Department of Mechanical Engineering

Regulation 2021
III Year – V Semester
CME 380- AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
 CME 380 AUTOMOBILEENGINEERING

Objectives:
 Theobjectiveofthissubjectistoprovideknowledgeaboutvarioussystemsinvolvedin
automobile engine.
 Ableto learn about different components of IC Engines.
 Different automobile engine systems line diagrams.

UNIT –I VEHICLESTRUCTUREANDENGINES
Types of automobiles vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and body,
Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines components-
functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).

UNIT –II ENGINEAUXILIARYSYSTEMS

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for S I engines,
Electronically controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector
system, Rotary distributor type and common rail direct injection system),
Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil ignition system, capacitive discharge
ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT), Engine emission control by three way
catalytic converter system, Emission norms (Euro and BS).

UNIT –III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift mechanisms,
Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propellershaft,slipjoints,universal
joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive.

UNIT –IV STEERING, BRAKESANDSUSPENSIONSYSTEMS

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-PowerSteering, Types ofFrontAxle, Types
of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems, Antilock Braking
System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction Control.

UNIT –V ALTERNATIVEENERGYSOURCES
Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and
Hydrogen in Automobiles-Engine modifications required Performance,Combustionand
Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels- Electricl and Hybrid
Vehicles, Fuel Cells.
TEXTBOOKS:
1. JainK.K.andAsthana.R.B,AutomobileEngineeriTataMcGrawHillPublishers,Ne
w Delhi, 2002.
2. KirpalSingh,AutomobileEngineering,Vol1&2,SeventhEdition,StandardPublishers,New
Delhi, 13th Edition 2014.

REFERENCEBOOKS:
1. GanesanV.InternalCombustionEngines, ThirdEdition,TataMcGraw-Hill,2012.
2. HeinzHeisler, AdvancedEngineTechnology,SAEInternationalPublicationsUSA,1998.
3. JosephHeitner, AutomotiveMechanics,SecondEdition,East-WestPress,1999.
4. MartinW, StockelandMartinTStockle,AutomotiveMechanicsFundamentals,TheGood
heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978.
5. Newton,SteedsandGaret,MotorVehicles,ButterworthPublishers,1989.

OUTCOMES:
 The Automotive Engineering program aims to provide practice-oriented
education based on the latest scientific results and methods.
 Which enable students to workindependentlyasautomotiveengineers.
 Enablestofaceincreasingchallengesandstandardsofglobalmarkets.
 UNITI
VEHICLESTRUCTUREAND
ENGINES
Introduction of Automobile or Vehicle:

AnAutomobileisaself-propelledvehiclewhichcontainsthepowersourceforitspropulsion and is

used for carrying passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, etc.,, Types of

Automobile:

The automobilesareclassified bythefollowingways,

1. OntheBasis ofLoad:

 Heavytransportvehicle (HTV)orheavymotorvehicle(HMV),

 Lighttransportvehicle(LTV),Lightmotorvehicle(LMV),

2. OntheBasisofWheels:

 Twowheelervehicle,forexample:Scooter,motorcycle,scooty,etc.

 Threewheelervehicle,forexample:Autorickshaw,

 Threewheelerscooterforhandicapsandtempo,etc.

 Fourwheelervehicle,forexample:Car,jeep,trucks,buses,etc.

 Six wheeler vehicle, forexample:Bigtruckswithtwogearaxles.

3. On thebasisofFuelUsed:

 Petrolvehicle,e.g.motorcycle,scooter,cars,etc.

 Dieselvehicle,e.g.trucks,buses,etc.

 Electricvehiclewhichusebatterytodrive.

 Steam vehicle, e.g.an engine which uses steam engine.

 Gasvehicle,e.g.LPGandCNGvehicles,whereLPGisliquefied

4. On thebasisofbodystyle:

 SedanHatchbackcar.

 CoupecarStationwagonConvertible.

 VanSpecialpurposevehicle,e.g.ambulance,milk van,etc.

5. OnthebasisofTransmission:

 Conventionalvehicleswithmanualtransmission,e.g.carwith5gears.
  Semi-automatic

 Automatic:Inautomatictransmission,gearsarenotrequiredtobe

changedmanually.

6. On thebasisofDrive:

 Lefthanddrive

 Righthanddrive

7. OnthebasisofDrivingAxle

 Frontwheeldrive

 Rearwheeldrive

 Allwheeldrive

8. Position ofEngine:

 EngineinFront-Mostofthevehicleshaveengineinthefront.Example:most of the

cars,

 Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine Located in the rear.

Example:Nanocar.

Vehicle construction and Components;

The main components of an auto mobile refer to the following components;

 Frame,

 Chassis,

 Body,

 Power unit,

 Transmission system.
Anautomobileis madeupofmainlytwounits,theseareChassisandBody.

―Frame‖+―Basecomponents‖=―Chassis‖

―Chassis‖+―Body‖=Vehicle

 Chassisincludethefollowing
SpringsandShockabsorbers
Steering System
Brakes
Frame
TyresandWheels
 TransmissionUnitsincludes
Clutches
Gearbox
UniversalJoint
Final Drive
AxleandDifferential
 EngineUnitsIncludes  ElectricalSystemIncludes
Full System BatteryDynamometre
Ignition System Alternators
LubricatingSystem IginitionStartingandLighting
Cooling system
 Frame:
Theframe istheskeletonofthevehicle.It servesasa mainfoundationand base for alignment

for the chassis.

Types;

 Conventionalframe,

 Semiintegralframe;

 Integraloruntidiestframe.

ConventionalFrame

Fig.1 Crosssection ofladder chassis Fig.1(a) Ladder Chassis

Intergal Frame
 Inthistypeofconstruction,thereisnoframe.Itisalsocalledunitizedframe-bodyconstruction.

 Alltheassemblyunitsareattachedtothebodyandallthefunctionsoftheframecarriedoutbythebody itself.

 Herethebodyshellandunderbodyareweldedintosingleunit.Theunderbodyismadeoffloorplatesand channel and

box sections welded into single unit. This assembly replaces the frame.

 Thisframeisusednowdaysinmostofthecars.Duetoeliminationoflongframeitischeaperanddueto less weight

most economical also.

 Themaindisadvantageis repairing
 Fig.2Integral Frame

Semi Integral Frame

• Insomevehicleshalfframeisfixedinthefrontendonwhichenginegearboxandfrontsuspensionis mounted.
• Inthiscasetherubbermountingsusedinconventionalframebetweenframeandsuspensionarereplacedby more
stiff mountings.
• Becauseofthissomeofthevehicleloadissharedbytheframealso.Thistypeofframeisheavierin
construction.
• Ithastheadvantagewhenthevehicleismetwithaccidentthefrontframecanbetakeneasilytoreplacethe damaged
chassis frame.
• Thistype offrame isused insome ofthe Europeanand American cars.

Fig.3SemiIntegral Frame
 Chassis;
If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis. The components are
like Engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox, silencer, road wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential
units, etc..,
FUNCTIONSOFA CHASSIS

1. Supports orbears the loadofthe vehicle body.

2. Providethespaceand mountinglocation forvarious aggregatesof vehicle.

3. Supports the weight of various systems of the vehicle such

as engine, transmission etc.

4. Supportsa load of passengersas well as the luggage.

5. Withstandsthestressesarisingdue tobadroad conditions.

6. Withstandsstresses duringbraking andaccelerationofthe vehicle.

Types of Chassis

i. Ladder Chassis

ii. Tubular Chassis

iii. Monocoque Chassis

Ladder Chassis

The ladder-frame chassis is one of the oldest chassis types. This chassis is characterised by
two long heavy beams that are supported by two smaller ones. Its quality of being easily
manufactured not only made it contemporarily popular but also eased the way for its mass
production. Since ladder frame chassis is significantly heavy it‘s usually used for vehicles that
transport heavy material.
Benefits

 Easyto manufactureandeasyassembling ofthecarover it.·

 Heavy and strong tensilestrength.
Drawbacks

 Poorcornering abilitydue toweak torsional rigidity

 Itsheavinessdoesn‘tmakeitsuitableforperformancecarsand hatchbacks.
 Fig.4Ladderchassisframelayout

Tubular Chassis

• Tubular space frame chassis employs dozens of circular-section tubes (some may use
square-section tubes for easier connection to the body panels, though circular section
providesthemaximumstrength),positionindifferentdirectionstoprovidemechanical
strength against forces from anywhere.
• Thistypeofchassisismostlyusedwhilemanufacturingracingcarsduetotheenhanced safety
they offer.
Benefits

• Itscraftingallowsbettercontactbetweenthehalfaxleandgroundmakingitpreferablefor off-
roading.
• Acylindrical tube covering the driveshaft savesit fromany damage while off-roading.
• Thestructure‘storsionaltoughnessisrelativelymoresupplethanladder chassis.
Drawbacks

• Incasethedriveshaftfails,thewholechassisneedstobedismantledasthedriveshaftis covered
with the cylindrical tube of the chassis.
• Themanufacture ofbackbone chassisis costly andincreases theoverallcostof the car.

Fig.5Tubular Chassis
Mono coque Chassis

• Theconstructionofamonocoquechassisisquitesimpleinthesensethattheentire
structure is one big construction.
• Allcomponentsormechanical partsconstitutethe frame, foundationandbodyofthe car.
• Theengine,gearbox,suspension,seatsandexteriorbodypanelsaresimplyattachedtothe
construction. This means that the overall construction is very lightweight and compact.
There is quite a lot of safety element to it.
• Theapplicationsincludeallsortsofeverydayvehiclesrangingfromsmallandcompact
hatchbacks to large and heavy SUVs. It must be noted that modern SUVs are using
monocoque construction quite a bit which was not always the case in the past
Benefits
• It‘ssaferthanboth theotherchassisdue toitscage-like construction.
• The chassisis easy to repair as well.
• Ithassuperiortorsional rigidity.
Drawbacks
• Thechassisisobviouslyheavyasit‘sboththeframeandchassisasonesingleentity.
• Producingitinsmallquantitiesisnotfinanciallyfeasibleandthusitcannotbeusedforcarsthatare not mass-
produced.

Body:
• Bodyisthesuper-structureforallvehicles.Itmayeitherbeconstructedseparatelyand boltedtothechassisor
manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction).

• The chassis and the body make the complete vehicle.

• A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The electrical system in the
bodyisconnectedtothechassiselectricalunitssothatthebatteryand thegenerator/alternatorcanfurnishthe required
electrical energy to the system.

Types;
 Car,Truck, Tractor,Delivery Van,Ambulance, jeep,Bus,etc..,

Fig.6.Bodyofvariousvechiles
DescriptionofanAutomobile
 Type:MotorCycle,Car,Bus,truck,etc.,
 Capacity:Tonnageandno.ofseats
 Make:ManufacturerofthevehicleandEngineCapacity
 Drive:LefthandDriveorRighthandDrive,2,4,6wheeldrive
 Model:Yearof Manufacturing

LayoutsofanAutomobile
Thedifferentlayoutsofanautomobileareasfollows
• FrontEngineRearWheelDrive
• FrontEngineFrontWheelDrive
• RearEngineRearWheelDrive
• FourWheelDrive(AllWheelDrive)

1. FrontEngineRear WheelDrive

Fig.7layoutofFrontenginerearwheeldrive In
this chassis layout, the engine is fitted at the front.

• Theengine,clutchandgearboxarefittedatfrontwhiledrivetotherearaxleisgivenwiththehelpofpropeller shaft

• Thischassislayoutisoneoftheoldestandstillremainpopularforheavycommercialvehicle
Advantages
1. Theweightdistributionisreasonablybalancedbetweenthefrontandrearwheels,whichgivesgoodhandling
characteristics.
2. Duetoengineandradiatorareatfront, theforwardfacingradiatortakesfullbenefitofthenaturalairstream, created by
vehicle‘s movement .hence reduce the power losses for a large fan.
3. Theweightofvehicleisshiftedtoreardrivingwheelsduringaccelerationandonsteepsresultinginbetter road grip,
hence, there are less chances of wheel slipping .
4. Sincethefrontwheelareusedonlytosteerthevehicle, hencesteeringmechanismbecomesimpleindesign and easy
to operate.
 5. Accessibilitytovariouscomponentslikeengine,gearboxandrearaxleisbetterincomparisontoouter layout
6. Largeluggagespaceisavailableatbackofvehiclewhichprovidingincreasedcarryingcapacityaswellas space for
easy body extension.
Dis Advantages
1. Duringthebreaking,weightofvehicleisfittedtofrontwheelsandweightonrearwheelsdecreased,results in
decreased breaking effort developed
2. Itrequiredlongpropellershaftanddifferentialatrear,thereforeheightoffloorareaisincreased.Also,dueto long
propeller shaft transmission problems and weight are increased.
3. Dueto lessweight on driving rearwheels,thereis less adhesion onroad and result inless holding capacity
.thereforethereislesschanceof skiddingonslippery surface.

2. FrontEngineFrontWheelDrive

Fig.8layoutofFrontengineFrontwheeldrive

1. Inthistypeofchassislayouttheengineisfittedatfrontanddriveisalsogiventothefrontwheel.No propeller
shaft is used in this layout and differential are included in the same assembly.
2. Thislayoutprovidesoptimumbodyluggagespaceandflatfloorline.However,duetoallassemblies at front
,it make very difficult to accommodate the steering mechanism.
Advantages
1. Duetomoreweightplacedondrivingfrontwheel,thevehiclehasmoreadhesiononroad.Hence good road
holding capacity even on the curves and slippery roads.
2. This layout provides low floor, since no propeller shaft and the differential placed at front instead of
rear.
3. Theclutch,gearbox, and final driveusually made asone unittherebycoast of vehicleare reducing.
4. The wheel does not take to sharply turn into the curve due to tendency of understeering. The
understeer conditions generally preferred by many drivers are promoted by this type of chassis.
5. Eitheratransverseorlongitudinalengine position can be used. Incaseoftransversemounted engine, as
the engine crankshaft and wheels already rotate in the parallel planes, therefore, they do notrequire
their drive to be turned through 90 O as in case of conventional longitudinally mounted engines.
Dis Advantages
1. The weight on the driving front wheels is reduced during acceleration and climbing of steep gradient
due to weight of the vehicle shifting to the rear wheels. Hence, result in decreased tractive effort
which makes slippery gradient
 2. Thesteeringmechanismbecomemorecomplicated duetoaccommodationofengine,clutch,gearbox &
final drive all at front of vehicle.

3. RearEngineRearWheelDrive

Fig.9layoutofReartenginerearwheeldrive

Inthischassislayoutengineisfittedatthebackanddriveisalsogiventorearwheel

• Thisarrangementeliminatesthenecessityforapropellershaftbecauseengineismountednearthedrivenwheel.

• Thepassengerarekeptawayfrominconvenienceslikenoise,heatandfumesbecauseengineatbackof vehicle

Advantages
1. Becauseofhigh weightondriving axle,itprovides excellenttractionand griponsteep hills
2. Therear floorcan bemade flatbecause ofabsence ofpropeller shaft.
3. Theclutch,gearbox, and final driveusually made asone unittherebycoast of vehicleare reducing.
4. Thedrivercabiniswellisolatedfrom noise
5. Thefront body can be designed withsteamliningand stylish.
Dis Advantages
1. Naturalaircooling ofthe engineis notpossible,hence itrequires powerfulradiator fanat rear.
2. Theclutchand gearsystemmechanismislong and complex
3. Becauseof highweight concentrationat rear, thevehiclehasa tendencytooversteerwhile taking harp
turns
4. FourWheelDrive(AllwheelDrive)

Fig.10layoutofAllwheeldrive
 o 4X2=4Wheelvehicleand2Wheelscanreceivetorque.
o 4X4=4Wheelvehicleand all4Wheelscanreceive torque.
o E.g.areJeeps,SUVs(SportsUtilityVehicle),etc.
o Gamesderiveditsnamefrom4WD only.
o Usedmostlyindefenseservicesorwheregraveledorslickroadsarepresent.
o Togetenough“TRACTION”betweenwheelsandroadsurfaces.
o Tomovevehicleonslicksurfaces,dirt,slipperyroads,sandroadsandsnowy, muddy
roads etc.

Advantages
 IncreasedTractionisobtained inslippery surfaces.
 Morebalancedaxleloaddistribution.
 Eventirewear
DisAdvantages
 Weightofvehicleis increased.
 Costofthevehicleisincreased.
 Maximumspeedofvehicleis reduced.
 Lessfueleconomythan2WD

VehicleAero Dynamics
Theterm―Aero‖meansair,―Dynamic‖meansmotion.Therefore,aerodynamicisthestudyofeffectsofthewindon the
vehicle in motion.
Whenthevehicleismovingthe airflow isdependenton thetwo factors.
• Vehicle speed.
• Ambient wind.
AdvantagesofAerodynamics
• More Fuel Efficiency
• Higher Speeds
• GoodAestheticand Stylish Appearance
• MoreStability ofcar athigh Speed
• Reduce Noise Level
Resistanceof an Automobile
 Amoving vehicleis opposed byvarious forces,known as resistance
 Formovingthevehicle,thedrivingforce(F)shouldbeequaltothesumofallresistanceforcesapplied on it.
F= Ra+Rr+Rg
 When‗F‘exceedsthesumofallresistanceforces,vechileaccelarate
 When‗F‘lessthanthesumofallresistanceforces,vechiledeaccelarate
Air Resistance (Ra): This is the resistance offered by air to the movement of a vehicle. The air resistance has
an influence on the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the size and shape of the
body of the vehicle, its speed and the wind velocity. The last term should be taken into account when
indicated, otherwise it can be neglected. Hence in general, air resistance,

RollingResistance(Rr):Themagnitudeofrollingresistancedependsmainlyon
• thenatureofroadsurface,
• thetypesoftyreviz.pneumaticorsolidrubbertype,
• theweightofthevehicle,and
• thespeedofthevehicle

GradientResistance(Rg):Theresistanceduetosteepnessoftheroadgradient.Itdependsupontheweightofthevehicle
androadgradient.Itdoesnotdependuponvehiclespeed.

MOMENTSDUETOFORCES:Momentscreatedbyforcesactingonthevehicle
RollingMoment–Createdbycrosswindaboutx-axis
Pitchingmoment–Createdbydragorliftforceabouty-axisandreducesthetractioninthewheels
Yawingmoment-Createdbycrosswindaboutz-axis
 Fig.11MomentsofForcesactingontheBody
ComponentsofanEngine:
Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, there are hundreds of
components that have to perform their functions satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two
types ofengines, viz., spark ignition (S1) and compression-ignition(CI)engine. Letus nowgo through
the important engine components and the nomenclature associated with anengine.

TermsconnectedwithI.C.engines;

Bore:Theinsidediameterofthecylinderiscalledbore

Stroke:Thelineardistancealongthecylinderaxisbetweentwolimitingpositionsiscalled stroke.

TopDeadCenter(T.D.C.):thetopmostpositionofthepistontowardscoverendsideof the

cylinder is called T.D.C.

BottomdeadCenter(B.D.C.):Thelowestpositionofthepistontowardsthecrankendside of the

cylinder is called B.D.C.

ClearanceVolume:Thevolumecontainedinthecylinderabovethetopofthepiston,when the piston

is at top dead center , is calledthe clearancevolume.

SweptVolume:ThevolumesweptthroughbythepistoninmovingbetweenT.D.C.andB.D.C,iscalled swept

volume or piston displacement.

CompressionRatio:ItistheratioofTotalcylindervolumetoclearancevolume.
Definitionof‘Engine’

An engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy into another form. Normally,

most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are

called ‗heat engines‘.

Fig.12partsofanI.C.Engine

EngineComponents
Themajorcomponentsoftheengineandtheirfunctionsarebrieflydescribedbelow.

CylinderBlock:

The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinder of a

multi cylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head ismounted

on the cylinder block.

The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water - cooling

with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head gasket is incorporated between the

cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinderhead is held tight to the cylinder block by number of

bolts or studs. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called

crankcase, which becomes a sump for lubricating oil isfastened to the bottom of the crankcase. The

inner surface of the cylinder block, which is machined and finished accurately to cylindrical shape,

is called bore or face.

Cylinder

As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a

reciprocatingmotion.Thevaryingvolumecreatedinthecylinderduringtheoperationoftheengineisfilled

withtheworkingfluidandsubjectedtodifferentthermodynamicprocesses.Thecylinderis supported in the

cylinder block.

Piston

It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the

combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the

piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output

shaft.

CombustionChamber

The spaceenclosedinthe upperpart ofthecylinder, bythecylinder headand the piston top during the

combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the consequent

release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.

InletManifold

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of theengine and through which air or

air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.

GudgeonPin

Itformsthelinkbetweenthesmallendoftheconnectingrodandthe piston.

ExhaustManifold

The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaustvalve of the engine and through which the

productsofcombustionescape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.

InletandExhaustValves

Valvesarecommonlymushroomshapedpoppettype.Theyareprovidedeitheronthecylinder
head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve)

and for discharging the productsofcombustion (exhaust valve) fromthe cylinder.

ConnectingRod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the

crankshaft. The two ends ofthe connecting rod are called as small endand the big end. Small end is

connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.

Crankshaft

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In

the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights. The

balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The

crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.

PistonRings

Pistonrings, fitted into the slots aroundthe piston, provide atight sealbetweenthe pistonand the cylinder

wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases

Camshaft

The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The

associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the

drive to the ignition system. The camshaftis drivenbythe crankshaft throughtiming gears.

Cams

Thesearemadeasintegralpartsofthecamshaftandaredesignedinsuchawaytoopenthe valves at the

correct timing and to keep themopen for the necessaryduration.

FlyWheel

The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine

fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order toachieve a uniform torque

an inertia mass inthe formof a wheel is attached tothe output shaft and this wheel is called the

flywheel.
BasicPartsoftheGasolineEngine:

BasicPartsoftheGasolineEnginearelistedbelow;
 Cylinderblock

 Piston

 Pistonrings

 Pistonpin

 Connectingrod

 Crankshaft

 Cylinderhead

 Intakevalve

 Exhaustvalve

 Camshaft

 Timinggears

 Sparkplug

CylinderBlock:

CylinderBlockBasicframeofgasolineengine.Containsthecylinder.

Piston:
PistonAslidingplugthatharnessestheforceoftheburninggasesinthecylinder.

PistonRings:

Pistonringssealthecompressiongasesabovethepistonkeeptheoilbelowthepistonrings.

PistonPins:

PistonPins Also knownas the wrist pin, it connectsthe pistonto the smallend ofthe connecting rod.

It transfers the force and allows the rodto swing back and forth.

ConnectingRod:

ConnectingRodConnectsthepistonandpistonpintothe crankshaft.
Crankshaft:
Crankshaft Alongthethepistonpinandconnectingrodit convertstheupanddownmotion

(reciprocating) ofthe engine to spinning (rotary) motion.

Flywheel:

FlywheelCarriestheinertiawhenthereisnopower stroke.

CylinderHead:

CylinderHeadFormsthetopofthecombustionchamber.Containsthevalves,thepassageways for the

fuel mixture to move in and out ofthe engine.

IntakeandExhaustValves:

IntakeandExhaustValvesDoorwaythatletsthegasesinandoutofthe engine.

Camshaft:

CamshaftThroughtheuseofaneccentricthecamlobespushthevalvesopen.Thevalvesprings close

them.

TimingGears:

TimingGearsThesegearsdrivethecamshaftfromthecrankshaft.

VariableValveTiming
It isinherentto the operation ofinternal combustion enginesto possessinlet andexhaust valves (4 -
stroke) or ports (2-stroke) for proper functioning. The idea here is to entrap the incoming fresh
charge in a well-designed combustion chamberand then initiate ignition in order to release and
convert the stored fuel chemical energy into the thermal energy. Subsequent to this release
ofenergy, a mechanical system, such as piston-connecting-rod-crankshaft, isneeded for
conversion of the thermal energy into the mechanical energy of the crankshaft. The incoming
fresh charge usually consists of fuel, air, and possibly exhaust gas recalculated (EGR) chemical
species. EGR is used for nitric oxide (NO X) emission control purposes. In this scenario, the
roles that valves, particularly the intake valves, play are critical for the engine‘s efficient
operation, optimum performance, and minimization of pollutants emission.In this tutorial, these
aspects are addressed in a concise manner.

Historicallyspeaking,manydifferenttypesofvalvesandvalveactuationmechanismshave
beentriedinthepast. Mosthavedisappearedtothepointthatatpresenttimenearlyall4-stroke

engines use poppet valves opened by a camand closed by a spring. A typical valve timing for a
4-stroke engine is shown in Fig. 1. At wide open throttle operation of an SI engine, the exhaust
gases rushing out of the exhaust valve can assist pulling fresh charge into the cylinder (moving
the intake manifold fresh charge even before the piston has moved appreciably), therefore
justifying opening of the intake valve (IVO) even before TDC, see Fig. 1. At part load
operation,however,situationisabitmorecomplexandthebelow-atmosphericpressurecreated by the
partially open throttle valve can become less than the chamber pressure at the time when intake
valve is opened. This causes backflow of burned gases from the cylinder into the intake
systemduringthevalve overlapperiod.Theoverlapperiodisthetimeduringwhichbothintake and
exhaust valves are open (intake is being opened and exhaust being closed). Too early IVO
willalso cause freshcharge to be lost outofthe exhaust, for example, NASCAR engines.

At the closing,it is customary to delay the IVC beyond the BDC to take advantage of the inertia
of the fresh charge rushing into the engine, see Fig. 1. This will increase what is referred to as
the ―volumetric efficiency‖ of the engine. The volumetric efficiency indicatesthe breathing
ability of the engine and is defined as the actual mass of the fresh air trapped in the cylinder
(after valves are closed) divided by the theoretical mass of air calculated based on the piston
displacement volume. The higher the volumetric efficiency, the higher the engine ability to trap
fresh air, providing opportunity for combustion of a more mass of fuel on account of a more
entrapped oxygen, thereby producing higher power for the same piston displacement.
Furthermore, the engine brake power rises and then falls off with speedfor a number of reasons:
mainly the fall in volumetric efficiency, and the fall in mechanical efficiency. The delayed
closure of the intake valve for achieving higher volumetric efficiency usually works best at
higher engine speeds due to sufficiently high inertia of the incoming fresh charge. Note that the
IVO does also affect the volumetric efficiency through the magnitude of the backflow into the
intake system mentioned earlier.

In engines, even though attempts are made to thoroughly scavenge the chamber from burned
gases,thereisalwaysacertainamountofburnedgaseslefttobemixedwiththeincomingfresh charge.
As far as the combustion (really, flame burning rate) is concerned, the amount of this residual
burned gases left from the previous cycle combustion is not desirable. The higher the quantity
of residual burned gases, the slower the flame mass burning rate. It is known that increases in
the valve overlap period will elevate the fraction of the residual gases in the entrapped charge.
Also, past research indicates that the amount of the residual gases correlates inversely with the
engine load (i.e. throttle valve position in SI engines), beingmaximum atidle condition. This is
the primary reason for engine stability problems at idle condition. It
shouldthereforebeclearthatthevalveoverlapperiodcanaffectenginestabilityandhence
efficiency. On the positive side, this residual gases is useful to lower the burned gases
temperature after combustion is complete, reducing the NO Xemissions. Figure 2 shows effects
of the valve overlap period on emissions of NO Xand hydrocarbon (HC) at two different engine
loads.
In summary, adjustments in valve timing (usually achieved by camshaft phasing) affect the
raw emissions, engine torque/power, and idle stability.However, researchers have shown
benefits in tailoring valve lift profile, primarily to achieve higher efficiency and power,although
emission benefits were also seen. Combination of adjustments in valve timing and changes in
valve lift are being used toinfluence both emission levels and engine efficiencyand, hence, fuel
economy. Finally, potential of SI engine load control is being considered through variable lift
designs. Research has shown that improvements in fuel economy and emission can be achieved
through an optimized combination of variable valve timing and lift, see Fig. 3. To conclude, the
adjustment of the valve timing in spark-ignited (SI) engines is dictated by a set of conflicting
targets and goals. These goals cannot be achieved with fixed valve timing. Systems that provide
variable timing and lift have recently found widespread use in engine design.
Figure 13. Indicates positions of intake and exhaust valves openings and closures
withrespecttothetop-deadandbottom-deadcenters,TDCandBDC respectively. TDC
and BDC indicate the uppermost and lowermost positions of the pistontoponthe
diagram. The angles shownare crankshaft angles. EVO and EVC are exhaust
valve opening and closures angles.

Figure 1 4 .Effectsofvalveoverlaponemissionofpollutantsat2000rpmand two

different engine loads. HC and NO Xare hydrocarbon and nitric oxides emissions.
 UNITII
ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
 UNIT-II

ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

ElectronicControlledGasoline(Petrol)InjectionSystem(ECGIS)
TheelectronicFuelinjectorsystemisconsistsofthreedifferentsystemsforthebasicoperation of
ECGIS
1. FuelDeliverySystem
2. AirInductionsystem
3. ElectronicControlSystem
Fueldeliverysystem:
• The Fuel delivery system consists of Fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, Fuel
delivery pipe, fuel injector, fuel pressure regulator and fuel return pipe
• Fuel is delivered from the tank to the injector by means of an electric fuel pump.
The pump is typically located in or near to the tank.Contaminants are filtered out
by a high capacity in line fuel filter.
• Fuel is maintained at a constant pressure by means of a fuel pressure regulator.
Any fuel which is not delivered to the intake manifold by the injector is returned
to the tank through a fuel return pipe.
Airinductionsystem:

• The air induction system consists of the air cleaner, air flow metre, throttle valve,
air intake chamber, intake manifold runner and intake valve.

• When the throttle valve is opened, air flows through the air cleaner, through the
air flow meter (on L type system), pas the throttle valve and through a well-tuned
intake manifold runner to the intake valve.

• Air delivered to the engine is a function of driver demand. As the throttle valve is
opened firther, more air is allowed to enter the engine cylinders.

ElectroniccontrolSystem(ECS):

• The ECS consists of various engine sensors, Electronic control unit, Fuel injector
assemblies and related wiring.

• The ECS determines precisely how much fuel needs to be delivered by the
injector by monitoring the engine sensors.

• The ECS turns the injector for a precise amount of time, referred to as injection
pulse width or injection duration, to deliver fuel so that proper air/fuel ratio is
delivered to the engine.
BasicOperation of ECGIS
• Air enters the engine through the air induction system where it is measured by the air
flow meter. As the air flows into the cylinder, fuel is mixed into the air by the fuel
injector.
• Fuel injector is arranged in the intake manifold behind each intake valve. The injector
is electrical solenoids which are operated by the ECU.
• TheECU pulsesthe injector byswitching theinjector groundcircuiton and off.
 • When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the back side of the
intake valve.
• As the Fuel is sprayed into the intake air stream, it mixes with the incoming air and
vaporizes due to the low pressures in the intake manifold. The ECU signals theinjector
to deliver just enough fuel to achieve an ideal air/fuel ratio of 14.7:1, often referred to
as stoichiometric ratio.
• The precise amount of fuel delivered to the engine is a function of ECU control. The
ECU determines the basic injection quantity based upon measured intake air volume
and engine rpm.
• Depending on engine operating conditions, injection quantity will vary. The ECU
monitors variables such as coolant temperature, engine speed, throttle angle and
exhaust oxygen content and makes injection corrections which determine final
injection quantity.

Fig.1Electroniccontrolgasolineinjectionsystem-L-Jetronicwithairflowmeter
Advantagesof ElectronicControlled Gasoline(Petrol) Injection System
• UniformFuel/Airmixturedistribution
• HighAccurateFuel/AirRation Control
• SuperiorThrottleResponseand Control
• ExcellentFuelEconomy
• ImprovedColdengineStartability
• SimpleMechanicsandReducedAdjustment Sensitivity.

SinglePointInjectorSystem
• Ithasonly oneinjectorthatinjects thefuelbeforeenteringintothe intakemanifold.
• In this system, the fuel is mixed with fuel before the throttle valve. The single-point fuel
injection system is also known as throttle body injection.
• The amount of fuel to be injected is decided by the engine control unit. The engine control
unit takes the input fromdifferent sensors and decides the amount of fuel to be supplied for
the injection.
• The fuel injector sprays the fuel for mixing with the flow of air and this air-fuel mixture
enters the intake manifold.
Theintakemanifoldfurtherdistributesthemixturetoallcylinders.
 Advantages
• Simple construction.
• Accuratefuelsupply(incomparisonwith carburetor).
• Easy maintenance.
• Itusesonlyasingle injector.
• Reliableoperation
Dis Advantages
• Ununiformfuel supplytoall cylinders.
• Less efficient.
• Itwetstheintake manifoldby forminga layeroffuelon theintake manifold.
• Lowerfueleconomy.

MultiPointFuelInjectionSystem
• In multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) technology, every cylinder in the combustion chamber of the
engine is given an injector at the front of their inlet valves (outside the intake port), which is why
it‘s also called ‗Port Injection‘.
• Every injector sprays fuel at the same time and each cylinder gets a more precise volume of fuel,
with less possibility of fuel condensation outside the intake manifold. While MPFI has the
advantage of lower fuel wastage as compared to TBI, since the fuel is sprayed at the same time in
all the cylinders, it doesn‘t get properly synced with the rotation of all the pistons. This results in
the fuel idling in the engine and port for as long as 150 milliseconds. All the same, from the
performance point of view, the MPFIs function much better as compared to TBIs.
Advantages
• The systemis reliable
• Itreducesthedifferenceinpowerthateachcylinder creates.
• Itincreasesthefuel efficiencyofan engine
• Betteratomizationof fuel
• MPFI systemhave fewer emissions
• Betterutilizationanddistributionoffuelwithinanengine.
• Betteracceleration and deacceleration of engine
• Itimproves thecold startproperties ofthe engine
• Vibrationsin reduce in the engine
• Improvesdurabilityandfunctionalityof an engine

Dis Advantages
• Misfiringmightoccur sometimes
• Itrequiresregularinspectionoffuel injectors
• Thesystemisexpensivecomparedto conventional systems.
• Repairingfuelinjectorcanbetediouscomparedtocarburetors
• Thesystemusually hasa shorter life.
• ECUfailurecould occur suddenly.
• A hot engine might be difficult to start due to possible vapor lock in the steel fuel lines above the
engine.
ElectronicallyControlledDieselInjectionSystem

The function of the diesel fuel system is to inject a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel
intoeachenginecylinderatthe propertime.Combustioninadieselengineoccurswhenthisrushof fuel is
mixed with hot compressed air.
Parts of Diesel InjectionSystem
• Fuel Tank: There are many different types and shapes of fuel tanks. Each size and shape is
designed for a specific purpose. The fuel tank must be capable of storing enough fuel to operate
the engine for a reasonable length of time. The tank must be closed to prevent contamination by
foreign objects. It must also be vented to allow air to enter, replacing any fuel demanded by the
engine. Three other tank openings are required--one to fill, one to discharge, and one to drain.
• Fuel Lines: There are three types of diesel fuel lines. These include heavyweight lines for the
high pressures found between the injection pump and the injectors, medium weight lines for the
light or medium fuel pressures found between the fuel tank and injection pump, and lightweight
lines where there is little or no pressure.
• Fuel Filters: Diesel fuel must be filtered not once, but several times in most systems. A typical
systemmighthavethreestagesofprogressivefilters--afilterscreenatthetankortransferpump,a primary
fuel filter, and a secondary fuel filter. In series filters, all the fuel goes through one filter and then
through the other. In parallel filters, part of the fuel goes through each filter.
• Fuel Transfer Pump: Simple fuel systems use gravity or air pressure to get fuel from the tank to
the injection pump. On modern high-speed diesel engines, a fuel transfer pump is normally used.
This pump, driven by the engine, supplies fuel automatically to the diesel injection system. The
pump often has a hand primer lever for bleeding air fromthe system. Modern injection pumps are
almost all jerk pumps that use the plunger and cam method of fuel injection.
• FuelInjectionSystems:There arefour primarysystems forinjecting fuel:
1. Individualpumpandinjectorforeachcylinder
2. Combinedpumpand injectorforeach cylinder(unitinjector type)
3. Onepumpservinginjectorsforseveralcylinders(distributor type)
4. Pumpsin a common housing with injectorsforeach cylinder (common rail system)
• The common rail system is rapidly gaining popularity for on-road applications. The in-line and
distributor types are used on off-road vehicles and industrial machines.
• Fuel Injector: Diesel fuel injectors are arguably the most important fuel system component. The
job of the injectors is to deliver a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel into each
cylinder. Highly atomized, pressurized fuel distributed evenly throughout the cylinder results in
increased power and fuel economy, decreased engine noise, and smoother operation.
Classificationof DieselInjector System

AirInjectionsystem
 Figure:AirInjection system
Advantages:
1. Itprovidesgoodatomizationanddistributionof fuel
2. Fuelpumpneeds todevelopless pressure.
Dis Advantages:
1. Itrequireshighmultistagecompressor.
2. AirCompressorneedsextra maintenance.

SolidorAirlessInjectionSystem

UnitInjector System
• Fill phase: The constantstroke pump element on the way updraws fuel fromthe supply duct in to
the chamber, and as long as electric solenoid valve remains de-energized fuel line is open.
• Spill phase: The pump element is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-
energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
• Injection phase: The pump element is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and
fuel line is now closed. The fuel cannot pass back into return duct, and is now compressed by the
plunger until pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure, and the injector nozzle needle lifts,
allowing fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
• Pressure reduction phase: The plunger is still on its way down, the engine ECU de-energizes the
solenoid when required quantity of fuel is delivered, the fuel valve opens, fuel can flow back into
return duct, causing pressure drop, which in turn causes the injector nozzle needle to shut, hence
no more fuel is injected.

Figure:UnitInjector system
IndividualPump andinjector(or) Jerk Pump System
• Inthissystem, eachcylinderis providedwithone pumpand one injector.
• Separatemeteringandcompressionpumpisprovidedforeach cylinder.
• In high pressure pump , plunger is actuated by a cam & produces the fuel pressure necessary to
open the injector valve at the correct time .
• Theamountoffuelinjected depends onthe effective strokeofthe plunger.
Figure:Individual pumpand injector orJerk Pump System
DistributorSystem
• Inthissystemthepump whichpressurizesthefuel alsometersandtimes it.
• Thefuelpumpaftermeteringtherequiredamountoffuelsuppliesittoarotatingdistributoratthe correct
time for supply to each cylinder.
• Thenumberofinjectionstrokespercycleforthepumpisequaltothenumberofcylindersusedin this
system.
• Sincethereis onlyonemetering element,auniformdistributionisautomatically ensured.

Figure:Distributor system
 CommonRailInjectorSystem

Figure: Common rail injector system

• In this system HP pumps supplies fuel, under high pressure, to a header. High pressure in the
header forces the fuel to each nozzles located in the cylinders of this system.
• At that time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder throughthe
nozzle.
• Byvarying the lengthofthe pushrodstrokethe amountoffuel enteringthe cylinder is regulated.
Advantages
(i) Itdelivers25%more powerandtorquethanthenormaldirectinjection engine.
(ii) Initialcostislow.
(iii) Superiorpickupis possible.
(iv) Itmaintains lowerlevels ofnoise and vibration.
(v) Highermileageis obtained.
(vi) Emissionsarelow.
(vii) Fuelconsumptionisless.
(viii) Improvedperformanceis obtained.
Dis Advantages
(i) Manypartsinvolvethecomplicateddesign.
(ii) Productioncost is high.
(iii) Highdegreeof enginemaintenanceis required.

ElectronicIgnitionSystem
• Anelectronicignitionsystemisatypeofignitionsystemthatworkselectroniccircuits, usuallyby
transistors. The transistors are controlled by sensors to generate electric pulses which then
generate a high voltage spark that can burn the lean mixture and provide a better economy and
lower emission.
• The electronic ignition system is vastly used in aircraft engines, bikes, motorcycles, and cars as it
performs the same purpose as other types of ignition systems on them.
• The function of an electronic ignition system is remaining the same as it produces a high voltage
spark to the spark plug so that the fuel-air mixture can be burn or ignite. Because sensors are used
in the system, it improves reliability and mileage and decreases emission.
Componentsof ElectronicIgnition System
• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• ElectronicControlModule
• Armature
• IgnitionCoil
• Distributor
• Spark Plug
WorkingPrincipleofElectronicIgnition system
• When switching on the ignition switch, just after that battery starts and it supplies current to the
system.
• Current passes through the ignition switch and move toward the ignition coil on the system then,
start passing through the primary winding of the coil.
• As the current passes through the primary coil, the pick-up coil got activated which is in the
armature. It receives current as a voltage on the pick-up. Just after receiving voltage, the reluctor
starts rotating which consists of the tooth.
• When the tooth comes in front of the pick-up coil exactly at the same time the pick-up coil starts
sending a signal to the electronic control module.
• Afterreceivingavoltagesignal,itstopsthecurrentsupplyfromthebatteryuptotheprimarycoil. When the
tooth deviates from the point, it senses the change in voltage, and then again it sends a signal of
change in voltage to the electronic control module.
• We all know that the electronic control system is already a programmed system, so exactly after
sending a signal of change in voltage it again starts supplying the current in the primary winding.
• Becauseofthiscontinuousmakeandbreakofthecurrentcircuit,itcreatesamagneticfieldinside
 theignitioncoil becauseof that; thesecondarywinding emfis induced.
• Thisemf increasesvoltage upto 50000V. Thevoltageis suppliedtothedistributor.
• It consists of a rotating rotor and distributor points, which is programmed as per the ignition.
When there is a jump of voltage between the air gap of the rotator and the distributor of high
voltage, after that it reaches to spark plug through high tension wire.
• Spark is generated because of the voltage difference between the central electrode and the ground
electrode because the combustion is possible in air-fuel.
Applicationof Electronic Ignition System:
• Theelectronic ignitionsystemhasa lot ofapplications inthe 21st century.
• Itismostlyusedinmodern andhyper cars.
• ItismostlyusedinAudi, MahindraXUV, KTMbikes,Ducati, andmanymore.
• Itis also usedin aircraft engines.
Advantages
• These are low maintenance systems as compared to others like Battery Ignition System, Glow
plug ignition system, and Magneto Ignition System.
• Ithasno movingpartsbecause itis controlledbythe electroniccontrol unit(ECV).
• Emissionislessascompared toothermeansbecause thissystemisenvironmentally friendly.
• Itincreases the efficiency of theengine and alsoit is fuel-efficient.
• Itismoreaccurateas comparedtothemagneto system.
• Thevehicleshaving thissystemhave a long life and also reliable.
Dis Advantages
 Thecost of thesystemis very expensive

TransistorisedCoilIgnitionSystem

Figure:TransistorisedCoilIgnition System
ComponentsofTransistorised CoilIgnition System

• Battery
• IgnitionSwitch
• IgnitionCoil
• Transistor
• Collector
• Emitter
• Blastresister
• Contactbreaker
• Distributor
• SparkPlug
WorkingPrincipleofTransistorisedCoilIgnition System
• Thecaminthedistributorisrotatedbytheengine.Itopensandclosesthecontactbreakerpoints. When the
contact breaker points are closed:
1.Asmall current flows in thebasecircuit of the transistor.
2.Alargecurrentflowsintheemitterorcollectorcircuitofthetransistorandtheprimarywindingofthe Ignition coil
due to the normal transistor action.
3.Amagneticfieldissetupintheprimarywindingofthecoil. When the
contact breaker points are Open :
1. Thecurrent flowin thebase circuit is stopped.
2. Theprimarycurrentandthemagneticfieldinthecoilcollapsesuddenlyduetoimmediaterevertingof the
transistor to the non-conductive state.
3. Itproducesa highvoltagein thesecondary circuit.
4. Thishighvoltage isdirected to therespectivespark plugsthrough thorotor of the distributor.
5. Thishighvoltageproducesasparkwhenitistriedtojumpthesparkpluggap.Itignitesair-fuel mixture in
the cylinder.
Advantages
• Itincreases thelife ofcontactbreaker points.
• Itgives highignition voltages.
• Itgives longerduration ofspark.
• Ithas very accuratecontrol of timing.
• It needsless maintenance.
Dis Advantages
 Moremechanicalpointsareneededsimilartoaconventionalsystem.
 Ithas atendency tosidetracking.
CapacitiveDischargeIgnitionSystem

Figure:CapacitiveDischargeIgnitionSystem

Workingprinciple
• TheCDIsystemconsistsoftwocoilsthataretriggedbythemagnetsintheflywheel/rotor,the larger
coil is called as charging or Exciter coil and the smaller coil is called as Trigger coil.
• Astheflywheelrotatespasttheexcitercoil,theACproducedbytheexcitercoilischangedtoDC by the
diode in the CDI unit.
• Thecapacitor inCDI unitstorestheenergy untilits neededtofirethe spark plug.
• Astheflywheel/rotormagnetrotatespastthetriggercoil,alowvoltageinthetriggercoil,which activates
the electronic switch in CDI unit.
• Theelectronicswitchactsaspowersourcetotheprimarysideofthecircuit,thiscompleted
primarycircuitwhichallowstheenergystoredbythecapacitortopassthroughtheprimary winding
of the ignition coil.
• Thetransformeractionoftheignitioncoilcauseshighvoltagetobeinducedinthesecondary winding
of the ignition coil, which fires the spark plug.
Advantagesof theCDI system:
• Insensitivetoelectrical shuntsresultingfromsparkplug fouling.
• Thissystemissuitedtoanapplicationwhereinsufficientdwelltimeisavailablebecausethe
capacitor can be fully charged in a very short time.
• Shorttransientresponse.
• Afastvoltage riseand shorterspark duration.
Disadvantagesof theCDI system:
• Thesparkisstrongbutshortinorderto0.1to0.3mswhichleadstoignitionfailureduringlean mixture
operating conditions because of fast capacitive discharge.
• Thissystemgeneratesahugeelectro-magneticnoisesoCDIisrarelyusedbyautomobile
manufacturers.
TurboChargers

Figure:Working andLine diagramof turbo charger

• The turbo charger utilizes the wasted heat energy in the exhaust system, to run a compressor
whichcompressestheintakeair.Compressedintakeairhasmoredensityandhencemorefuelcan be
injected increasing the power of the engine. Turbo charging is an ideal way to increase the engine
power without increasing the engine size.
• It is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an engine's efficiency and power by
forcing extra air into the combustion chamber. This improvement over a naturally aspirated
engine's output results because the turbine can force more air, and proportionately more fuel, into
the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.
• Turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment
engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines.
They have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells.

WasteGateTurboCharger(WGT)

Figure:WasteGateTurbo Charger
The waste-gate regulates the pressure of the relief valve. It, in turn, limits the boost pressure in the
turbocharger system. This is helpful in preventing the engine from potential mechanical damages caused
by the high pressure. Furthermore, the system automatically opens the waste-gate valve when thepressure
reaches the pre-set levels. Then, it allows all the high-pressure exhaust gases to escape the turbine wheel
and enterinto the downstream/outlet. Thus, itpreventsthe exhaust gas pressure fromrising more than
required.
Advantages
• Needsa smallerspacetofit.
• Reducesturbolagtosome extent.
• Installationofcompactandsimpleexternalexhaustpipesystem.Thus,reducingthe engine weight.
• Deliversoptimumengineperformanceatalltimes.
• Avoidsmechanicaldamagetoengine parts

VariableGeometryTurbocharger(VGT)

Figure:VariableGateTurbocharger(VGT)

• VGTs refers to as those types of turbochargers which include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped

vanes inside the turbinehousing at the turbine inlet. The turbos used in the passenger cars and
light commercial vehicles, can rotate in order to vary the gas swirl angle and the cross-sectional
area simultaneously. The internal vanes which are present alter the turbos area-to-radius ratio
(A/R) in order to match the RPM of the engines, and to also give a peak performance.
• Considering a case of low RPM, a low A/R ratio occurs which helps the turbo to spool up quickly
by increasing the velocity of the exhaust gas. At higher revs the A/R ratio increases which is
responsible for the increased airflow. These results in a low boost threshold which is responsible
for reducing the turbo lag, and also provides a wide and smooth torque band.
• While the VGTs are quite typically used in the diesel engineswhere the exhaust gases lower the
temperature and by then the VGTs were just limited in the petrol engineapplications due to their
cost and the requirement for components was made from an exotic material.
Typesofnozzles:
(a) Dependsonthetypeofcombustion chamber,
Opencombustionchamber:
-fuelseeksair
-airswirliscreatedduetoinclinedinductionport
-multi-holenozzle injectsfuelatapressureofabout200to300bartoslowmovingair
-providegoodcoldstartingperformanceand improvedthermalefficiency

Pre-combustionchamber:
-airvelocityis verymuchhigh
-single holenozzlewith65to100bar injectionpressureisused
-used inhighspeedengineduetorapid combustion
-externalheatingdeviceforeasystartingofthe engine

(b) Openandclosedtypeofnozzle,
Opentype:
-consistsoffuelorificesandopentoburner
-cheapand lessefficient
ex- opposedpistontwo-strokeJunkersdieselengine
Closedtype:pressuredropisminimisedcomparedtoopentype

(c) Differenttypesofnozzlefordifferentcombustionchamber
(i) Singlehole nozzle:
-usedinopencombustionchamber
-sizeofholelarger than0.2 mm
-veryhighinjectionpressure required

(ii) Multi-holenozzle:
-no.ofholevariesfrom4to18andthesizefrom1.5to0.35mm
-injectionrateisnotuniform

(iii) Pintlenozzle:
-aprojectionorpintle isprovidedinthenozzletoavoidweakinjectionanddribbling
-pintlemaybecylindricalorconicalshape
-coneanglevariedfrom0to60ᵒ
-providegoodatomisationandreducedpenetration
-fuelpressuresarelowerthansingleandmulti-holenozzle

(iv) Pintauxnozzle:
-injectedfuelinupstreamofair
-developmentofpintlenozzlewithauxiliaryholedrilledinthenozzlebody
-reduceddelayperiodand increasedthermalefficiency

CATALYTIC CONVERTER
As indicated by the meaning of chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that causes or quickens a compound
response without itself being influenced. Catalysts take an interest in the responses, however are neither
reactants norresults ofthe responsetheycatalyze. An exhaust system is a vehicle discharges controlgadget
which changes over lethal by-results of burning in the fumes of an interior ignition motor to less poisonous
substances by methodforcatalyzedcompoundresponses.Itlessenstemperature atwhich COand HC change
overinto CO2and H2O.Big and large exhaustsystems utilizeplatinum gathering of respectable metals.

Thecontaminationshavenegativeeffecton airquality,environmentandhuman wellbeingthat

leadsinstringent standards of poison outflow. Quantities of option innovations like change in motor plan,
fuelpretreatment, utilization of option energizes, fuel added substances, fumes treatment or better tuning of
the ignition procedure and so forth, are being considered to lower the release levels of the engine.Out of
variousprogressionsavailable forautovaporradiationcontrolafumesframeworkisfoundto best choiceto
control CO, HC and NO x discharges from petrol driven vehicles while diesel particulate channel and
oxidationforces converter or diesel oxidation impulse have sofarbeen the mostpotential other option to
control particulates outpouringsfrom diesel drivenvehicle[5]. Anexhaustsystem(CC)is putinside the tailpipe
through which destructive fumes gasses containing unburnt fuel, CO, NO x are transmitted .

Three-wayCatalyticConverter
Similarto theoxidationconverter, thereductioncatalytic converterhelpsto eliminatehydrocarbonsand carbon-
monoxide emanations, in addition to oxides of nitrogen discharges, or NO x. NOx outflows are created in the
motor burning chamber when it reaches extremely high temperatures more than 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit,
approximately. In this type of converter, a reduction reaction also occurs in addition to two
oxidationreactionssameastwo-wayconverter.Thereductionreactionoccursduringtheconversionof
oxidesofnitrogentonitrogenandoxygen.Sothistypeofconverterisalsoknownasreductiontype catalytic converter.

ConversionReactionsinThreeWayCatalyticConverter

CxH4x+2xO2→xCO2+2xH2O(conversionofhydrocarbons) 2xCO +
O2 → 2xCO2 (conversion of carbon mono-oxides)
2NOx→N2 +xO2 [O2+2H2 → 2H2O](Decompositionofoxides ofnitrogen).

Emissions
HistoryofEmission Standards in India

 Itwasintheearlyninetiesthatthe firstemissionstandardswereintroducedinthecountry.
 Other regulatory norms followed in the formof making the catalytic converters mandatory for petrol vehicles
and then, by the introduction of unleaded petrol.
 In1999,theapexcourtofthecountrymadeitmandatoryforallvehiclestomeettheIndia2000normsby June 2000, in a
ruling.
 In2002,theMashelkarCommitteereport wasacceptedbytheIndian Government.
 ThecommitteehadrecommendedaroadmapfortheimplementationoftheEuronormsbased emission
standards for India.
 It also recommended that the roll-out of the norms be implemented in major cities first to be followed
by the rest of the country in a phased manner.
 Based onthe committee‘s recommendations,in2003, thegovernment releasedtheNational AutoFuel
Policy.

BharatStageEmissionStandards
• Bharat Stage or BS Emission Standards are government-instituted emission standards that all motor
vehicles have to comply with if they are to be sold and driven in India.
• Currently,allnewvehiclessoldandregisteredinIndiashouldbecompliantwiththeBS-VIiteration of
emission standards.
• The standards and timelines for their implementation are set by the Central PollutionControl Board
(CPCB) under the Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
• TheBSnormsarebasedontheEuropeanEmissionStandards(Euronorms)andwerefirstsetin 2000.
Equivalent to the Euro-1, the first iteration was known as ‗India 2000‘, and not BS-I.
• Subsequentemission standardswerecalledBS-II,BS-III,andBS-IV.
• The government decided to jump directly from BS-IV to BS-VI skipping BS-V in view of the long
time it took to move from BS-III to IV.
 • With the implementation of the new norms, pollution levels are expected to reduce to a large extent
as the particulate matter (PM) concentration should decrease. About one-third of the air pollution is
caused by motor vehicles and cars.
• Atpresent,BS-IVautofuels are beingsuppliedinover 30cities, andtherest ofthe countryhasBS- III
fuels.
• Earlier, the government planned the implementation of BS V and BS VI emission normsnationwide
by 2020 and 2024 respectively. However, the government decided to advance the dates.

ThefollowingtablegivesthetimelineoftheBSnormsbeingimplementedinIndia starting from

the India 2000 till the latest BS-VI norms.

Standard(Reference) Year/Region

India2000(Euro 1) 2000–Nationwide

BSII(Euro2) 2001–Metrocities
2003–10moremajorcities
2005–Nationwide

BSIII(Euro3) 2005–Metrosandmajorcities 2010

– Nationwide

BSV(Euro5) Skipped

BSVI(Euro6) 2018–Delhi
2019–NCR
2020–Nationwide
 UNIT III
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
 UNIT-III

TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS

IntroductiontotheTransmissionSystemsinAutomobile:

Itisasystembymeansofwhichpower developed bytheengine istransmittedtotheroadwheelstopropel the

vehicle.

Chieffunctionofthedevice istoreceivepoweratonetorqueandangularvelocityandto deliver it at another torque

and the corresponding angular velocity.

REQUIREMENTSOFTRANSMISSIONSYSTEM

1. Toprovidefordisconnectingtheengine fromthedrivingwheels.

2. Whentheengineisrunning,toenabletheconnectiontothedrivingwheelstobemadesmoothlyand without

shock.

3. Toenabletheleveragebetweentheengineanddrivingwheelstobevaried.

4. It must reduce the drive-line speed fromthat of the engine to that of the driving wheels in a ratio of

somewherebetweenabout 3:1and10:1ormore,accordingtotherelativesizeofengineandweightof vehicle.

5. Turnthedrive,ifnecessary,through90°or perhapsotherwisere-alignit.

6. Enablethedrivingwheelstorotateatdifferentspeeds.

7. Provideforrelativemovementbetweentheengineanddrivingwheels.

Themostcommontransmissionsystemsthathavebeenusedfortheautomotiveindustryare:

 Manualtransmission,

 Automatictransmission,

 Semi-automatictransmission,
  Continuously-variabletransmission(C.V.T.).

ManualTransmission:

The first transmission invented was the manual transmission system. The driver needs todisengage the

clutch to disconnect the power from the engine first, select the target gear, and engage the clutch again

to perform the gear change. This will challenge a new driver. It always takes time for a new driver to

get used to this skill.

AutomaticTransmission:

An automatic transmission uses a fluid-coupling torque converter to replace the clutch to avoid

engaging/disengaging clutch during gear change. A completed gear set, called planetary gears, is used

to perform gear ratio change instead of selecting gear manually. A driver no longer needs to worry

about gear selection during driving. It makes driving a car much easier, especially for a disabled or

new driver.However, the indirectgear contact of the torque converter causes power loss during power

transmission, and the complicated planetary gear structure makes the transmission heavy and easily

broken.

Semi-AutomaticTransmission:

A semi-automatic transmission tries to combine the advantages of the manual and automatic

transmission systems, but avoid their disadvantages. However, the complicated design of the semi-

automatic transmission is still under development, and the price is not cheap. It is only used for some

luxury or sports cars currently.

Continuously Variable Transmission(C.V.T.):-

The Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.) is a transmission in which the ratioofthe rotational

speeds oftwo shafts, as theinputshaft and outputshaft ofa vehicle or othermachine,can

bevariedcontinuouslywithinagivenrange,providinganinfinitenumberofpossibleratios.The

othermechanicaltransmissionsdescribedaboveonlyallowafewdifferentgearratiostobeselected,
but this type of transmission essentially has an infinite number of ratios available within afiniterange.

It provides even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly made run at a single speed. This

transmission is capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and

the jerk felt when changing gears.

MANUALTRANSMISSIONSYSTEM

Manual transmissions also referred as stick shift transmission or just ‗stick', 'straight drive',or

standardtransmission because youneed to use the transmission stick every time you change the gears.

To perform the gear shift, the transmission system must first be disengaged from the engine. After the

target gear is selected, the transmission and engine are engaged with each other again to perform the

power transmission. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by

locking selected gear pairs to the output shaftinside thetransmission.

Fig:Thetransmissionsystemdeliverstheenginepowerto wheels.
 Fig:LayoutofAutomobilePowerTransmissionSystem

Componentsofmanualtransmission

The maincomponentsofmanualtransmissionare:

• Clutch

• Gearbox

• Slipjoint

• Universaljoint

• Propellershaft

• Finaldrive

• Differentialunit

• Rearaxle

Clutch:

Clutchisadevicewhichisusedinthetransmissionsystemofautomobiletoengageanddisengagethe engine to

the transmission or gear box.It is located between the transmission and the engine. When the clutch is

engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels in a rear- wheel-drive transmission and

the vehicle moves. When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted from the engine to the

rear wheels and vehicle stops even if engine is running.

Itworksontheprincipleoffriction.Whentwo frictionsurfacesarebroughtincontactwitheachother and

theyare united due to the friction betweenthem. Ifone is revolved the other willalso revolve.

The friction depends upon the surface area contact. The friction surfaces are so designed t hat the

driven member initially slips on driving member when initially pressure is applied. As pressure

increases the driven member is brought gradually to speed the driving member.

Thethreemainpartsofclutchare:

 Drivingmember

 Driven member

 Operatingmember

The driving member consists of a flywheel mounted on the engine crank shaft. The flywheel is bolted to

cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire

assembly of flywheel and cover rotates all the times. The clutch housing and the cover provided with

openings dissipate the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.

The driving member consists of a disc or plate called clutch plate. It is free to slide length wise on the

splinesoftheclutchshaft.Itcarriesfrictionmaterialsonbothofitssurfaceswhenit isgripped
betweentheflywheelandthepressureplate;itrotatestheclutchshaftthroughsplines.

The operating members consists of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release levers

and springs necessaryto ensure the proper operation ofthe clutch.

Now the driving member in an automobile is flywheel mounted on crank shaft, the driven member is

the pressure plate mounted on transmission or gear box inputshaft. Friction surfaces or clutch plates is

placed between two members.

TypesofFrictionMaterials:

Thefrictionmaterialsoftheclutchplate aregenerallyof3types:

 MillBoardType

 Moldedtype

 Woventype
Mill Board type friction materials mainly include asbestos material with different types of

impregnates.

Molded type friction materials are made from a matrix of asbestos fiber and starch or any other

suitable binding materials. They are then heated to a certain temperature for moulding in dies under

pressure. They are also made into sheets by rolling, pressing andbacks till they are extremely hard and

dense. Metallic wires are used sometimes to increase wear properties.

Woven types facing materials are made by impregnating a cloth with certain binders or by weaving

threadsofcopperorbrasswirescoveredwith longfiber asbestos andcotton.Thewovensheetstreated with

binding solution are baked and rolled.

Table:CoefficientsofRiction forClutchFacingMaterials

Sl.No. Material CoeffieicentOfMaterial(µ)

1. Leather 0.27

2. Cork 0.37

3. Cottonfabric 0.4-0.5

AsbestosBase
4. 0.35-0.4
Materials

PropertiesofGoodClutching:
 GoodWearingProperties

 HighResistancetoheat

 Highcoefficientoffriction

 GoodBindersinit

OperationofClutch:
When the clutch pedal is pressed through pedal movement, the clutch release bearing presses on the

clutch release lever plate which being connected to clutch release levers, forces these levers forward.

This causes the pressure plate to compress pressure springs, thus allowing it to move away from the

clutch driven plate. This action releases the pressure on the driven plate and flywheel, the flywheel is

now free to turn independently, without turning the transmission.

When the clutch pedal is released, reverse action takes place i.e. the driven plate is again forced

against the flywheel by the pressure plate- because of the force exerted by pressure springs. The

pressure plate will keep on pressing the facings of driven plate until friction created becomes equal to

the resistance of the vehicle. Any further increase in pressure will cause the clutch plate and the

transmission shaft to turn along with flywheel, thus achieving vehicle movement.

SingleClutchPlate:

It is the most common type of clutch plate used in motor vehicles. Basically it consists of only one

clutch plate, mounted on the splinesof the clutch plate. The flywheel is mounted on engine crankshaft

and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs, and is free to

slideontheclutchshaftwhentheclutchpedalisoperated.Whentheclutchisengagedtheclutchplate is gripped

between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are on both the sides of the clutch plate.

Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and the pressure plate the clutch plate revolves

the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves the clutch shaft also revolves. Clutch shaft is connected to

the transmission gear box. Thus the engine power is transmitted to the crankshaft and then to the

clutch shaft.

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of the springs, and

the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Thus the flywheel remains

rotating as long as the engine is running and the clutch shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops

rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be engaged, otherwise it remains

engaged due to the spring forces.

Multi-plateClutch:

Multi-plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates instead of only one clutch plate as in case of

single plate clutch. As The number of clutch plates are increased, the friction surfaces also increases.

The increased number of friction surfaces obliviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit

torque.

The plates are alternately fitted to engine and gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by strong coil

springsandassembled in a drum. Each ofthe alternate plateslides on the grooves on the flywheel and

theother slides onsplines onthe pressure plate. Thus, eachalternate plate has inner and outer splines.

The multi-plate clutch works in the same way as a single plate clutch by operating the clutch pedal.

The multi-plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for

transmitting high torque. The multi-plate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an

oil bath, it is called a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry itis calleddry clutch. The wet clutch

is used in conjunction with or part ofthe automatic transmission.

ConeClutch:

Coneclutchconsistsoffrictionsurfacesintheformofcone.The engineshaftconsistsoffemalecone. The male

cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft. It has friction surfaces on the conical portion. The male

cone can slide on the clutch shaft. Hen the clutch is engaged thefriction surfaces of

themaleconeareincontactwiththatofthefemaleconeduetoforceofthespring.When theclutchpedal is

pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the clutch is disengaged.

The only advantage ofthe cone clutch isthatthenormal force acting onthe frictionsurfaces isgreater

thantheaxialforce,ascomparetothesingleplateclutchinwhichthenormalforceactingonthe
friction surfaces is equal to the axial force. The disadvantage in cone clutch is that if the angle of the

cone is made smaller than 200 the male cone tends to bind in the female cone and it becomes difficult

to disengage the clutch. Cone clutches are generally now only used in low peripheral speed

applications although they were once common in automobiles and other combustion engine

transmissions. They are usually now confined to very specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or in

extreme off-road vehicles, although they are common in power boats. Small cone clutches are used in

synchronizer mechanisms in manual transmissions.

Dog&SplineClutch:

This type of clutch is used to lock two shafts together or to lock a gear to shaft. It consists of a sleeve

having two sets of internal splines. It slides on a splined shaft with smallest diameter splines. The

bigger diameter splines match with the external dog clutch teeth on driving shaft. When the sleeve is

made to slide on the splined shaft, its teeth match with the dog clutch teeth of the driving shaft. Thus

the sleeve turns the splined shaft with the driving shaft.

The clutch is said to be engaged. To disengage the clutch, the sleeve is moved back on the splined

shaft to have no contact with the driving shaft. This type of clutch has no tendency to slip. The driven

shaft revolves exactly at the same speed of the driving shaft, as soon as the clutch is engaged. This is

also known as positive clutch.

CentrifugalClutch:

The centrifugal clutch uses centrifugal forces, instead of spring force for keeping it in engaged

position. Also, it does not require clutch pedal for operating the clutch. The clutch is operated

automatically depending on engine speed. The vehicle can be stopped in gear without stalling the

engine. Similarly the gear can be started inanygear bypressing the accelerator pedal.

A centrifugal clutch works through centrifugal force. The inputof the clutch is connected to the

enginecrankshaftwhiletheoutputdrivesgearboxshaft,chain,orbelt. Asengine

R.P.M. increases, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward andforce the clutch to engage.The most

common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage the inside of the rim of

housing.

On the center shaft there are an assorted amount of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe.

When the center shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage the

friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse. The weighted arms force these disks

together and engage the clutch.

WhentheenginereachesacertainRPM,theclutchactivates,workingalmostlikea continuously variable

transmission. As the load increases the R.P.M. drops thereby disengaging the clutch and letting the

rpm rise again and reengaging the clutch. If tuned properly, the clutch will tend to keep the engine at

or near the torque peakofthe engine.

These results in a fair bit of waste heat, but over a broadrange of speeds it is much more useful then a

direct drive in many applications. Weaker spring/heavier shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a

lower R.P.M. while a stronger spring/lighter shoeswillcause the clutchto engage at a higher R.P.M.

Semi-centrifugalClutch:-

Asemi centrifugal clutchis used to transmit power fromhigh powered engines and racing car engines

whereclutchdisengagementsrequiresappreciableandtiresomedriverseffort.Thetransmissionof
power in such clutches is partly by clutch springs and rest by centrifugal action of an extra weight

provided in system. The clutch springs serve to transmit the torque up to normal speeds, while the

centrifugal force assists at speeds higher than normal.

Besidesclutch,pressureplateandsplinesshaftitmainlyconsistsof:Compression

spring (3 numbers)

Weightedlevers(3numbers)

At normal speeds when the power transmission is low the spring keeps the clutch engaged, the

weighted levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate. At high speed, when the power

transmission is high the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the plate which keeps the clutch

firmly engaged. Thus instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engagedfirmly at

highspeeds, theyare less stiff, so that the driver maynot get anystrain inoperating the clutch.

when the speed decreases, the weights fall and the levers do not exert any pressure on the pressure

plate. Only the spring pressure is exerted on the pressure plate which is sufficient to keep the clutch

engaged.
ElectromagneticClutch:

An electromagnetic clutch is a clutch (a mechanism for transmitting rotation) that is engaged and

disengaged by an electromagnetic actuator. In this type of clutch, the flywheel consists of winding.

The current is supplied to the winding frombattery or dynamo.

When the current passes through the winding it produces an electromagnetic field which attracts the

pressure plate, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply is cutoff, the clutch is disengaged. The gear

lever consists of a clutch release switch. When then the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear

the witch is operated cutting off the current to the winding which causes the clutch disengaged.At low

speeds when the dynamo output is low, the clutch is not firmlyengaged.

Thereforethreespringsarealsoprovidedonthepressureplatewhichhelpstheclutchengaged firmlyatlow speed

also. Cycling is achieved by turning the voltage/current to the electromagnet on and off. Slippage normally

occurs only during acceleration. When the clutch is fully engaged, there is no relative slip, assuming the

clutch is sized properly, and thus torque transfer is 100% efficient.

The electromagnetic clutch is most suitable for remote operation since no linkages are required to

control its engagement. It has fast, smooth operation. However, because energy dissipates as heat in

the electromagnetic actuator every time the clutch is engaged, there is a risk of overheating.

Consequentlythemaximumoperatingtemperatureoftheclutchislimitedbythetemperatureratingof the

insulation of the electromagnet. This is a major limitation. Another disadvantage is higher initial cost.
GearBox;

A gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from one device to another and is used to

increase torque while reducing speed. Torque is the power generated through the bending or twisting

of a solid material. This term is often used interchangeably with transmission.Located at the junction

point of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right angle change in direction, as is seen

in a rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unitis made with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear ratio

used is designed to provide the level of force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed once

the box is constructed. The only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows the

shaft speed to increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque.In a situation where multiple

speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can be used to increase torque while slowing

down the output speed. This design is commonly found in automobile transmissions. The same

principle can be used to create an overdrive gear that increases output speed while decreasing torque.
PrincipleofGearing

Consider a simple 4-gear train. It consists of a driving gear A on input shaftand a driven gear D on the

output shaft. In between the two gears there are two intermediate gears B, C. Each of these gear s are

mounted on separate shaft.We notice that:

GearAdrivesGearB

GearBdrivesGear C

GearCdrivesGearD

Therefore,theover allspeedratiosare:

TypesofGearBoxes:Thefollowingtypesofgearboxareusedinautomobiles:

 SlidingMesh

 ConstantMesh

Synchromesh

SlidingMeshGearBox

It is the simplest gear box. The following figure shows 4-speed gear box in neutral position. 4 gears

areconnectedtothelayshaft/countershaft.Areverseidlergearismountedonanothershaftand
alwaysremainsconnectedtothereversegearofcountershaft.This―H‖shiftpatternenablesthedriver to

select four different gear ratios and a reverse gear.

Gearsin Neutral:

When the engine is running and clutch is engaged the clutch shaft gear drives the countershaft gear.

The countershaft rotates opposite in direction of the clutch shaft. In neutral position only the clutch

shaft gear is connected to the countershaft gear. Other gears are free and hence the transmission main

shaft is not turning. The vehicle is stationary.

Firstorlowshaftgear:

By operating the gear shift lever the larger gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh

with the first gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in the same direction as that of the clutch

shaft. Since the smaller countershaft is engaged with larger shaft gear a gear reduction of

approximately4:1 is obtained i.e. the clutchshaft turns 4 times for eachrevolutionofmain shaft.
Secondspeedgear:

By operating the gear shift lever the third gear on the main shaftis moved along the shaft to mesh with

the third gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in same direction as clutch shaft. A gear

reduction of approximately 3:1is obtained.

Thirdspeedgear:
Byoperatingthegearshiftlever,thesecondgearofthe mainshaftandcountershaftaredemeshed and then the

third gear of the main shaft are forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External Teeth on the

clutch shaft gear mesh with the internal teeth in the third and top gear. The main shaft turns in

samedirection as clutch shaft.A gearreduction of approximately 2:1isobtainedi.e.theclutch shaft

turns2timesforeachrevolutionofmain shaft.
Fourthspeedgear/ToporHigh-SpeedGear:

Byoperatingthegear shaft lever thethirdgearsofthemainandcountershaft isdemeshedandthegearspresent onthe

mainshaftalongwiththeshaftisforcedaxially againstthe clutchshaftgear.Externalteethpresentonthemainshaft engage

with the internal teeth present on the main shaft. The main shaft turns along with the clutch shaft and a gear ratio of

approximately 1:1 is obtained.

Reversegear:

By operating the gear shift lever, the last gear present on the main shaft is engaged with the reverse

idler gear. The reverse idler gear is always in mesh with the counters haft gear. Interposing the idler

gear between the counter-shaft reverse gear and main shaft gear, the main shaft turns in the direction

opposite tothe clutchshaft. This reverses the rotationofthe wheels so that the wheelbacks.
ConstantMeshGearBox:

In this type of gear box, all gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears

of thecountershaft(Layshaft).Twodogclutchesareprovidedonthemainshaft-onebetweenthe

clutch gear and the second gear, and the other between the first gear and reverse gear. The main shaft

is splined and all the gears are free on it. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotates with it. All the

gears onthe countershaft are rigidly fixed with it.

When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes

withtheclutchgearandthetopspeedgearisobtained.Whenthelefthanddogclutchmesheswiththe

secondgear, thesecondspeedgearis obtained.Similarly by slidingthe righthanddog clutch tothe

leftandright,thefirstspeedgearandreversegearareobtainedrespectively.Inthisgearboxbecause
all the gears are in constant mesh they are safe frombeing damaged and an unpleasant grinding sound

does not occur while engaging and disengaging them.

SyncromeshGearBox:

In sliding Mesh Gear box the two meshing gears need to be revolve at equal peripheral speeds to

achieve a jerk less engagement and it is true for constantmesh gearbox in which the peripheral speeds

of sliding dog and the corresponding gear on the output shaft must be equal. The peripheral speed is

given byWhere d1 and N1are pitch circle diameter and r.p.m. of gear and d2 andN2 diameter and

r.p.m. of attached dog respectively. Now N1 ≠ N2 since d1 ≠ d2 . Thus there is a differencein gear and

dog which necessitates double declutching. The driver has to disengage the clutch twice in quick

succession therefore it is referred as double declutching. There are two steps involved in this process:

The clutch is disengaged i.e. first declutching and the gear system is placed in its neutral position.

Now the clutch is reengaged and acceleration pedal is pressed to adjust the engine speed according to

driver‘s judgment.The clutch is disengaged(i.e. second declutching) again the appropriate gear is

engaged and then the clutch is reengaged

It isthat gear box in which sliding synchronizingunits are provided in place ofslidingdog clutches as in

case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the speed of both the driving and

driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together through train of gears. The

arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same as in constant mesh gear box. The

synchronizer is made of frictional materials. When the collar tries to mesh with the gear, the

synchronizer will touch the gear first and use friction force to drive the gear to spin at the same speed

as the collar. This will ensure that the collar is meshed into the gear very smoothly without

grinding.Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that two gears to be engaged arefirst bought

into frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engaged readily and smoothly.

Thefollowingtypesofdevicesaremostlyusedinvehicles:
  PinType

 Synchronizerringtype

A synchronizing system is used for smooth meshing. Synchromesh works like a friction clutch. In the

following figure two conical surfaces cone-1 is the part of the collar and the cone-2 is the part of the

gear wheel. Cone1, 2 are revolving at different speeds. While cone-2 is revolving, cone-1 gradually

slides into it. Friction slows or speeds up the gear wheel.Finally both the cones revolve atsame speed.

In the following Fig collar and gear wheel are separate and they are revolving at different speeds. The

internal cone comes in contact with the outer cone of the gear wheel. Friction slows or speeds up the gear

wheel.

And when the collar and gear wheel rotate at same speed the spring loaded outer ring of the collar is

pushed forward. The dog slide smoothly into mesh without clashing. The collar and gear wheel lock

and revolve at same speed. This the principle of synchromesh.

U-Joint:

Auniversaljoint, U-joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicerjoint, or Hooke's joint is alinkage thattransmits

rotation between two non parallel shafts whose axes are coplanar but not coinciding., andis commonly

used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It is used in automobiles where it is used to transmit power

from the gear box of the engine to the rear axle. The driving shaft rotates at a uniform angular speed,

where as the driven shaft rotates at a continuously varying angular speed.

A complete revolution of either shaftwill cause the other to rotate through a complete revolution at the

same time. Each shaft has fork at its end. The four ends of the two fork are connected by a centre

piece, the arms of which rest in bearings, provided in fork ends. The centre piece can be of any shape

ofa cross, squareor sphere having four pinsor arms. The four armsare at right angle to eachother.

When the two shafts are at an angle other than 180° (straight), the driven shaft does not rotate with

constantangularspeedinrelationtothedriveshaft;themoretheanglegoestoward90°thejerkier the

movement gets (clearly, when the angle β = 90° the shafts would even lock). However, the overall

average speed of the driven shaft remains the same as that of driving shaft, and so speed ratio of the

driven to the driving shaft on average is 1:1 over multiplerotations.

Theangular speedω2ofthedrivenshaft, asa functionoftheangular speedofthedrivingshaft ω1andthe angle of

the driving shaft φ1, is found using:

ω2=ω1cosα/(1-sin2α.cos2θ)

For a given and set angle between the two shafts it can be seen that thereis a cyclical variation in the input to

output velocity ratio. Maximum values occur when sin θ = 1, i.e. when θ = 900 and 2700.The denominator is

greatest whenθ = 0or 1800and this conditiongivesthe minimumratio ofthe velocities

ComponentsofHooke’sJoint

SlipJointinthePropellerShaft;

HookJointinthePropellerShaft;
TheDriveShaft

The drive shaft, or propeller shaft, connects the transmission output shaft to the differential pinion

shaft. Since all roads are not perfectly smooth, and the transmission is fixed, the drive shaft has to be

flexibleto absorb the shock ofbumps intheroad. Universal,or "U-joints" allowthedriveshaft toflex (and

stop it from breaking) when the drive angle changes.

Drive shafts are usually hollow in order to weigh less, but of a large diameter so that t hey are strong.

High quality steel, and sometimes aluminum are used in the manufacture of the drive shaft. The shaft

must be quite straight and balanced to avoid vibrating. Since it usually turns at engine speeds, a lot of

damage can be caused if the shaftis unbalanced, or bent. Damage can also be caused if the U-joints are

worn out.

There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube Drive. The Hotchkiss

drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the transmission output shaft and the differential pinion

gear shaft. U-joints are used in the front and rear. The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque of the

output shaft to the differential. No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes this drive

comes in two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case, three U-joints are

needed).Thetwo-piecetypesneedballbearingsinadustproofhousingascentersupportfortheshafts. Rubber

is added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.

Thetorquetubedriveshaftisusedifthedriveshafthas tocarry thewheeldrivethrust.Itisahollow

steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle housing. One end is fastened to the axle

housing by bolts. The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft fits into the

torque tube. A U-joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined to the pinion

gear shaft. Drive thrust is sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to transmission, toengine and

finally, to the frame through the engine mounts. That is, the car is pushed forward by the torque tube

pressing on the engine.

DifferentialUnit:

Differentials are a variety of gearbox, almost always used in one of two ways. In one of these, it

receivesoneinputandprovidestwooutputs;thisisfoundineveryautomobile.In automobile and other

wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while

supplying equal torque to each of them. In the other, less commonly encountered, it combines two

inputs to create an output that is the sum (or difference) of the inputs. In automotive applications, the

differential and its housing are sometimes collectively calleda "pumpkin" (because the housing

resembles a pumpkin).

Purpose:-

Thedifferentialgearboxhasfollowingfunctions:

 Avoidskiddingoftherearwheelsona roadturning.

 Reducesthespeedofinnerwheelsandincreasesthespeedofouterwheels,whiledrawinga
 curve.

 Keepsequalspeedsofallthewheelswhilemovingonastraightroad.

 Eliminatesasinglerigidrearaxle,andprovidesacouplingbetweentworearaxles.

The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear- or front-wheel-drive car or

truck:

Power is supplied from the engine, via the transmission or gearbox, to a drive shafttermed as propeller

shaft, which runs to the differential. A spiral bevel pinion gear at the end of the propeller shaft

isencasedwithinthedifferentialitself,andit mesheswiththelargespiralbevelringgear termed as crown

wheel. The ring and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation.

The ring gear is attached to a carrier, which holds what is sometimes called a spider, a cluster of four

bevel gears in a rectangle, so each bevel gear meshes with two neighbors and rotates counter to the

third that it faces and does not mesh with. Two of these spider gears are aligned on the same axis as

the ring gear and drive the half shafts connected to the vehicle's driven wheels.

These are called the side gears. The other two spider gears are aligned on a perpendicular axis which

changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. These two gears are justcalled pinion gears,not to be

confused with the main pinion gear. (Other spider designs employ differentnumbers of pinion gears

depending on durability requirements.)

As thecarrierrotates,thechangingaxisorientationofthepiniongearsimparts themotionofthering
gear to the motion of the side gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is, the

same teeth stay in contact), but because the spider gears are not restricted from turning against each

other, within that motion the side gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other

under the same force (inwhichcase the same teethdo not stay incontact).

Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full

rotations. During that time, the leftwheel will make more rotations because it has further to travel, and

the right wheel will make fewer rotations as ithas less distance to travel. The side gears will rotate in

opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to

eachother), resulting inthe left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheelmaking 8 rotations.

The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side gears. This is why if the

wheels are lifted off the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (preventing the ring

gear fromturning insidethe differential), manually rotating one wheel causes the other to rotateinthe

opposite direction by the same amount.

Whenthevehicleistravelinginastraightline,therewillbenodifferential movement ofthe planetary

systemofgears other than the minute movements necessaryto compensate for slight
differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which makefor a longer or shorter wheel path),

etc.

AutomaticTransmission:

An automatic transmission (commonly "AT" or "Auto") is an automobile gearbox thatcan change gear

ratiosautomaticallyasthe vehicle moves, freeing thedriver fromhaving to shift gears manually.

AutomaticTransmissionModes:

In order to select the mode, the driver would have to move a gear shift lever located on the steering

column or on the floor next to him/her. In order to select gears/modes the driver must push a button in

(called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. In some

vehiclespositionselectorbuttonsforeach mode onthecockpitinstead,freeingupspaceonthecentral console.

Vehicles conforming to U.S. Government standards must have the modes ordered P- R-N-D- L (left to

right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions often

utilized a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries owing to

un-intentional gear miss-selection, as well the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump into

Reverse fromLow gear during engine braking maneuvers.

Automatic Transmissions have various modes depending on the model and make of the transmission.

Some of the common modes are:

ParkMode(P):-

This selection mechanically locks the transmission, restricting the carfrom movingin any direction.

Aparkingpawlpreventsthetransmission—andthereforethevehicle—frommoving,althoughthe

vehicle'snon-drivewheelsmaystillspinfreely.Forthisreason,itisrecommendedtousethehand

brake(orparkingbrake)becausethisactuallylocksthe(inmostcases,rear)wheelsandpreventsthem

frommoving.Thisalsoincreasesthelifeofthetransmissionandtheparkpinmechanism,because

parkingonaninclinewiththetransmissioninparkwithouttheparkingbrakeengagedwillcause undue stress

on the parking pin.An efficiently-adjusted hand brake should alsopreventthe carfrom

moving if a worn selector accidentally drops into reverse gear during early morning fast-idle engine

warmups.

Reverse(R):-

This puts the car into the reverse gear, giving the ability for the car to drive backwards.In order for the

driver to select reverse they must come to a complete stop, push the shiftlock button in (or pull the

shift lever forward in the case of a column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete stop

can cause severe damage to the transmission. Many modern automatic gearboxes have a safety

mechanism in place, which does to some extent prevent (but doesn't completely avoid) inadvertently

putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving.

This mechanism usually consists of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either sideof theReverse

position, which is electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal. Therefore, the brake pedal

needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent

or delayengagement ofreverse gear altogether while the car is moving.

Neutral/Nogear(N):-

This disconnects the transmission from the wheels so the car can move freely under its own weight.

This is the onlyother selection in which the car can be started.

Drive(D):-

This allows the car to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of gears a

transmission has depends on the model, but they can commonly range from 3, 4 (the most common),

5, 6 (found in VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox), 7 (found in Mercedes 7G gearboxes, BMW M5 and

VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox) and 8 in the newer models of Lexus cars. Some cars when put into D

will automatically lock the doors or turn onthe Daytime Running Lamps.

Overdrive([D],Od,OrABoxedD):-

ThismodeisusedinsometransmissionstoallowearlyComputer ControlledTransmissionstoengage
the Automatic Overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the Automatic Overdrive off, but i s

identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or low acceleration

at approximately 35-45 mph (approx. 72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below 35-45 mph, the

transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with this option should be driven in this mode

unless circumstances require a lower gear.

Second(2orS):-

This mode limits the transmission to the first two gears, or more commonly locks the transmission in

second gear.This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as snow and ice, as well as climbing

or going downhillsinthe winter time. Somevehicleswillautomatically up-shift out ofsecondgearin this

mode if a certainrpmrange is reached, to prevent engine damage.

First(1orL):-

Thismode locksthetransmissioninfirst gearonly.Itwillnot acceleratethroughanygearrange.This, like

second, can be used during the winter season, or for towing.

As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model.

Some examples include:

D5:- In Hondas and Acuras equipped with 5-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used

commonly for highwayuse (as stated inthe manual), and uses all five forwardgears.

D4:- This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 4 or 5-speed automatics and only uses the first 4

gears. According to the manual, it is used for "stopand go traffic", suchas citydriving.

D3:- This mode is found in Honda and Acura 4-speed automatics and only uses the first 3 gears.

According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving. This mode is also found

in Honda and Acura 5-speed automatics.

Thisisthemanualselectionofgearsforautomatics,suchasPorsche'sTiptronic.Thisfeaturecan also

be found in Chrysler and General Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Pontiac G6. The

drivercanshiftupanddownatwill,bytogglingtheshiftlever(consolemounted)likeasemi-
automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by actually

changing gear (e.g. tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the steering

wheel).

The predominant form of automatic transmission is hydraulically operated, using a fluid coupling/

torqueconverter and a set ofplanetarygear-sets to provide a range oftorque multiplication.

PartsandOperation:-
Ahydraulicautomatictransmissionconsistsofthefollowingparts:
 TorqueConverter/Fluid Coupling

 PlanetaryGearSet

 Clutchpacks&Bands

 ValveBody

 HydraulicorLubricatingOil

Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling: -Unlike amanual transmission system, automatic transmission does

not use a clutch to disconnect power from the engine temporarily when shifting gears. Instead, a

device called a torque converter was invented to prevent power from being temporarily disconnected

fromthe engine and also to pre-vent the vehicle fromstalling whenthe transmission is ingear.
Afluid coupling/torqueconverter consistsofa sealed chamber containingtwo toroidal-shaped,vaned

components, the pump and turbine, immersed in fluid (usually oil). The pump or driving torus (the

latter a General Motors automotive term) is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal

combustion engine or electric motor. The pump's motion imparts a relatively complex centripetal

motion to the fluid. Simplified, this is a centrifugal force that throws the oil outwards against the

coupling's housing, whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the turbine or driven torus (the

latter also a General Motors term).

Here, Corolis force reaction transfers the angular fluidmomentum outward and across, applying torque

to the turbine, thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The fluid leaving the center

of the turbine returns to the pump, where the cycle endlessly repeats. The pump typically is connected

to the flywheel of the engine—in fact, the coupling's enclosure may be part of the flywheel proper,

and thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the

transmission. As engine speed increases while the transmission is in gear, torque is transferred from

the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the

behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual

transmission.

A torque converter differs from a fluid coupling in that it provides a variable amount of torque

multiplication atlow engine speeds,increasing "breakaway"acceleration.This isaccomplished with a

third member in the "coupling assembly" known as the stator, and by altering the shapes of the vanes

inside the coupling in such a way as to curve the fluid's path into the stator. The stator captures the

kinetic energy of the transmission fluid in effect using the left-over force of it to enhance torque

multiplication.
Tiptronic transmission is a special type of automatic transmission with a computer controlled

automatic shift. The driver can switch the transmission to manual mode, which lets her shift thegear at

her wish sequentially up (+) or down (-) without disengaging the clutch. This works just like a manual

transmission; however, it still uses a torque converter to transfer power from the engine.

Unfortunately, this is less efficient than a manualtransmission.

Planetary Gear-Set: - The automatic system for current automobiles uses a planetary gear setinstead of

the traditional manual transmission gear set. The planetary gear set contains four parts: sun gear,

planet gears, planet carrier, and ring gear. Based on this planetary set design, sun gear, planet carrier,

and ring gear spin centrifugally. By locking one of them, the planetary set can generate three different

gear ratios, including one reverse gear, without engaging and disengaging the gear set. The gear set is

actuated byhydraulic servos controlled bythe valve body, providing two or more gear ratios.

Clutch Packs And Bands: - A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum.

Halfofthe disks are steeland have splines that fitinto groves on the inside ofthe drum.
`The other half have a friction material bonded to theirsurface and have splines on the inside edge

thatfitgrovesontheoutersurfaceoftheadjoininghub.Thereisapistoninsidethedrumthatis

activated by oil pressure at the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two

components become locked and turn as one.

A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of the band is

anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to a servo. At the appropriate

time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to tighten the band around the drum to stop the

drum from turning.

The bands come into play for manually selected gears, such as low range or reverse,and operate on the

planetary drum's circumference. Bands are not applied when drive/overdrive range is selected, the

torque being transmitted by the sprag clutches instead.

The sun gear is connected to a drum, which can be locked by a band. The ring gear is directly

connectedtothe input shaft, which transfers power fromthe engine. The planet carrier is connected to

the output shaft, which transfers power into the wheels.

Based on this design, when in neutral, both bandand clutch sets are released. Turning the ring gear can

only drive planet gears but not the planet carrier, which stays static if the car is not moving. The

planet gears drive the sun gear to spin freely. In this situation, the input shaft is not able to transfer

powerto the output shaft. When shifting to 1st gear,the band locksthe sungear by locking the drum.
The ring gear drives the planet carrier to spin. In this situation, the ring gear (input shaft) spins faster

than the planet carrier (output shaft).

To shift to higher gear, the band is released and the clutch is engaged to force the sun gear and planet

carrier (output shaft) to spin at the same speed. The input shaft will also spin at the same speed as the

output shaft, which makes the car run faster than in 1st gear. Using a compound planetary gear set

generates more gear ratios witha specialgear ratio, over-drive gear whose gear ratio is smallthan1.

This will make the gear shift smoother. Both the band and clutch piston are pressurized by the

hydraulic system. The part connecting the band or clutches to the hydraulic system is called the shift

valve, while the one connecting the hydraulic systemto theoutput shaft is called thegovernor.

The governor is a centrifugal sensor with a spring loaded valve. The faster the governor spins, the

more the valve opens. The more the valve opens, the more the fluid goes through and the higher the

pressure applied on the shift valve. Therefore, each band and clutch can be pushed to lock the gear

based on a specific spin speed detected by the governor from the output shaft. To make the hydraulic

systemworkefficiently,acomplex mazeofpassageswasdesignedtoreplacealargenumberoftubes. For

modern cars, an electronic con-trolled (computer controlled) solenoid pack is used to detect throttle

position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, brake pedal position, etc., and to automatically

choose the best gear for a moving vehicle.

Principally, a type of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine upshifts/downshifts.

Operating much as a ratchet, it transmits torque only in one direction, freewheeling or "overrunning"

in the other. The advantage of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity of timing a

simultaneousclutchrelease/applyontwoplanetaries,simply"takingup"thedrivetrainloadwhen

actuated,andreleasingautomaticallywhenthenextgear'sspragclutchassumes thetorq
Valve Body: - Hydraulic control center that receives pressurized fluid from a main pump operated by

the fluid coupling/torque converter. The pressure coming from this pumpis regulated and used to run a

networkofspring-loaded valves, check balls and servo pistons.

The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from a centrifugal governor on the output side (as

well as hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and the throttle valve or modulator) to control

which ratio is selected on the gearset; as the car and engine change speed, the difference between the

pressures changes, causing different sets of valves to open and close.

Each of the many valves in the valve body has a specific purpose and is named for that function. For

example the 2-3 shift valves activate the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve

which determines when a downshift should occur.

The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves drives the various clutch and brake band actuators,

therebycontrollingtheoperationoftheplanetarygearsettoselecttheoptimumgearratioforthe
current operating conditions. However, in many modern automatic transmissions, the valves are

controlled by electro-mechanical servos which are controlled by the Engine Management System or a

separate transmission controller.

The most important valve and the one that you have direct control over is the manual valve. The

manual valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and uncovers various passages

depending on what position the gear shift is placed in. When you place the gear shift in Drive, for

instance, the manual valve directs fluid to the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear.

It also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and throttle position so that it can determine the optimal time

and the force for the 1 - 2 shifts. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have electrical

solenoids that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch packs or bands

under computer control to more precisely control shift points.

Hydraulic & Lubricating Oil: - A component called Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) which is

part of the transmission mechanism provides lubrication, corrosion prevention, and a hydraulic

medium to convey mechanical power.

Primarily it is made of refined petroleum and processed to provide properties that promote smooth

power transmission and increase servicelife. ATF is one of the parts of the automatic transmission that

needs routine service as the vehicle ages.

SemiAutomaticTransmission

A semi-automatic transmission (also known as clutch less manual transmission, automated manual

transmission, e-gear, shift-tronic, flappy paddle gearbox, or paddle shift gearbox) is a system which

uses electronic sensors, processors and actuators to do gear shifts on the command of the driver. This

removes the need for a clutch pedal which the driver otherwise needs to depress before making a gear

change, since the clutch itself is actuated by electronic equipment which can synchronize the timing

and torque required to make gear shifts quick and smooth.

ThesystemwasdesignedbyEuropeanautomobilemanufacturerstoprovideabetterdriving
experience, especially in cities where congestion frequently causes stop-and-go traffic patterns. Like a

tiptronic transmission, a semi-automatic transmission can also be switched to manualmodeto

performgear shifting at the drivers wish.

Thetwomostcommonsemi-automatictransmissions

 Directshifttransmission(ordual-clutchtransmission)

 Electro-hydraulicmanualtransmission(orsequentialtransmission)

Direct shift transmission: In direct shift transmission direct shift gear box is used. The Direct-Shift

Gearbox or D.S.G. is an electronically controlled, twin-shaft dual-clutch manual gearbox, without a

conventional clutch pedal, with full automatic or semi-manual control.

Unlike the conventional manual transmission system, there are two differentgear/collar sets, with each

connected to two different input/output shafts. The outer clutch pack drives gears 1, 3, 5 and reverse.

It is just like two conventional manual transmission gear boxes in one. The inner clutch pack drives

gears 2, 4, and 6. Instead of a standard large dry single-plate clutch, each clutch pack is a collection of

four small wet interleaved clutch plates.

Due to space constraints, the two clutch assemblies are concentric. To automatically shift from 1st

gear to 2nd gear, first the computer detects that the spinning speed of the input shaft is too high, and

engages the 2nd gear‘s collar to the 2nd gear. The clutch then disengages from 1st gear‘s input shaft,

and engagesthe 2nd gear‘s input shaft. Controlledby computer, the gearshift becomes extremely fast

compared with a conventional manual transmission.

Using direct contact of the clutch instead of fluid coupling also improves power transmission

efficiency.Anotheradvancedtechnologyusedfordirectshifttrans-missionallowsittoperform

―doubleclutching‖byshiftingthegeartoneutralfirst,adjustingthe spinningspeedoftheinputshaft, and then

shifting to the next gear. This makes gear shifting verysmooth.

OperationModesOfD.S.G.:-"D"mode:

When the motor vehicle is stationary, in neutral, both clutch packs are fully disengaged. When the

driver has selected D for drive (after pressing the foot brake pedal), the transmission's first gear is

selected on the first shaft, and the clutch prepares to engage. At the same time, the second gear is also

selected, but the clutch pack for second gear remains fully disengaged. When the driver releases the

brake pedal, the clutch pack for the first gear takes up the drive, and the vehicle moves forward.

Pressing the accelerator pedal increases forward speed. As the car accelerates, the transmission's

computer determines when the second gear (which is connected to the second clutch) should be fully

utilized.

Depending on the vehicle speed and amount of power being requested by the driver (full throttle or

part-throttle normal driving), the D.S.G. then up-shifts. During this sequence, the DSG disengages the

first clutch while engaging the second clutch (all power from the engine is now going through the

second shaft), thus completing the shift sequence. This sequence happens in 8 ms, and there is

practically no power loss.

Once the vehicle has shifted up to second gear, the firstgearis immediately de-selected, and third gear

(being on the same shaft as 1st and 5th) is pre-selected, and is pending. Once the time comes to shift,

the second clutch disengages and the first clutch re-engages. This method of operation continues in the

same manner up to 6th gear.Downshiftingis similar to up-shifting but in reverse order. The car's

computer senses the car slowing down or more power required, and thus lines up a lower gear on one

ofthe shafts not in use, and then completes the downshift.

The actual shift timings are determined by the D.S.G.'s Electronic Control Unit, or E.C.U., which

commands a hydro-mechanical unit, and the two units combined are called a "mechatronics" unit.

BecausetheD.S.G.& E.C.U.uses"fuzzylogic",theoperation of theDSGissaidtobe"adaptive";

i.e.theDSGwill"learn"howtheuserdrivesthe car,andwilltailor theshiftpointsaccordingly.

Inthe vehicle instrument display, betweenthe speedometer and tachometer,the available shift

positionsare shown, thecurrent positionofthe shift lever is highlighted, and the current gear ratio is

alsodisplayedasanumber.Under"normal",progressiveaccelerationanddeceleration,theDSG shifts in a

"sequential" mode, i.e. under acceleration: 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5 > 6, and the same sequence

reversedfordeceleration.However,if thecaris beingdriven atsedate speeds,with alightthrottle opening,

and the accelerator pedal is then pressed fully to the floor, this activates the "kick- down" function.

During kick-down, the DSG can skip gears, going from 6th gear straight down to 3rd gear. "S"

mode:

The floor selector lever also has an S position. When S is selected, "sport" mode is activated in the

DSG. Sport mode still functions as a fully automatic mode, identical in operation to "D" mode, butup-

shifts and down-shifts are made much higher up the engine rev-range. This aids a sportier driving

manner, by utilizing considerably more of the available engine power, and also maximizing engine

braking. However, this mode does have a worsening effect on the vehicle fuel consumption, when

compared to D mode. S is also highlighted in the instrument display, and like D mode, the currently

used gear ratio is displayed as a number.

Manual(Tiptronic)Mode:

Additionally, the floor shift lever also has another plane of operation, for manual or tiptronic mode,

with spring-loaded "+" and "−" positions. This plane is selected by moving the stick away from the

driver (in vehicles with the drivers seat on the right, the lever is pushed to the left, and in left -hand

drivecars,thestickispushedto theright)whenin "D"modeonly.When thisplaneisselected, the

D.S.G.cannowbecontrolledlikeamanualgearbox, eventhoughunder asequentialshiftpattern.

The readout in the instrument display changes to 6 -5- 4- 3- 2- 1, and justlike the automatic modes,

the currently used gear ratio is highlighted. To change up a gear, the lever is pushed forwards (against

aspring pressure) towardsthe"+", and to change down,the lever ispulled rearwardstowardsthe "−".

The DSG box can now be operated with the gear changes being (primarily) determined by the driver. This method of

operation iscommonly called"tiptronic".When acceleratingin Manual/tiptronicmode,the D.S.G.will still

automatically change up just before the red-line and when decelerating, it will change down automatically at very low

revs, just before the engine idle speed (tick over). Furthermore, if the driver calls for a gear when it is not appropriate

(i.e., engine speed near the red-line, and a down change is requested) the D.S.G. will delay the change until the engine

revs are at an appropriate level to cope with the requested gear.

PaddleShifters:

On certain "sporty‖ or high-powered cars paddle shifters are available. The paddle shifters have two

distinct advantages: the driver can safely keep both hands on the steering wheel when using the

Manual/tiptronic mode; and the driver can immediately manually override either of the automatic

programs (D or S) onatemporarybasis, and gain instant manual controlofthe D.S.G. box.

If the manual override of one of the automatic programs (D or S) is utilized intermittently,the gearbox

will "default" back to the previously selected automatic mode after a predetermined duration of

inactivity of the paddles, or when the car becomes stationary. Alternatively, should the driver wish to

revert immediately to automatic control, this can be done by holding the "+" paddle for at least two

seconds.

ElectroHydraulicManualTransmission:

In electro-hydraulic manual transmission (alsoknown as sequential transmission) the gear set is almost

the same as the conventional transmissionsystem,except that the shifting of the se-lector is not an ―H‖

pattern. Instead, all selector forks are connectedto a drum. The drum has several grooves, and each has

a ball sliding in it. Each fork hooks up to a balland can be moved forward and backward when the

drum is turning. Based on the pattern of the grooves on the drum, by turning the drum, each fork can

move forward and backward in turn, which makes gear selection sequential. Therefore, it is

impossible for an electro-hydraulic manual transmission to perform a gear shift from 1st to 3rd or 4th

to 2nd. The shifting must be sequential, like 1st ▬► 2nd ▬► 3rd ▬►4th, or

4th▬►3rd▬►2nd▬►1st.
Hotchkissdrive;

The Hotchkiss drive is a system of power transmission. It was the dominant form of power

transmission for front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout cars in the 20th century. The name comes from

theFrenchautomobilefirmofHotchkiss,althoughitisclearthatothermakers(suchas Peerless) used similar

systems before Hotchkiss.

During the early part of the 20th century the two major competingsystems of power transmission were

the shaft-drive and chain-drive configurations. The Hotchkiss drive is a shaft- drive system (another

type of direct-drive transmission system is the torque tube, which was also popular until the 1950s).

Allshaft-drivesystemsconsistofa driveshaft (alsocalleda"propellershaft"or Cardan shaft) extending

from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. The differentiating

characteristicoftheHotchkissdriveisthefactthatituses universaljoints at both ends of the driveshaft,

which is not enclosed. The use of two universal joints, properly phased and with parallelalignment

ofthe drive and drivenshafts, allows the use ofsimple cross- type universals. (Ina
torque-tube arrangement only a single universal is used at the end of the transmission tail shaft, and

this universal should be a constant velocity joint.)

In the Hotchkiss drive, slip-splines or a plunge-type (ball and trunnion u-joint) eliminate thrust

transmitted back up the driveshaft from the axle, allowing simple rear-axle positioning using parallel

leaf springs. (In the torque-tube type this thrust is taken by the torque tube to the transmission and

thence to the transmission and motor mounts to the frame. While the torque-tube type requires

additional locating elements, suchas a Panhard rod, this allows the use ofcoil springs.)

Some Hotchkiss drive shafts are made in two pieces with another universal joint in the center for

greater flexibility, typically in trucks and specialty vehicles built on truck frames. Some installations

use rubber mounts to isolate noise and vibration. The 1984–1987 RWD Toyota Corolla (i.e., Corolla

SR5 and GT-S) coupe is another example of a car that uses a 2-part Hotchkiss driveshaft with a

rubber-mounted center bearing.

Thisdesignwasthemainformofpowertransmissionformostcarsfromthe 1920s through

the1970s. Presently(circa2012), itremainscommoninpick-uptrucks,andsportutilityvehicles

TorquetubeDrive
A torque tube system is a driveshaft technology, often used in automobiles with a frontengine and rear

drive. It is not as widespread as the Hotchkiss drive, but is still occasionally used to this day. Drive

shafts are sometimes also used for other vehicles and machinery.

The "torque" that is referred to in the name is not that of the driveshaft, along the axis of the car, but

that applied by the wheels. The design problem that the torque tube solves is how to get the traction

forces generated by the wheels to the car frame. The "torque tube" transmits this force by directly

coupling the axle differential to the transmission and therefore propels the car forward by pushing on

the engine/transmission and thenthroughthe engine mountsto the car frame [citationneeded].

In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive has the traction forces transmitted to the car frame by using other

suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms. A ball and socket type of joint called a

"torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and

transmission due to suspension travel. Since the torque tube does not constrain the axle in the lateral

(side-to-side) direction a pan hard rod is often used for this purpose. The combination of the pan hard

rod and the torque tube allows the easy implementation of soft coil springs in the rear togive good ride

quality.

In addition to transmitting the traction forces, the torque tube is hollow and contains the rotating

driveshaft. Inside the hollow torque ball is the universal joint of the driveshaft that allows relative

motion between the two ends of the driveshaft. In most applications the drive shaft uses a single

universal joint which has the disadvantage that it causes speed fluctuations in the driveshaft when the

shaftis not straight. The Hotchkiss drive uses two universal joints which has the effect of canceling the

speed fluctuations and gives a constant speed evenwhenthe shaftis no longer straight .
 UNITIV
STEERING, BRAKES AND
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
 UNIT-IV

Suspensionsystem;

Suspension system is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that

connects a vehicle to its wheels . It is basically cushion for passengers protects the luggage or any

cargo and also itself from damage and wear.

SirWilliamBrushisthefatherofsuspensionsysteminautomobiles.

Themainroleofsuspensionsystemareasfollows:

 Itsupportstheweightofvehicle.

 Providessmootherrideforthedriverandpassengersi.e.actsascushion.

 Protectsyourvehiclefromdamageandwear.

 Italsoplaysacriticalroleinmaintainingselfdrivingconditions.

 Italsokeepsthewheelspressedfirmlytothegroundfortraction.

 Itisolatesthebodyfromroadshocksandvibrationswhichwouldotherwisebetransferredto the

passengers and load.

Principle:

Whenatirehitsanobstruction,thereisareactionforce.The sizeofthisreactionforcedependsonthe unsprung

mass at each wheel assembly.

In general, the larger the ratio of sprung weight to unsprung weight, the less the body and vehicle

occupants are affected by bumps, dips, and other surface imperfections such as small bridges. A large

sprung weight to unsprung weight ratio can also impact vehicle control.

No road is perfectly flat i.e. without irregularities. Even a freshly paved highways have subtle

imperfections that can be interact with vehicle‘s wheels. These are the imperfections that apply forces

onwheels.

According to Newton ‘s law of motion all forces have both magnitude and direction. A bump in the

roadcausesthewheeltomoveupanddownperpendiculartotheroadsurface.Themagnitudeof
course,depends onwhether the wheelis striking a giant bump oratinyspeck. Thus, either the wheel

experiences a vertical acceleration as it passes over an imperfection.

The suspension ofa caris actually part ofthe chassis, which comprises all ofthe importantsystems

located beneath the car's body. These system include :

 Frame

 Suspensionsystem

 Steeringsystem

 TiresorWheels

ComponentsofSuspensionsystem;

Therearethreefundamentalcomponentsofanysuspensionsystem.

 Springs

 Coilspring

 Leafsprings

 Airsprings

 Dampers

 ShockAbsorbers

 Struts:-
  Anti-sway Bars

 Antiswaybars.

TypesofSuspensionsystem;

Advantages;
 Comforttopassengers

 Goodhandling

 Shieldsthevehiclefromdamage

 Increaseslifeofvehicle

 Keepsthetirespressedfirmlytoground.

BrakingSystem;

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object or

preventing its motion. The rest ofthisarticle is dedicated to varioustypesofvehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic

energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed.

For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be

stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy intopotential energy in such stored formsas

pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy

into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking

methods even transformkinetic energy into different forms, for example bytransferring the energyto a

rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the

surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of

braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes

with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Sincekineticenergyincreases quadratically withvelocity (k=mv 2/2) an object moving at 10 m/s has 100

times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical

braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles

usually have significant air drag, and energy lost toairdrag rises quickly withspeed.Almost all wheeled

vehicles haveabrakeofsomesort.Even baggagecarts and shopping carts may have them for use on a

moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraftare fittedwith wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft

also feature air brakes designed to reducetheir speed in flight.

Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft

and manydivebombersoftheera.Theseallowtheaircrafttomaintainasafespeedinasteepdescent. The Saab

B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsairfighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then

conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes ispushed,ultimatelya pistonpushes

the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as

the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down. Brakes may

be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetic. One brake may use several

principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional brakes

are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear

surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do

not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes

hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes usefriction.

Friction(pad/shoe)brakesareoftenrotatingdeviceswithastationarypadandarotatingwear
surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum,

such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly

called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating

disc, commonly called a "disc brake".

Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat

shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum,

and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with

shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping brakes are often used where a

pump is already part of themachinery.For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the

fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some

engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes

can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a

hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the

machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator

to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives

use the electric motors togenerate electricity which isthen sent toa resistor bank anddumped as heat.

Types of Braking system in Automobile;

 Byapplications–

1. FootBrake,

2. Handbrake.

 ByMethodofpower–

1. Mechanicalbrake,

2. Hydraulicbrake.

3. Vacuumbrake,
 4. Electricalbrakeand

5. Airbrake.

Bymethodofoperations –

1. Manualbrake,

2. Servobrake.

3. Poweroperation.

Byconstruction–

1. Drumtypebrake,

2. Disctypebrake

Anti-lockbrakingsystem(ABS)

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor

vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking,

preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an

automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were

practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this ata much faster rate

and with better controlthan a driver could manage.

ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery

surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement,ABS can

significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably.

Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front -

to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known

as electronic brake force distribution(EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or

electronic stability control(ESC).

Operation

Theanti-lock brakecontroller isalso knownastheCAB(Controller Anti-lockBrake). Typically ABS

includesa centralelectroniccontrolunit (ECU), four wheelspeed sensors,

andatleasttwohydraulicvalveswithinthebrake hydraulics.TheECUconstantlymonitors the

rotationalspeed ofeachwheel; if it detects awheelrotating significantlyslower thanthe others, a

condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reducehydraulic pressure to the

brake atthe affected wheel,thus reducing thebrakingforce on thatwheel; the wheel then turns faster.

Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic

pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This

process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some

anti-lock systems can apply orreleasebrakingpressure15timespersecond. [17] Because of this, the wheels

of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme

conditions.

The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold,

because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the

outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault

develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument

panel, and the ABS will be disabled untilthe fault isrectified.

Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-

mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road

vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are

rapidlyincreasing inpopularitydue tothe vast reduction inprice ofvehicle electronics over the years.

Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of

two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steeringwheel

anglesensor,andagyroscopicsensor.Thetheory of operationissimple:when thegyroscopicsensordetects

that
the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC

software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated

systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in

the operation ofCornering Brake Control(CBC), since this willtellthe ABSthat wheels on theinside

ofthe curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.

ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system(TCS) on acceleration of the

vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and

take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control

throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

ComponentsofABS

Therearefour maincomponentsofABS:

 Speedsensors,

 Valves,

 Pump,and

 Controller.

Speedsensors

A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors use a

magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential induces a

magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage in the

sensor. Since the voltageinducedin the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor can become

inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations in the

magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate readings to the controller.

Valves

Thereisa valve inthebrake lineofeachbrakecontrolledbytheABS.Onsomesystems,thevalve has three

positions:

Inpositionone,thevalveisopen;pressure fromthe mastercylinder ispassedrightthroughtothe brake.

Inpositiontwo,thevalveblockstheline, isolating thatbrakefromthemastercylinder.Thispreventsthe pressure

fromrising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.

Inpositionthree,thevalvereleasessomeofthepressurefromthebrake.

Themajorityofproblemswiththevalvesystemoccurduetocloggedvalves.Whenavalveisclogged it is

unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system from

modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.

Pump

The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it.

A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the

pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking

system.Thecontrollerwillmodulatethepumpsstatusinordertoprovidethedesiredamountofpressureand reduce

slipping.

Controller

The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel

speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sentto the controller, the controller will then

limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABSmodulator which actuates the braking valves on and

off.

Use
There are many differentvariations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler systems

works as follows,

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that

areout ofthe ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.

Ifleft unchecked, thewheelwouldstopmuch morequicklythananycar could. Itmighttakeacarfive seconds

to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning

in less than a second.

The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to

that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until itsees the deceleration again.

It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that

the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires verynear the point at

which theywill start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.

This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction

surface, allowing steering even in the most emergency braking conditions.

When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the

rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been

triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

Hydraulicbraking system

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in

motion. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be

made of composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon or ceramic-matrix composites.

This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel,friction material in the form of brake

pads (mounted on a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically

or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheelto

slow or stop. Brakes (bothdiscand drum) convertmotion to heat, butifthe brakes

get too hot, they will become less effective because they cannot dissipate enough heat. This condition

of failure is known as brake fade.

ConstructionofBrakingsystem;

Themostcommonarrangementofhydraulicbrakesforpassenger vehicles,motorcycles,scooters,and

mopeds, consists of the following:

 Brakepedalor lever

 Apushrod(alsocalledanactuating rod)

 Amastercylinderassemblycontainingapistonassembly

 Reinforcedhydrauliclines

Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel

pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a

brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake

fluid (other fluids may also be used).

At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc

brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown better

heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally saferthan drum brakes. So

four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most basic

vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the rear

wheel.The following description usesthe terminologyfor and configurationofasimple

In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed,a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s) in

the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber

through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entirehydraulic system,

forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or two

caliper pistons sealed byone or more seated O-rings (whichprevent leakage ofthe fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor,

and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a brakingtorque to be generated, slowing the

vehicle.Heatgenerated bythisfriction is eitherdissipated through vents andchannelsin the rotor or is

conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar

orsintered glass.

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in my master cylinder assembly to

return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the

caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving itback into its housing

and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.

The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leakin the syst em, none

ofthe brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor doesthe fluid get consumed through use.

Pneumaticbrakingsystem

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles

in which compressed air pressing on apiston is used to apply the pressure to the brakepad needed to

stop the vehicle.

Air brakesare used in large heavy vehicles, particularlythose having multiple trailers which must be

linkedintothebrakesystem,suchastrucks,buses,trailers,andsemi-trailersinadditiontotheirusein
railroadtrains.

George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5,

1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to various

formsoftheautomaticbrake.Intheearly20thcentury,afteritsadvantageswereproveninrailway use,itwasadopted by

manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles

ConstructionofBrakingsystem;

Air brakesystems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of servicebrakes,

parkingbrakes, a controlpedal, and anairstorage tank. For the parkingbrake, thereis a disc ordrumbrake

arrangement which is designed to be held inthe 'applied'position byspring pressure.

Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes

(the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing

the airunder pressure (approx 100–120 psi or 690–830 kPa) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to

be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend

towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the

atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi(830kPa).

Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure

for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency

brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes,

thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result

in full spring brake pressure immediately.

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply

system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional

airoperatedauxiliarytrucksystems(gearboxshiftcontrol,clutchpedalairassistanceservo, etc.).
Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does notshow all air reservoirs and

all applicable airvalves).The aircompressor isdrivenbythe engine either by crankshaftpulley via a

beltor directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and

cooling systems.

Compressedairisfirstroutedthroughacoolingcoilandintoan airdryerwhichremovesmoistureand oil

impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge reservoir. As an

alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti-freeze device and oil

separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which itis then

distributed via a four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a parking

brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system alsoincludesvarious check,

pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.Air brake systems may include a wig wag device which

deploys to warnthe driver ifthe systemair pressure dropstoo low.

Controlsystem

The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit and the

trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel circuits which

receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The

service brakes are applied by means ofa brake pedalair valve whichregulates bothcircuits.

The parkingbrakeistheairoperatedspringbraketypewhereitsappliedbyspringforceinthespring

brakecylinderandreleasedbycompressedairviahandcontrol valve.Thetrailerbrakeconsistsofa
direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate control or service line (marked

blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay

valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The operating signals for the

relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service brakehand control(subject

to a country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the primemover park brake hand control.

AdvantagesofAirBrakes;

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such as

automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake pedal

to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for largemultitrailer vehicles:

 The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid, as

hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.

 Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there is no danger of

letting air into hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of trailers can be attached and removed

easily by operators with little training.

 Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy. So it

can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores

sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressorfails.

 Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be

designedwithsufficient "fail-safe" capacity tostopthe vehicle safely even whenleaking.

IntroductionofSteeringsystem

Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allowa vessel (ship,boat) or vehicle (car,

motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail transport by

whichrailtrackscombinedtogetherwithrailroadswitches(andalsoknownas'points'inBritish
English)providethesteeringfunction.

The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the frontwheels using a hand– operated steering

wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the steering column, which may contain universal

joints (which may also be part of the collapsible steering column design), to allow it to deviate

somewhat from a straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of

vehicles,forexample,a tiller orrear–wheelsteering. Trackedvehicles such as bulldozers andtanks

usually employ differential steering — that is, the tracks are made to move atdifferent speeds or even

in opposite directions, using clutches and brakes, to bring about a change of course or direction.

Wheeledvehiclesteering-Basicgeometry
Ackermannsteeringgeometry

Caster angleθ indicateskingpinpivot lineand gray areaindicates vehicle's tire with the wheel moving

from right to left. A positive caster angle aids in directional stability, as the wheel tends to trail, but a

large angle makes steering more difficult.

Curves described by the rear wheels of a conventional automobile. While the vehicle moves with a

constant speed its inner and outer rear wheels do not.

The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions. This is

typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is

that of caster angle – each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel; this makes the

steering tend to be self-centering towardsthe direction of travel.

The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a variation of

Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually

travelling apath ofsmallerradiusthan the outerwheel, so that thedegree oftoe suitable fordriving in a

straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical plane also

influences steering dynamics (see camber angle) as do the tires.

 Rackandpinion,recirculatingball,wormandsector

Rackandpinionsteeringmechanism:

1. Steeringwheel;

2. Steeringcolumn;

3. Rackandpinion;

4. Tierod;

5. Kingpin

Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car chassis. For most high

volume production, this is usually mounted onthe other side ofthis panel

Steering box of a motor vehicle, the traditional (non-assisted), you may notice that the system allows

you to adjust the braking and steering systems, you canalso seethe attachment systemtotheframe.

Many modern cars use rack and pinion steeringmechanisms, where the steering wheel turns the pinion

gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting circular

motion into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This motion

applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously used kingpins of the

stubaxle ofthe steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever armcalled the steering arm.

Therackandpiniondesignhastheadvantagesofalargedegreeoffeedbackanddirectsteering"feel". A

disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, sothatwhenitdoeswearanddevelop lash, the only cure is

replacement.

Olderdesignsoftenusetherecalculatingballmechanism,whichisstillfoundontrucksandutility
vehicles. This is a variation on the older sector design; the steering column turns a large screw (the

"wormgear")whichmesheswithasectorofagear,causingittorotateaboutitsaxisasthewormgear is turned;

an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the Pitman arm, which is connected to the steering

linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recalculatingball version of this apparatus reduces the

considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the teeth of the worm and those of the

screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal

to the box which connects themwith the other end ofthe apparatus,thus theyare "recalculated".

The recirculatingball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage, so that

itwas found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited to smaller and

lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering, however, this is no longer an

important advantage, leading to the increasing use ofrack and pinion on newer cars.

The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" oncenter, where aminute turn

of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable

via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated

because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear very

rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and

direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.

The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and the

Ford Falcon (1960s).

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go- karts

often use a very direct linkage in the form of abellcrank (also commonly known as a Pitman arm)

attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable- operated

steering linkages (e.g. the Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built

vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.

SteeringGearBoxes;
The steering gears converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the
linkrod of thesteeringlinkages.Moreoveritalsoprovidesnecessaryleveragesothatthedriveris
abletosteerthevehiclewithoutfatigue.

Therearevarioustypesofsteeringgearboxesareavailableinautomobile.

 WormandWheelsteeringgearbox,

 Camanddouble rollersteeringgearbox,

 Wormandnutsteeringgearbox,

 Recalculatingballtypesteeringgearbox,

 Rackandpinionsteeringgearbox,

Powersteering

In automobiles, power steering (also known as power assisted steering (PAS)or steering assist system)

helps drivers steer byaugmenting steering effort ofthe steering wheel.

Hydraulicorelectricactuatorsaddcontrolledenergytothesteeringmechanism,sothedriverneedsto

provideonlymodesteffortregardlessofconditions.Powersteeringhelpsconsiderablywhenavehicle is

stopped or moving slowly. Also, power steering provides some feedback of forces acting on the front

wheelsto give an ongoing senseofhowthe wheels areinteracting with theroad;this istypically called

"rοad feel".

Representative power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic

cylinder,whichispartofaservosystem. Thesesystemshaveadirectmechanicalconnectionbetween the

steering wheel and the linkage that steersthe wheels.

This means that power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle tobe steered

using manual effort alone.

Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no

directmechanical connection to the steeringlinkage; they require power. Systems of this kind, with no

mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by wire", by analogy with

aviation's "fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables thatcarry power and data, not

thin-wire-rope mechanical control cables.

In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems.

As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the

power-steering system.

Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; thishinge allows

the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders

move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.

Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of the power to assist in

swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier and

switched to front wheel drive, particularly using negative offset geometry, along with increases in tire

width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis has increased, often

tothe point where major physicalexertionwould be needed were it not for power assistance.

To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems: or more correctly power-

assisted steering—on road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage as a failsafe. There are

two types of power steering systems; hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic- electric hybrid

system is also possible.A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an

engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric powersteering (EPS) is

more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only needs to

provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly.

In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver

preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakageand disposal

ofhydraulic power steering fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the engine fails or

stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the steering doubly

heavy as the driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering—without any help—but also the

power-assistance system itself.

 SpeedSensitiveSteering

An outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at

low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers perceive that motorists might need to

make large steering inputs while manoeuvering for parking, but not while traveling at high speed. The

first vehicle with this feature was the Citroën SM with itsDiravi layout[citation needed], although

rather than altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering systems, it altered the

pressure on a centring cam which made the steering wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead

position. Modern speed-sensitive power steering systems reduce the mechanical orelectrical assistance

as the vehicle speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming

morecommon.
 UNIT V
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES
 UNIT V

ALTERNATIVEENERGYSOURCES

5.1.NaturalGasasaFuelin Automobile;

A natural gas vehicle (NGV) is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed natural gas

(CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative to other fossil fuels. Natural gas

vehicles should not be confused with vehicles powered by propane(LPG), which is a fuel with a

fundamentally differentcomposition. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by

2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.07 million), Brazil

(1.70 million), and India (1.10 million).

The Asia-Pacific region leads the world with 6.8 million NGVs,followedby Latin America with

4.2 million vehicles. In the Latin American region almost 90% of NGVs have bi-fuel engines,

allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG. In Pakistan, almost every vehicle

converted to (or manufactured for) alternative fuel use typically retains the capability to run on

ordinary gasoline.

As of 2009, the U.S. had a fleet of 114,270 compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, mostly

buses; 147,030 vehicles running on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); and 3,176 vehicles liquefied

natural gas (LNG). Other countries where natural gas-powered buses are popular include India,

Australia, Argentina,andGermany. InOECDcountriestherearearound500,000CNGvehicles.

Pakistan's market share of NGVs was 61.1% in 2010, follow by Armenia with 32%, and Bolivia

with 20%.The number of NGV refueling stations has also increased, to 18,202 worldwide as of

2010, up 10.2% from the previous year.

Existing gasoline-powered vehicles may be converted to run on CNG or LNG, and can be

dedicated (running only on natural gas) or bi-fuel (running on either gasoline or natural gas.

Diesel engines for heavy trucks and busses can also be converted and can be dedicated with the

addition of new heads containing spark ignition systems, or can be run on a blend of diesel and

naturalgas, withthe primaryfuelbeing naturalgas and a smallamount ofdieselfuelbeing used

asan ignitionsource.

An increasing number of vehicles worldwide are being manufactured to run on CNG. Until

recently, theHonda Civic GX was the only NGV commercially available in the US market.,

however now Ford, GM and Ramhave bi-fuelofferingsin their vehicle lineup. Fords approach is

to offer a bi-fuel prepkit as a factory option, and then have the customer choose an authorized

partner to install the natural gas equipment.

In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car

developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on natural gas (CNG);

100% ethanol (E100); E20 to E25 gasoline blend, Brazil's mandatory gasoline; and pure

gasoline, though no longer available in Brazil it is used in neighboring countries.

NGVfillingstationscanbelocatedanywherethatnaturalgaslinesexist.Compressors(CNG)or

liquifaction plants (LNG) are usually built on large scale but with CNG small home refueling

stations are possible. A company called FuelMaker pioneered such a system called Phill Home

Refueling Appliance (known as "Phill"), which they developedin partnership with Honda for the

American GX model. Phill is now manufactured and sold by BRC FuelMaker, a division of Fuel

Systems Solutions, Inc.

CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't

increase theconcentration ofcarbon inthe atmosphere. Despite its advantages, the useofnatural

gas vehicles faces several limitations, including fuel storage and infrastructure available for

delivery and distribution at fueling stations. CNG must be stored in high pressure cylinders

(3000psi to 3600psi operation pressure), and LNG must be stored in cryogenic cylinders (-260F

to -200F).

These cylinders take up more space than gasoline or diesel tanks that can be molded in intricate

shapes to store more fuel and use less on-vehicle space. CNG tanks are usually located in the

vehicle's trunk or pickup bed, reducing the space available for other cargo. This problem can be

solved by installing the tanks under the body of the vehicle, or on the roof (typical for busses),

leaving cargo areas free.

Aswithotheralternativefuels,otherbarriersforwidespreaduseofNGVsarenaturalgas

distributiontoandatfuelingstationsaswellasthelownumberofCNGandLNGstations. CNG-

powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles 5.2.Liquefied

petroleum gas as a Fuel in Automobile;

Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply

propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating

appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and

a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

When specifically used as a vehicle fuel itis often referred to as auto gas.

Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C 3H8),primarily

butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane andbutane. In winter, the

mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States,

primarily two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are

published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA) and the American Society of Testing and

Materials (ASTM). Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications.

Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small

concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, and is

utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can

be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States,

tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants,[5] although

neither is currently being utilized.

LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from

fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted

from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in

1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently

provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very

few sulfur emissions.

As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution.

LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil

and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[6] However, its energy density per volume

unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower

(about 0.5–0.58, compared to 0.71–0.77 for gasoline).

As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal

temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. Theyare typically

filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The

ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on

composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1.

The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewisevaries

dependingoncompositionandtemperature;forexample,itisapproximately220kilopascals(32 psi)

for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for pure propane

at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and

tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this. The first is

a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and there is an

ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in

oxygen concentration.

LargeamountsofLPGcanbestoredinbulk cylinders andcanbeburied underground.

BiodieselasaFuelinAutomobile;

Biodiesel and conventional diesel vehicles are one in the same. Although light-, medium-, and

heavy-duty diesel vehicles are not technically "alternative fuel" vehicles, many are capable of

running on biodiesel. Biodiesel, which is most often used as a blend with regular diesel fuel, can

be used in many diesel vehicles without any engine modification. The most common biodiesel

blend is B20, which is 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. B5 (5% biodiesel, 95%

diesel) is also commonly used in fleets.

Beforeusingbiodiesel,be sure tocheckyourenginewarrantytoensurethathigher-level blends

(all OEMs accept the use of B5 and many accept the use of B20) of this alternative fuel don't

void or affect it. High-level biodiesel blends (blends over B20) can have a solvency effect in

engines and fuel systems that previously used petroleum diesel which may result in degraded

seals and clogged fuel filters.

Biodiesel improves fuel lubricity and raises the cetane number of the fuel.Diesel engines depend

on the lubricity of the fuel to keep moving parts from wearing prematurely. Federal regulations

have gradually reduced allowable fuel sulfur to only 15 parts per million, which has often

resulted in lowered aromatics content in diesel fuel. One advantage of biodiesel is that it can

impart adequate lubricityto diesel fuels at blend levels as low as 1%.

Hybridelectricvehicle;

A hybrid electricvehicle (HEV)is a type of hybrid vehicle and electricvehiclewhich combines a

conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion

system. The presence ofthe electric powertrain isintended toachieve either better fuel economy

than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV types, and the

degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the

hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks(pickups and tractors) and buses also exist.

Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking,

which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than

wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal

combustion engine to generate electricityby spinningan electrical generator (this combination is

known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric

drive motors

Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when

needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its

ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engineis usually smaller than

a comparably sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce

loweremissions)andifnotusedtodirectlydrivethecar,canbegearedtorunatmaximum
efficiency,furtherimprovingfueleconomy.

In 1901 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first gasoline-

electric hybrid automobile in the world. The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely

availableuntilthereleaseoftheToyotaPriusinJapanin1997,followedbytheHondaInsightin 1999.

While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in

the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; theyare now

perceived as a core segment ofthe automotive market ofthe future.

About 9 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide by October 2014, led by

Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with more than 7 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as of

September 2014, followed byHonda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative globalsales of morethan

1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014, Ford Motor Corporation with over 375 thousand hybrids

sold in the United States through September 2014, and the Hyundai Group with cumulative

global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia

Motors hybrid models.

Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by TMC reached 1 million units in May 2007; 2

million in August 2009; and passed the 5 million mark in March 2013. As of December 2013,

worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales of 3.17

million units, and available in almost 80 countries and regions.

The Prius nameplate has sold 4.2 millionhybridsand plug-inhybrids up toDecember 2013. The

United States is the world's largest hybrid market with over 3 million hybrid automobiles and

SUVs sold through October 2013, followed by Japan with more than 2.6 million hybrids sold

throughSeptember2013.ThePriusisthetopsellinghybridcarintheU.S. market,passingthe1 million

milestones in April 2011. Cumulative sales of the Prius in Japan reached the 1 million mark in

August 2011.

FuelCell;

A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce

electricity,withwaterandheatasitsby-product.Sinceconversionof thefuel toenergy takes

place via an electrochemical process, not combustion. It is a clean,

quiet and highly efficient process- two to three times more

efficient than fuel burning.

It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does

it require recharging As long as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will

produce both energy and heat A Fuel Cell consists of two

catalystcoated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte. One electrode

is an anode and the other is a cathode The process begins when

Hydrogen molecules enter the anode The catalyst coating separates

hydrogen‘s negatively charged electrons from the positively

charged protons The electrolyte allows the protons to pass

throughto the cathode, but not the electrons.

Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which

creates electrical current. While the electrons pass through the

external circuit, oxygen molecules pass throughthe cathode. There

the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons after they

have passed through the external circuit. When the oxygen and the

protons combine with the electrons it produces water and heat.

Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel

cell stack. The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or

to provide stationary power to a building