Mathematics-II (MATH F112)

Linear Algebra

Jitender Kumar
Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
Pilani-333031

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 1 / 109

 Module 2 - 3

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 2 / 109

Recall:
A vector is a directed line segment that
corresponds to a displacement from one point A
to another point B. The vector from A to B is
!
denoted by AB.
The point A is called its initial point or tail, and
the point B is called its terminal point or head.
The set of all ordered pair of real numbers is
denoted by R2 i.e. R2 = {(a, b) | a, b 2 R}.
The set R2 corresponds to the set of vectors
whose tails are at the origin O.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 3 / 109
 For example, the ordered pair A = (3, 2) 2 R2
!
corresponds to the vector OA.

For n 2 N, we can think the point

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 2 Rn as vector and write it as

Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi 2 R} .

The vector (0, 0, . . . , 0) of Rn , called the zero

vector of Rn and it is denoted by the symbol 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 4 / 109

Let u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) 2 Rn
and k 2 R. Define
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ) (Vector addition)
ku = (ku1 , ku2 , . . . , kun ) (Scalar multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 5 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
c(u + v) = cu + cv (distributivity over vector addition).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
c(u + v) = cu + cv (distributivity over vector addition).
(c + d)u = cu + du (distributivity over scalar addition).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
c(u + v) = cu + cv (distributivity over vector addition).
(c + d)u = cu + du (distributivity over scalar addition).
c(du) = (cd)u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
c(u + v) = cu + cv (distributivity over vector addition).
(c + d)u = cu + du (distributivity over scalar addition).
c(du) = (cd)u.
1u = u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Some Basic Properties: Let u, v, w 2 Rn and c, d
2 R. Then
u + v = v + u (commutativity).
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity).
u + 0 = u.
u + ( u) = 0, where u = ( u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
c(u + v) = cu + cv (distributivity over vector addition).
(c + d)u = cu + du (distributivity over scalar addition).
c(du) = (cd)u.
1u = u.
0u = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 6 / 109

Vector Space: Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set
of objects, together with two operations namely
addition (denoted as ) and scalar
multiplication(denoted as ), is said to be a (real)
vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for every
a, b 2 R the following properties hold:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 109

Vector Space: Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set
of objects, together with two operations namely
addition (denoted as ) and scalar
multiplication(denoted as ), is said to be a (real)
vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for every
a, b 2 R the following properties hold:
1
u v2V (Closed under vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 109

Vector Space: Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set
of objects, together with two operations namely
addition (denoted as ) and scalar
multiplication(denoted as ), is said to be a (real)
vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for every
a, b 2 R the following properties hold:
1
u v2V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u v=v u (Commutativity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 109

Vector Space: Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set
of objects, together with two operations namely
addition (denoted as ) and scalar
multiplication(denoted as ), is said to be a (real)
vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for every
a, b 2 R the following properties hold:
1
u v2V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u v=v u (Commutativity)
3
(u v) w=u (v w) (Associativity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 109

Vector Space: Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set
of objects, together with two operations namely
addition (denoted as ) and scalar
multiplication(denoted as ), is said to be a (real)
vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for every
a, b 2 R the following properties hold:
1
u v2V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u v=v u (Commutativity)
3
(u v) w=u (v w) (Associativity)
4
There exists an element 0 2 V , called a zero
vector, such that u 0 = u (Existence of
additive identity)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 7 / 109
 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) u=a u b u (Distributivity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) u=a u b u (Distributivity)
9
(ab) u=a (b u)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) u=a u b u (Distributivity)
9
(ab) u=a (b u)
10
1 u = u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

 5
For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V
such that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) u=a u b u (Distributivity)
9
(ab) u=a (b u)
10
1 u = u.
The objects of vector space V are called vectors.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 8 / 109

Note that the set V = {0} is a vector space with
respect to
vector addition 0 0 = 0
scalar multiplication a 0 = 0 for all a 2 R

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 109

Note that the set V = {0} is a vector space with
respect to
vector addition 0 0 = 0
scalar multiplication a 0 = 0 for all a 2 R

The vector space V = {0} is called the zero (trivial)

vector space.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 9 / 109

Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u + v (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 109

Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u + v (vector addition)
a u = au (scalar multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 109

Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u + v (vector addition)
a u = au (scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v 2 R.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 109

Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u + v (vector addition)
a u = au (scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v 2 R.

Question: Does the set R+ of positive real numbers

form a vector space under the above defined vector
addition and scalar multiplication ?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 10 / 109

Example 2: The set R+ of a positive real numbers is
a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
u v = u · v (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 11 / 109

Example 2: The set R+ of a positive real numbers is
a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
u v = u · v (vector addition)
a u = ua (scalar multiplication)
for all a 2 R and u, v 2 R+ .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 11 / 109

Example 3: The set R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} is a
vector space with respect to the following vector
addition and scalar multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 )
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 109

Example 3: The set R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} is a
vector space with respect to the following vector
addition and scalar multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 )
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
Question: Does R2 form a vector space under the
above defined vector addition and the following
scalar multiplication
a (x1 , x2 ) = (0, ax2 )
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 .
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 12 / 109
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)
= (y1 , y2 ) (x1 , x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)
= (y1 , y2 ) (x1 , x2 )
=v u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)
= (y1 , y2 ) (x1 , x2 )
=v u
3
Associative Property:
(u v) w = ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)
= (y1 , y2 ) (x1 , x2 )
=v u
3
Associative Property:
(u v) w = ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 )
= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109

Soln. of Example 3: Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )
and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and a, b 2 R.
1
Closure Property:
u v = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) 2 R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 )
(commutativity of R under addition)
= (y1 , y2 ) (x1 , x2 )
=v u
3
Associative Property:
(u v) w = ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 )
= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ))
(associativity of R under addition)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 13 / 109
 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists 0 = (0, 0) 2 R2
such that

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists 0 = (0, 0) 2 R2
such that
u 0 = (x1 , x2 ) (0, 0) = (x1 + 0, x2 + 0)
= (x1 , x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists 0 = (0, 0) 2 R2
such that
u 0 = (x1 , x2 ) (0, 0) = (x1 + 0, x2 + 0)
= (x1 , x2 )
=u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists 0 = (0, 0) 2 R2
such that
u 0 = (x1 , x2 ) (0, 0) = (x1 + 0, x2 + 0)
= (x1 , x2 )
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists u = ( x1 , x2 ) in
R2 such that

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109

 = (x1 , x2 ) (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )
= (x1 , x2 ) ((y1 , y2 ) (z1 , z2 ))
= u (v w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists 0 = (0, 0) 2 R2
such that
u 0 = (x1 , x2 ) (0, 0) = (x1 + 0, x2 + 0)
= (x1 , x2 )
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 there exists u = ( x1 , x2 ) in
R2 such that
u ( u) = (x1 , x2 ) ( x1 , x2 )
= (x1 + ( x1 ), x2 + ( x2 )) = (0, 0) = 0
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 14 / 109
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ) (distributivity in R)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (ay1 , ay2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (ay1 , ay2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (a (y1 , y2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a u = a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 ) 2 R2 . Thus, R2
is closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a (u v) = a ((x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ))
= a (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (ay1 , ay2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (a (y1 , y2 ))
= (a u) (a v)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 15 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))
(associativity of R under multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a (bx1 , bx2 )

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109

 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a (bx1 , bx2 )
= a (b (x1 , x2 ))
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 16 / 109
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a (bx1 , bx2 )
= a (b (x1 , x2 ))
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI)
= aMathematics-II
(b (MATH u)F112) 16 / 109
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) u = (a + b) (x1 , x2 )
= ((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 )
= (ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ) (distributivity in R)
= (ax1 , ax2 ) (bx1 , bx2 )
= (a (x1 , x2 )) (b (x1 , x2 ))
= (a u) (b u)
9
(ab) u = (ab) (x1 , x2 )
= ((ab)x1 , (ab)x2 )
= (a(bx1 ), a(bx2 ))
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a (bx1 , bx2 )
= a (b (x1 , x2 ))
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI)
= aMathematics-II
(b (MATH u)F112) 16 / 109
 10
1 u=1 (x1 , x2 ) = (1x1 , 1x2 ) = (x1 , x2 ) = u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 109

 10
1 u = 1 (x1 , x2 ) = (1x1 , 1x2 ) = (x1 , x2 ) = u.
Thus R2 is vector space under usual vector addition
and scalar multiplication.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 17 / 109

Example 4: Consider the set

Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi 2 R}.

For any u, v 2 Rn and a 2 R, define

u v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )
a u = (ax1 , ax2 , . . . , axn ).

Then Rn is a vector space with respect to and .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 18 / 109

Example 5: Consider the set
R1 = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .) : xi 2 R}
of real sequences. We say two elements of R1 are
equal if their corresponding components are equal.
For any u, v 2 R1 and a 2 R, define the following
vector addition and scalar multiplication:

u v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , . . .)
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn , . . .)
a u = (ax1 , ax2 , . . . , axn , . . .).
Then R1 is a vector space with respect to above
defined vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 19 / 109
Example 6: The set

Mmn = {[aij ]m⇥n | aij 2 R}

of all m ⇥ n matrices with real entries is a vector

space with respect to the following operations:
[aij ]m⇥n [bij ]m⇥n = [aij + bij ]m⇥n (vector addition)

a [aij ]m⇥n = [aaij ]m⇥n (scalar multiplication)

for all a 2 R and [aij ]m⇥n , [bij ]m⇥n 2 Mmn .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 20 / 109

Example 7: Let
F ( 1, 1) = {f | f : ( 1, 1) ! R}
be the set of real-valued functions defined on
( 1, 1). For any f, g 2 F ( 1, 1) and a 2 R,
define
f g = f + g (vector addition),

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 109

Example 7: Let
F ( 1, 1) = {f | f : ( 1, 1) ! R}
be the set of real-valued functions defined on
( 1, 1). For any f, g 2 F ( 1, 1) and a 2 R,
define
f g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 109

Example 7: Let
F ( 1, 1) = {f | f : ( 1, 1) ! R}
be the set of real-valued functions defined on
( 1, 1). For any f, g 2 F ( 1, 1) and a 2 R,
define
f g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1).
and a f = af (scalar multiplication),

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 109

Example 7: Let
F ( 1, 1) = {f | f : ( 1, 1) ! R}
be the set of real-valued functions defined on
( 1, 1). For any f, g 2 F ( 1, 1) and a 2 R,
define
f g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1).
and a f = af (scalar multiplication),
where (af )(x) = af (x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1).

Then F ( 1, 1) is a vector space with respect to

above defined operations.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 21 / 109
Theorem 4.1.1: Let V be a vector space. Then for
every u 2 V and k 2 R, we have
k0 = 0
0u = 0
( 1)u = u
If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 22 / 109

Exercise: The set V = R2 be a vector space with
respect to the following vector addition and scalar
multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 + 4, x2 + y2 5)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 + 4a 4, ax2 5a + 5)
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 23 / 109

Exercise: The set V = R2 be a vector space with
respect to the following vector addition and scalar
multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 + 4, x2 + y2 5)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 + 4a 4, ax2 5a + 5)
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
Find the additive identity (or zero vector) and the
additive inverse of each vector (x, y) of V .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 23 / 109

Exercise: Let X = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 , x2 2 R}. Define
vector addition and scalar multiplication as
follows:

(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )

⇢
(0, 0) if a = 0;
a (x1 , x2 ) =
(ax1 , xa2 ) if a 6= 0

for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 X.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 109

Exercise: Let X = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 , x2 2 R}. Define
vector addition and scalar multiplication as
follows:

(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )

⇢
(0, 0) if a = 0;
a (x1 , x2 ) =
(ax1 , xa2 ) if a 6= 0

for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 X. Prove or

disprove X is a vector space.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 24 / 109

Subspaces

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 25 / 109

Subspaces
Definition: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is said to be a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space with respect to the same operations (vector
addition and scalar multiplication) of V .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 25 / 109

Subspaces
Definition: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is said to be a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space with respect to the same operations (vector
addition and scalar multiplication) of V .

Note that every vector space V has at least two

subspaces: {0} and V itself. The subspace {0} is
known as zero (trivial) subspace.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 25 / 109

Example: The set

W = (x, y) 2 R2 | y = 0

forms a vector space with respect to usual vector

addition and scalar multiplication in R2 . Thus, W is a
subspace of R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 26 / 109

Example: The set

W = (x, y) 2 R2 | y = 0

forms a vector space with respect to usual vector

addition and scalar multiplication in R2 . Thus, W is a
subspace of R2 .

Question: Does the set

W = (x, y) 2 R2 | x 6= y

form a subspace of R2 ?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 26 / 109

Theorem: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold:
If u and v are vectors in W , then u + v is in W .
If k is a scalar and u is a vector in W , then ku is
in W .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 27 / 109

Theorem: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold:
If u and v are vectors in W , then u + v is in W .
If k is a scalar and u is a vector in W , then ku is
in W .

Remark: If W is a subspace of a vector space V ,

then 0 2 W .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 27 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space R3 .
W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x 0 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space R3 .
W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x 0 .
W2 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space R3 .
W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x 0 .
W2 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0 .
W3 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x = y 2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space R3 .
W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x 0 .
W2 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0 .
W3 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x = y 2 .
W4 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space R3 .
W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x 0 .
W2 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0 .
W3 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x = y 2 .
W4 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 2 .
W5 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 28 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space M22 (see Example 6).

W1 = {A 2 M22 | A is singular}.
W2 = {A 2 M22 | A is nonsingular}.
W3 = {A 2 M22 | A is in RREF}.
W4 = {A 2 M22 | A is symmetric}.
W5 = A 2 M22 | A2 = A .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 29 / 109

Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of the vector space F ( 1, 1) (see
Example 7).
W1 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is continuous}. This
subspace is denoted by C( 1, 1).
W2 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is discontinuous}.
W3 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f (1) = 0}.
W4 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f (1) 6= 0}.
W5 = f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f 1
2 = f (1) .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 30 / 109

 Subspace of polynomials

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 109

 Subspace of polynomials

Recall that a polynomial p is a function that can be

expressed in the form

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ,

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real constants. If an 6= 0, then

we say p(x) is a polynomial of degree n.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 109

 Subspace of polynomials

Recall that a polynomial p is a function that can be

expressed in the form

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ,

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real constants. If an 6= 0, then

we say p(x) is a polynomial of degree n.

Question: Does the set of all polynomials of degree

3 form a subspace of the vector space F ( 1, 1)?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 31 / 109

Note that for any fixed natural number n, the set

Pn = {p 2 F ( 1, 1) : p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn }

of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to n

including zero polynomial is a subspace of
F ( 1, 1).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 32 / 109

Note that for any fixed natural number n, the set

Pn = {p 2 F ( 1, 1) : p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn }

of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to n

including zero polynomial is a subspace of
F ( 1, 1).

In general, the set

P1 = {p 2 F ( 1, 1) : p is a polynomial}

of all polynomials is a subspace of the vector space

F ( 1, 1).
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 32 / 109
Results: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V . Then
their intersection i.e. W1 \ W2 is a subspace of
V.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 33 / 109

Results: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V . Then
their intersection i.e. W1 \ W2 is a subspace of
V.
their union W1 [ W2 need not be a subspace of
V.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 33 / 109

Results: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V . Then
their intersection i.e. W1 \ W2 is a subspace of
V.
their union W1 [ W2 need not be a subspace of
V.
W1 [ W2 is subspace of V if and only if either
W1 ⇢ W2 or W2 ⇢ W1 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 33 / 109

Results: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V . Then
their intersection i.e. W1 \ W2 is a subspace of
V.
their union W1 [ W2 need not be a subspace of
V.
W1 [ W2 is subspace of V if and only if either
W1 ⇢ W2 or W2 ⇢ W1 .
their sum, defined as

W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 | w1 2 W1 , w2 2 W2 },

is a subspace of V .
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 33 / 109
Question: Given a subset S of a vector space V ,
how to construct a subspace containing S?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 34 / 109

Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1 , v2 , . . . , vr 2 V . Then a vector w 2 V is said to be
a linear combination of v1 , v2 , . . . , vr if

w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr ; ki (1  i  r) 2 R

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 35 / 109

Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1 , v2 , . . . , vr 2 V . Then a vector w 2 V is said to be
a linear combination of v1 , v2 , . . . , vr if

w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr ; ki (1  i  r) 2 R

Example: The vector (3, 4) is a linear combination of

(1, 0) and (0, 1) in R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 35 / 109

Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1 , v2 , . . . , vr 2 V . Then a vector w 2 V is said to be
a linear combination of v1 , v2 , . . . , vr if

w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr ; ki (1  i  r) 2 R

Example: The vector (3, 4) is a linear combination of

(1, 0) and (0, 1) in R2 .
Note that
(3, 4) = 2(1, 1) + (1, 2).
Thus, (3, 4) is a linear combination of (1, 1) and (1, 2)
also.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 35 / 109
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V . Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e. if
S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk }, then

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | ai 2 R, 1  i  k}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 36 / 109

Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V . Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e. if
S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk }, then

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | ai 2 R, 1  i  k}

For a subset S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 36 / 109

Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V . Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e. if
S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk }, then

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | ai 2 R, 1  i  k}

For a subset S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .
For a subset S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} of
R3 , we have span(S) = R3 .
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 36 / 109
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.
Find span(S).
Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 109

Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.
Find span(S).
Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) | a, b 2 R}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 109

Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.
Find span(S).
Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) | a, b 2 R}
= {(a, b, 0) | a, b 2 R}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 109

Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.
Find span(S).
Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) | a, b 2 R}
= {(a, b, 0) | a, b 2 R}

Clearly, (3, 2, 0) 2 span(S) but (2, 5, 1) 62 span(S).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 109

Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.
Find span(S).
Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) | a, b 2 R}
= {(a, b, 0) | a, b 2 R}

Clearly, (3, 2, 0) 2 span(S) but (2, 5, 1) 62 span(S).

In this exercise note that span(S) is a subspace of
R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 37 / 109

Exercise: Let v1 , v2 be in a vector space V . Then
show that W = span{v1 , v2 } is a subspace of V .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 38 / 109

Exercise: Let v1 , v2 be in a vector space V . Then
show that W = span{v1 , v2 } is a subspace of V .

Theorem 4.2.3: Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } be a

nonempty subset of a vector space V . Then
span(S) is a subspace of V .
span(S) is the smallest subspace of V
containing S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 38 / 109

Exercise 34 (a): Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 0, 0) and v3 = ( 2, 1, 0) span
the vector space R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 39 / 109

Exercise 34 (a): Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 0, 0) and v3 = ( 2, 1, 0) span
the vector space R3 .

Solution: Let S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }. Clearly, by definition

of span(S), we have span(S) ✓ R3 . In order to check
span(S) = R3 , we have to check whether R3 is
subset of span(S) or not.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 39 / 109

Exercise 34 (a): Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 0, 0) and v3 = ( 2, 1, 0) span
the vector space R3 .

Solution: Let S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }. Clearly, by definition

of span(S), we have span(S) ✓ R3 . In order to check
span(S) = R3 , we have to check whether R3 is
subset of span(S) or not.
Let (a, b, c) be an arbitrary element of R3 . We must
check whether (a, b, c) belongs to span(S) or not i.e.
whether there exists k1 , k2 , k3 2 R such that
(a, b, c) = k1 (1, 2, 3) + k2 (2, 0, 0) + k3 ( 2, 1, 0)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 39 / 109
This is equivalent to check whether the system of
equations
k1 + 2k2 2k3 = a
2k1 k3 = b
3k1 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Note that the reduced row echelon form of the
coefficient matrix
2 3
1 2 2
4 2 0 1 5 is
3 0 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 40 / 109

This is equivalent to check whether the system of
equations
k1 + 2k2 2k3 = a
2k1 k3 = b
3k1 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Note that the reduced row echelon form of the
coefficient matrix
2 3 2 3
1 2 2 1 0 0
4 2 0 1 5 is 4 0 1 0 5
3 0 0 0 0 1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 40 / 109

This is equivalent to check whether the system of
equations
k1 + 2k2 2k3 = a
2k1 k3 = b
3k1 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Note that the reduced row echelon form of the
coefficient matrix
2 3 2 3
1 2 2 1 0 0
4 2 0 1 5 is 4 0 1 0 5
3 0 0 0 0 1
implies that the coefficient matrix of above system is
invertible.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 40 / 109
Thus, the above system is consistent for any
a, b, c 2 R. Hence, span(S) = R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 41 / 109

Thus, the above system is consistent for any
a, b, c 2 R. Hence, span(S) = R3 .

Exercise 34 (d): Determine whether the vectors

v1 = (3, 2, 4), v2 = ( 3, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 1, 4) and
v4 = (0, 2, 8) span the vector space R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 41 / 109

Thus, the above system is consistent for any
a, b, c 2 R. Hence, span(S) = R3 .

Exercise 34 (d): Determine whether the vectors

v1 = (3, 2, 4), v2 = ( 3, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 1, 4) and
v4 = (0, 2, 8) span the vector space R3 .

Hint: By the similar argument, used in previous

exercise, one should check whether the system of
equations

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 41 / 109

 3k1 3k2 = a
2k1 k2 + k3 + 2k4 = b
4k1 + 4k3 + 8k4 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 42 / 109

 3k1 3k2 = a
2k1 k2 + k3 + 2k4 = b
4k1 + 4k3 + 8k4 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Now show that the reduced row echelon form of the
augmented matrix
2 3
3 3 0 0 a
4 2 1 1 2 b 5 is
4 0 4 8 c

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 42 / 109

 3k1 3k2 = a
2k1 k2 + k3 + 2k4 = b
4k1 + 4k3 + 8k4 = c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Now show that the reduced row echelon form of the
augmented matrix
2 3 2 a
3
3 3 0 0 a 1 0 1 2 b 3
4 2 1 1 2 b 5 is 4 0 1 1 2 b 2a 5
3
4 0 4 8 c 0 0 0 0 4a 12b + 3c

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 42 / 109

Since the system is not consistent for all choices of
(a, b, c) 2 R3 . Hence, span(S) 6= R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 43 / 109

Since the system is not consistent for all choices of
(a, b, c) 2 R3 . Hence, span(S) 6= R3 .

Note that the vector (0, 0, 1) 2 R3 but it is not in

span(S).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 43 / 109

Theorem 4.2.4: The solution set of a homogenous
linear system Ax = 0 in n unknowns is a subspace
of Rn .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 44 / 109

Linear Independence
Definition: If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } is a nonempty set
of vectors in a vector space V , then the vector
equation
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr = 0
has atleast one solution, namely
k1 = 0, k2 = 0, . . . , kr = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 45 / 109

Linear Independence
Definition: If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } is a nonempty set
of vectors in a vector space V , then the vector
equation
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr = 0
has atleast one solution, namely
k1 = 0, k2 = 0, . . . , kr = 0.
If this is the only solution then S is said to be a
linearly independent (LI) set.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 45 / 109

Linear Independence
Definition: If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } is a nonempty set
of vectors in a vector space V , then the vector
equation
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr = 0
has atleast one solution, namely
k1 = 0, k2 = 0, . . . , kr = 0.
If this is the only solution then S is said to be a
linearly independent (LI) set. If there are solutions
in addition to the trivial solution, then S is said to be
linearly dependent (LD) set.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) 45 / 109