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8 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Health, for a long time, was considered as a state of body and mind where there was a
balance of certain humors. This is ‘good humor’ hypothesis. This hypothesis was
asserted by early Greeks like Hippocrates and Indian Ayurveda system of medicine.
According to them, the health was considered as a state of mind where there exists a
balance between certain humors---blood, yellow bile, black bile (believed to be secreted
by the kidneys or spleen and to cause sadness) and phlegm. It was thought that the
persons with black bile have fevers and belong to hot personality.
However, this hypothesis was disproved when William Harvey found blood circulation
with the use of experimental procedures and showed normal body temperature in
persons with black bile using thermometer.
In later years, biology stated that mind influences, through neural system and
endocrine system, our immune system and that our immune system maintains our
health. Hence, mind and mental state can affect our health.

Health is affected by
1) genetic disorders---deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects
which the child inherits from parents from birth.
2) infections and
3) life style including food and water we take, rest and exercise we give to our bodies,
habits that we have or lack it.
Health can be defined as a state of physical, mental and social well being.
When people are healthy, they are more efficient at work. This increases productivity
and brings economic prosperity. Health also increases longevity of people and reduces
infant and maternal mortality.
Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important to maintain
good health. Awareness about diseases and their effect on different bodily functions,
vaccination (immunization) against infectious diseases, proper disposal of wastes,
control of vectors and maintenance of hygienic food and water resources are necessary
for achieving good health.

When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is adversely
affected, characterized by the appearance of various signs and symptoms, we say that
we are not healthy ie we have a disease.

Diseases can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious

Infectious diseases
 Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another by any means are
called infectious or communicable diseases. Eg common cold, AIDS(AIDS are fatal)
Non-infectious diseases
 Diseases which are not transmitted from one person to another are called non-
infectious or non-communicable diseases. Eg Cancer
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Common diseases in humans

Pathogens:

Disease causing organisms are called pathogens. Eg bacteria, viruses, fungi,

protozoans, helminthes etc. Most parasites are therefore pathogens as they cause
harm to the host by living in (or on) them. Pathogens can enter our body by various
means, multiply and interfere with normal vital activities, resulting in morphological
and functional damage. Pathogens have to adapt to life within the environment of the
host. For eg: the pathogens that enter the gut must know a way of surviving in the
stomach at low pH and resisting the various digestive enzymes.
Diseases caused by bacteria
TYPHOID:
Pathogen: Salmonella typhi (bacterium)
Organs affected: Pathogens enter the small intestine and then migrate to other organs
through blood.
Method of transmission: contamination of food and water.
Symptoms:
 Sustained high fever (39o to 40oC)
 Weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss ofappetite.
 Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases.
Test: Typhoid fever could be confirmed by Widal test.
Mary Mallon nick named Typhoid Mary was a cook by profession and was a typhoid
carrier who continued to spread typhoid for several years through the food she prepared.
PNEUMONIA:
Pathogen: Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.
Organs affected: Alveoli of lungs (air filled sacs), alveoli get filled with fluid leading to
severe problems in respiration.
Method of transmission: inhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an infected person.
Sharing glasses and other utensils with an infected person.
Symptoms:
 Fever, chills, cough and headache.
 In severe cases the lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour.
Some other bacterial diseases in man are Dysentery, plague, diphtheria etc
Disease caused by virus
COMMON COLD:
Pathogen: Rhino viruses.
Organs affected: nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
Method of transmission:
 Direct inhalation of droplets from cough or sneezes of an infected person.
 Through contaminated objects like pen, books, cups, doorknobs computer keyboard or
mouse etc.
Symptoms:
 Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness
etc which usually last for 3-7days.
Diseases caused by Protozoa
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MALARIA:

Pathogen: Plasmodium.(P.vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. falciparum)

Malignant malaria caused by P. falciparum is fatal.
Organs affected: liver, RBC.
Method of transmission: by biting of female anopheles mosquito (vector)
Symptoms: high fever and chill, fever occurs on every alternate day, vomiting.
Life cycle of malaria parasite:
 Life cycle of plasmodium starts with inoculation of sporozoites (infectious stage)
through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
 The parasites initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the red blood cells
(RBCs) resulting in their rupture.
 The rupture of RBCs is associated with the release of a toxic substance called
hemozoin which is responsible for the chill and high fever recurring every three to
four days.
 When a female anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the
mosquitoes body and undergo further development.
 The parasites multiply within them to form sporozoites that are stored in their salivary
glands.
 When these mosquitoes bite a human, the sporozoites are introduced into the his/her
body, there by initiating the events mentioned above.
 The malarial parasite requires two hosts – human and Anopheles mosquitoes, to
complete their life cycle. The female anopheles mosquito is the vector (transmitting
agent) too.

AMOEBIASIS (Amoebic dysentery)

Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica a protozoan parasite.

Organs affected: large intestine of man
Method of transmission:
 Houseflies act as mechanical carriers, contamination of water and food with faecal
matter.
Symptoms:
 Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps.
 Stools with excess mucous and blood clots.
Diseases caused by helminth.
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ASCARIASIS:(Round worm)

Pathogen: Ascaris lumbricoids (nematode)

Organs affected: intestine of man

Method of transmission: The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of
infected person which contaminate soil, water, plants etc. A healthy person acquires
this infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits etc.
Symptoms:
 Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia,
 blockage of the intestinal passage.
FILARIASIS OR ELEPHANTIASIS:
Pathogen: Wuchereria (W.bancroftiand W. malayi) (nematode parasite)
Organs affected: lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs, genital
organs. The genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross
deformities.
Methods of transmission: biting of infected female culex mosquito.
Symptoms:
 Chronic inflammation of the organs where they live for many years,
usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs, abnormal swelling
of lower limb, scrotum, penis.
 Hence the disease named as elephantiasis or Filariasis.
Disease caused by fungus RING WORMS:
Pathogen: Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton (fungi)
Organs affected: Skin, nails, folds of skin, groin.
Method of transmission:
 Acquired from the soil, using towels, clothes or even the comb of infected individuals.
Symptoms:
 Appearance of dry, scaly lesions in skin, nails and
scalp.
 Lesions are accompanied by intense itching.
 Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow, which
makes them thrive in skin folds, such as those in the
groin or between the toes.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES:
 Maintenance of personal and public hygiene is very important for prevention and
control of many infectious diseases.
 Personal hygiene includes:
o Consumption of clean drinking water, food, vegetables, fruits etc.
o Keeping the body clean.
 Public hygiene includes:
o Proper disposal of waste and excreta
o Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks and
observing standard practices of hygiene in public catering. These measures are
particularly essential where the infectious agents are transmitted through food and
water such as typhoid, amoebiasis and ascariasis.
 In case of air-borne diseases such as pneumonia and common cold, close contact with
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the infected persons or their belongings should be avoided.

For vector borne diseases
 To control vector borne diseases, eliminate the vectors and the breeding places.
 Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.
 Regular cleaning of household coolers.
 Use of mosquito nets.
 Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
 Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps.
 Windows and doors must be fitted with wire mesh.
 All these precautions are useful for vector borne disease like dengue and chickungunya
(Aedes mosquito), malaria and filarial etc.
Immunization:
 By massive immunization programmes there is complete eradication of disease like
smallpox.
 Diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia, and tetanus have been controlled to a large
extent by the use of vaccines.
 Biotechnology is at the verge of making available newer and safer vaccines.
 Discovery of antibiotics and various other drugs has also enabled us to effectively treat
infectious diseases.
IMMUNITY:
 The overall ability of the host to fight the disease causing organisms conferred by
immune system is called immunity.
 There are two types of `immunity:
o Innate Immunity.
o Acquired Immunity.
Innate (non-specific) immunity:
Innate immunity is non-specific type of defence, that is present at the time of birth.
 Called inborn immunity.
 Always available to protect our body.
 This is called the first line of defense.
 Consists of various barriers that prevent entry of foreign agents into the body.
 If enters they are quickly killed by some other components of this system.
 Different types of barriers are as follows:
Physical barriers:
 Skin is the main barrier which prevents entry of micro-organisms.
 Mucus coating of the epithelium lining of respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital
tracts help in trapping microbes entering our body.
Physiological barriers:
 Acid in the stomach kills most ingested microbes.
 Lysozyme in tears, saliva, kills bacteria by digesting bacterial wall.
Cellular barrier:
 Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes
(PMNL-neutrophils) and monocytes, and natural killer cells (type of lymphocytes) in
the blood, as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
Cytokine barriers
 Virus infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-infected cells
from further viral infection.
Acquired (specific) immunity:
Pathogen specific.
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It is characterized by memory.
 It is also known as adaptive immunity.
 This immunity developed after birth when encountered with pathogen.
 It supplements the immunity provided by the innate immunity.
 Acquired immunity has following unique features:
o Specificity: distinguish specific foreign molecules, characterized by memory.
o Diversity: recognize vast variety of foreign molecules.
 Discrimination between self and non-self: it is able to recognize and respond to
molecules that are foreign or non-self. It will not respond to our own cells.
 Primary immune response: When our body encounters a pathogen for the first time
produces a response called primary response which is of low intensity.
o Secondary immune response: The second encounter with the same microbe elicits a
highly intensified secondary immune response. (anamnestic response) This shows that
our body appears to have memory of the first encounter.
 Acquired immunity is carried out by two special types of lymphocytes:
o B-lymphocytes.
o T-lymphocytes.
 The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens into our
blood to fight with them. These proteins are called antibodies.
 T-lymphocytes themselves do not produce antibodies but help B-cells to produce them.
Structure of antibody:
 Each antibody has four peptide chains.
 Two small chains called light chains.
 Two longer chains called heavy chains.
 Antibody represented as H2L2.
Two types of acquired immune responses are Antibody mediated immunity and
cell mediated immunity (AMI vs. CMI):
 Immune response by the B-cells by production of antibody is called Antibody
mediated immune response. Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the
response is also called as humoral immune response.
 The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI. Very often, when some
human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney
fail to function satisfactorily, transplantation is the only
remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life.
 Why is it that the organs cannot be taken from just
anybody? What is that the doctors check?
When an individual receives an organ from someone else
during transplant surgery, that individuals immune system
may recognize that organ to be foreign. This is because the
persons immune system detects that the antigen present on the
cells of the organ are different or not matched. Mismatched organs
can lead to blood transfusion reactions or transplant rejection. To ensure such a reaction
does not occur, doctors match both the organ donor and the person who is receiving the
organ.
 Grafts from just any source—an animal, another primate, or any
human beings cannot be made since the grafts would be rejected sooner or later.
 Rejection of organ transplants are due to T-lymphocytes.
 The body is able to differentiate self and non-self and the cell-mediated immune
response is responsible for the graft rejection
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 Tissue matching, blood group matching are essential for organ transplantation.
 Even after tissue typing immune-suppressants is required before and after
transplantation.
 Different classes of antibody produced in our body are IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE and IgG.
Active immunity:
 When the host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead
microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body.
 This type of immunity is called active immunity.
 Active immunity is slow and takes time to give its full effective response.
 Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization or infectious organisms gaining
access into body during natural infection induce active immunity.
Passive immunity:
 Ready -made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents. It
is called passive immunity.
 Colostrum of mother contain abundant antibody (IgA) to protect the child.
 Foetus receives some antibody (IgG) from mother through placenta during pregnancy.
These are some examples of passive immunity.
Vaccination and Immunization:
 The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of‘ memory, of
the immune system.
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the body.
 The antibodies produced in the body against vaccine, (antigen) would neutralize the
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
 The vaccines also generate memory- B and T-cells that recognize the pathogen quickly
on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of
antibodies.
Passive immunization:
 Preformed antibody or antitoxin injection for specific antigen.
 In cases of snake bites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom.
 If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is
required as in tetanus, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies or antitoxin
(a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin).
 This type of immunization is called passive immunization.
Vaccine production:
 Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides of
pathogen in bacteria or yeast.
 Vaccines produced by this approach allow large scale production of antigen and hence
greater availability for immunization. E.g. hepatitis-B vaccine produced from yeast.
Allergies:
 The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the
environment is called allergy.
 The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
 IgE is produced during allergic reactions.
 Common allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander etc.
 Common symptoms are sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing.
 Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast
cells.
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 For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small
doses of possible allergens, and the reactions studied.
 The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the
symptoms of allergy. Somehow, modern-day life style has resulted in lowering of
immunity and more sensitivity to allergens- more and more children in metro cities of
India suffer from allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the environment. This could
be because of the protected environment provided early in life.
Auto immunity:
 Memory- based acquired immunity, evolved in higher vertebrates based on the ability to
distinguish foreign organisms (eg: pathogens) from self-cells.
 Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown reasons the body attacks self- cells. This
results in damage to the body cells and is called auto-immune disease.
E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis, Multiple sclerosis.
Immune system in the body:
 The immune system consists of Lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules
like antibodies.
 Immune system is unique in the sense that it recognizes foreign antigens, responds to
these and remembers them.
 The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto- immune
diseases and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs: are the organs where origin and /or maturation and proliferation of
lymphocytes occur.
 Primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus, where immature lymphocytes
differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
 Secondary lymphoid organs: after maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs like spleen, tonsil, lymph nodes, Payer’s patches of small intestine and
appendix. These organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the
antigen, which then proliferate to become effect or cells.
Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes
are produced.
Thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breast bone.
 The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps reducing in size with age and
by the time puberty is attained it reduces to a very small size.
 B-lymphocytes are produced and matured in bone marrow.
 T-lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow but matured in thymus. Thus both bone -
marrow and thymus provide micro- environments for the development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes.
The spleen
o Large bean shaped organ mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.
o It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne
micro-organisms.
o Spleen also serves as the large reservoir of
erythrocytes.
Lymph nodes:
o Small solid structures located at different points along
the lymphatic system.
o Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-organisms or
other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph
and tissue fluid.
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o Antigens trapped into the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes
present there and cause the immune response.
 Mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue (MALT):
o Located within the lining of major tract (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts)
o It constitutes 50% of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
AIDS:
 Stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
 Deficiency of immune system that acquired during life time of an individual and not a
congenital disease.
 Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
 AIDS was first reported in1981.
 AIDS is caused by HIV (Human Immuno deficiency Virus)
 HIV is a retrovirus, having RNA as the genetic material.
Method of transmission:
 Sexual contact with infected person.
 Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
 Sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers.
 From infected mother to the foetus through placenta.
 People who are at high risk of getting this infection includes –individuals who have
multiple sexual partners, drug addicts who take drugs intravenously, individuals who
require repeated blood transfusions and children born to an HIV infected mother.
 AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads only through body
fluids.
 It is, hence, imperative, for the physical and psychological well - being, the AIDS infected
person are not isolated from family and society.
 There is always a time- lag between the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms.
This period may vary from a few months to many years, usually 5-10 years.

Life cycle of HIV:

 After getting into the body of the person, the HIV enters into macrophages and T-helper
cells.
 The viral RNA genome replicate to form viral DNA with the enzyme called reverse
transcriptase.
 The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to
produce virus particles.
 The macrophages continue to produce virus and acts as HIV factory.
 Virus released from macrophage attack T-helper cells (TH), replicates and produce
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progeny viruses.
 The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-Lymphocytes.
 This is repeated, leading to a progressive reduction in the number of helper T-
lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
 Due to reduction of T-helper cells, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and
weight loss and also the person starts suffering from infections that could have been
otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially mycobacterium, viruses,
fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
 The patient becomes so immuno - deficient and more prone to other diseases.
Diagnosis:
 ELISA (enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay)
 Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only
prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is inevitable.
Prevention of AIDS:
 AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option.
 Moreover, HIV infection, more often, spreads due to conscious behaviour patterns and is
not something that happens inadvertently, like pneumonia or typhoid. Of course,
infection in blood transfusion patients, new-borns (from mother) etc.. may take place
may take place due to poor monitoring.
 The only excuse may be ignorance and it has been rightly said - "don’t die of ignorance".
 In our country the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) and other non-
governmental organization (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS.WHO
has started a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of HIV infection.
 Making blood(from blood banks)safe from HIV, for transfusion
 Use of disposable needles and syringes in hospitals and clinics, free distribution of
condoms, controlling drug abuse, advocating safe sex and promoting regular check-ups
for HIV in susceptible population, are some such steps taken up.
CANCER:
In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and regulated. In cancer
cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms. Normal cells show a property
called contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their
uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells appears to have lost this property. As a result of this,
cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
Tumors are of two types--- benign and malignant.
 Benign tumors:
o Normally remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other location
and cause little damage.
 Malignant tumors:
o Malignant tumors are mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells.
o These cells grow very rapidly.
o Invade and damage the surrounding normal tissues.
o These cells actively divide and grow; they also starve the normal cells by competing for
vital nutrients.
o Cells sloughed from such tumours reach distant sites through blood, and wherever they
get lodged in the body, they start a new tumour there. This property called metastasis
is the most feared property of malignant tumours.
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Causes of cancer:
 Normal cells transformed into cancerous neoplastic cells by physical, chemical and
biological agents. These agents are called carcinogens.
 Physical agents: ionizing radiations like X-rays, gamma rays and non-ionizing
radiations like UV-rays cause DNA damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
 Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke.
 Biological agents: Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called
viral oncogenes, induce transformation of neoplastic cells.
o Cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes in normal cells, when activated under
certain conditions lead to oncogenic transformation of the normal cells.
Cancer detection and diagnosis:
 Biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissues and blood and bone marrow tests
for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias.
 In Biopsy, a piece of suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained and examined
under microscope (histopathological studies) by a pathologist.
 Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed tomography) and
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancers of the internal
organs. Computed tomography uses X –rays to generate a three-dimensional image of
the internals of an object.
 MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to accurately detect
pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.
 Presence of antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used to detect cancer.
Techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals with
inherited susceptibility to certain cancers. Identification of such genes, which
predispose an individual to certain cancers, may be very helpful in prevention of
cancers. Such individuals may be advised to avoid exposure to particular carcinogens
to which they are susceptible (eg tobacco smoke in case of lung cancer)
Treatment of cancer:
 Surgery
 Radiation therapy—In radiation therapy tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking
proper care of normal tissues surrounding the tumor mass.
 Immunotherapy
 Chemotherapy—some chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells. Some of
these are specific for particular tumors. Majority of the drugs have side effects like hair
loss, anaemia etc.
 Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Tumor cells have been shown to avoid detection and destruction by immune system.
Therefore, the patients are given substances called biological response modifiers such
as α-interferon which activates their immune system and helps in destroying the
tumor.
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE:
Opioids:
 The drugs which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central nervous
system and gastrointestinal tract.
 Heroin commonly called smack, is chemically diacetylmorphine.
 It is white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound.
 Obtained by acetylation of morphine.
 Extracted from latex of poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.
 Generally taken by snorting and injection.
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 Heroin is depressant and slows down body functions.

Chemical structure of Morphine

Canabinoids:

 Group of chemicals that interact with the cannabinoid receptors of

brain.
 Obtained from inflorescence of Cannabis sativa.
 Flower tops, leaves and resin of cannabis plant are used in various
combinations to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
 Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, these are known
for their effects on cardiovascular system of the body.
Leaves of Cannabis sativa
Cocaine:
 Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to
South America
 It interferes with transport of the neuro-transmitter, dopamine.
 Cocaine is commonly called as coke or crack is usually snorted.
 Potent stimulating effect on central nervous system.
 Produces sense of euphoria and increased energy.
 Excessive dosage causes hallucinations.
Other plants with hallucinogenic properties are
 Atropa belladona, Datura. Flowering branch of Datura
 Canabinoids are also being abused by some sportspersons.
Medicinal use of drugs:
 Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD) used
as medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses like, depression and insomnia,
are often abused.
 Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller, used in patients who have
undergone surgery. Plant products like fruits and seeds having hallucinogenic
properties have been used for hundreds of years in folk- medicine, religious ceremonies
and rituals.
 When these are taken for a purpose other than medicinal use or in amounts that
impairs one’s physical, physiological or psychological functions, it constitutes drug
abuse.
Tobacco:
 It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
 Tobacco contains nicotine, an alkaloid.
 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor- adrenaline into blood
circulation both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
 Smoking tobacco is associated with cancers of lung, urinary bladder, and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer etc.
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 Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of the cancer of the oral cavity.
 Smoking increases carbon monoxide ssss( CO) content in the blood and reduces the
concentration of haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.
Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse:
 Adolescence means both a period and a process during which a child becomes mature in
terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in society.
 The period between 12-18 years of age may be thought of as an adolescence period.
 Adolescence is a bridge, linking childhood and adulthood. Adolescence is accompanied
by several biological and behavioural changes. Adolescence, thus is a very vulnerable
phase of mental and psychological development of an individual.
 Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, are the common
cause of drug and alcohol abuse.
Addiction and dependence:
 Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects-such as euphoria and a
temporary feeling of well-being associated with drugs and alcohol.
 With repeated use of drugs the tolerance level of the receptors present in our body
increases. Consequently the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol
leading to greater intake and addiction.
 Use of drugs even once, can be a fore-runner to addiction.
 Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
 Withdrawal syndrome characterized by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.
Effects of Drug / Alcohol Abuse:
 Immediate effects are reckless behavior, vandalism and violence.
 Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart
failure or cerebral hemorrhage.
 Warning sign of drug and alcohol abuse among youth include:
o Drop in academic performance,
o Unexplained absence from school/college.
o Lack of interest in personal hygiene
o Withdrawal, isolation, depression fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behavior.
o Deteriorating relationship with family and friends.
o Loss of interest in hobbies.
o Change in eating and sleeping habits.
o Fluctuation in weight and appetite.
 Intravenous drug user more prone to acquire infections like AIDS and hepatitis.
 The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and cause of liver
cirrhosis.
 Use of drug and alcohol during pregnancy affect the foetus.
Prevention and control:
 Avoid undue peer pressure.
 Education and counseling.
 Seeking help from parents and peers.
 Looking for danger signs.
 Seeking professional and medical help.

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