted to control high
temperature caused by thermal discharges:
1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for
cooling systems for cooling purposes, with subsequent
return to the water way after passage through a condenser, is
called cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat from
hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers
are of two types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the
condenser (reactor) is allowed to spray over baffles. Cool
air, with high velocity, is passed from sides, which takes
away the heat and cools the water.
(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in
long spiral pipes. Cool air with the help of a fan is passed
over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water. This cool
water can be recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool
thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the surface of the
water in cooling ponds maximise dissipation of heat to the
atmosphere and minimise the water area and volume. The
warm water wedhe acts like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is
allowed to pass into the ponds through sprayers. Here water is
sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat from the fine
droplets gets dissipated to the atmosphere.
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 4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are man made water
bodies that offer once-through cooling. The heated effluents
can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for
cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The
heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation.
2. Solid waste management - sources, effects and methods of
disposal
3. Solid waste management

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing

countries has led to people generating enormous quantities
of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation.
The waste is normally disposed in open dump screating
nuisance and environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause
a major risk to public health and the environment.
Management of solid wastes is important in order to
minimize the adverse effects posed by their
indiscriminatedisposal.

Types of solid wastes:Depending on the nature of origin,

solid wastes are classified into
4. URBAN OR MUNICIPAL WASTES
5. INDUSTRIAL WASTES and HAZARDOUS WASTES

SOURCES OF URBAN WASTES

Urban wastes include the following wastes:
Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown
out from homes
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles,
Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.
Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from
shops, markets, hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
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 Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene
bags, etc.
Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction
materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic
materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

• Classification of urban wastes

Urban wastes are classified into:
Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded
by micro organisms are called bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials
that cannot be degraded by micro organisms are called non-
biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries,
metal and mineral processing industries.
Ex:
Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of
hazardous and toxic materials.
Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials,
rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber,
plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

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• EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
• Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the
roads and immediate surroundings, biodegradable materials
undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a
breeding ground for disease vectors.
• Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and
hazardous wastes that affect soil characteristics and
productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil
• Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and
contaminate the groundwater.
• Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides,
plastics, radioactive materials and batteries) produce furans,
dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to
human beings.
Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode
of collection, transportation, segregation of wastes and
disposal techniques.

• STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Two important steps involved in solid waste management
are:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials
Discarding wastes

Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the

generation of waste also gets reduced
Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use
can be reused Rubber rings can be made from discarded
cucle tubes and this reduces waste generation during
manufacture of rubber bands.
Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded
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 materials into new useful products
Ex: Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and
recast into new cans and bottles Preparation of cellulose
insulation from paper Preparation of automobile body and
construction material from steel cans
This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help
save money, energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.

• DISCARDING WASTES:
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:
• Landfill Incineration Composting
• LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in
which alternate layers of 80 cm thick refuse is covered with
selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks,
roads and small buildings. This is the most common and
cheapest cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly
employed in Indian cities.
Advantages:
It is simple and economical Segregation of wastes is not
required Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for
other purposes Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into
useful [Link] resources are returned to soil and
recycled.
Disadvantages:
Large area is required Land availability is away from the
town, tansportation costs are high Leads to bad odour if
landfill is not properly managed. Land filled areas will be
sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.
Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet
weather.
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• INCINERATION:
It is a hygenic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if
waste contains more hazardous material and organic content.
It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification
of all combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared
to composting or land-filling.
In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace
called incinerator. Combustibe substances such as rubbish,
garbage, dead organisms and non-combustibe matter such as
glass, porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to
incinerators. The non-combustible materials can be left out
for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers may
account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by
sanitary landfill or some other means.

The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of

refuse is used in the form of steam power for generation of
electricity through turbines. Municipal solid waste is
generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it
has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a
preheater from where it is taken to a large incinerating
furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100
to 150 tonnes per hour. Temperature normally maintained in
a combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be
increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES
Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as
clinker after treatment. Requires very little space
Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located
within city limits Safest from hygenic point of view An
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incinerator plant of 3000 tonnes per day capacity can
generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES
Its capital and operating cost is high Operation needs skilled
personnel Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further
disposal and that may cause air pollution.

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