Ipanag, Sophia Loren Z.
BSN 1-2
CHAPTER 4: TISSUES
REMEMBERING AND UNDERSTANDING
1. Define tissue and histology.
★ Tissue is the collection of similar cells and the extracellular materials surrounding them that
specialize in specific functions such as protection, sensation, absorption, and reproduction. It has
four major types of tissue, which are epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. The
microscopic study of tissue is called histology, where abnormalities and other problems in tissues
can be identified using a microscope.
2. In what areas of the body is epithelium located? What are the four characteristics of epithelial
tissue?
★ It can be found on both the inner and outer side of the body. It can be found in the skin, which
covers the outside of the body, as well as in other places like the lining of hollow organs like the
reproductive, digestive, and respiratory tracts, as well as in the blood vessels and inner linings of
the heart and numerous body cavities like the pelvic and abdominal cavity. There are four main
surfaces that characterize epithelial tissues. Epithelial cells are positioned on the apical surface,
sometimes referred to as the free surface, which faces either the exterior environment or the inner
space of a hollow organ. (2) The basal surface is fixed in position of the epithelial cells'
attachment to the basement membrane. (3) This basement membrane, which serves as support and
is essential in directing cell migration during tissue repair, is the noncellular material that
resembles mortar for bricks where the basal surface is attached. Eventually, (4) the epithelial cells
attach to one another on the lateral surfaces, preserving the connection and structural integrity of
the epithelium layer.
3. Explain how epithelial tissue is classified according to the number of cell layers and the shape of
the cells. What are pseudostratified columnar and transitional epithelium?
★ It can be classified into three types based on the number of cell layers: simple epithelium, which
consists of a single layer of cells; stratified epithelium, which consists of more than two layers of
cells; and, finally, pseudostratified epithelium, which is composed of a single layer of cells but of
different heights, thus showing a stratified appearance. Additionally, the cells' shapes are
categorized as squamous, which has a thin, scaly appearance and is flattened on the surface like a
fried egg; cuboidal, which is square-like and dice-shaped; and columnar, which is tall, long, and
rectangular. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium and transitional epithelium are special types of
epithelium. But pseudostratified epithelium is a special kind of simple epithelium that comes
from the prefix pseudo, which means false, and looks to be stratified but is not. Although there is
only one layer of cells, it appears to have two or more layers. Conversely, a special kind of
stratified epithelium is the transitional epithelium. When stretched, the cells' form changes from
cuboidal and columnar to squamous-like.
4. What kinds of functions does a single layer of epithelium perform? A stratified layer? Give an
example of each.
★ Due to its thinness and ease of material passage, the single layer of epithelium is perfect for
carrying out diffusion, filtration, secretion, and absorption. For instance, the secretion of
hormones like insulin and digestive enzymes is greatly aided by the simple cuboidal epithelium
seen in glands like the pancreas. Efficient creation and release of these chemicals are made
possible by the single layer of cells. whereas defense against physical and chemical stress is
provided by the stratified layer. For instance, the stratified cuboidal epithelium in sweat is a form
of epithelium that helps to secrete sweat and offers protection. It is located in the ducts of sweat
glands. The multiple layers of sweat help shield the ducts from harm caused by the acidic nature
of sweat.
5. Contrast the functions performed by squamous cells with those of cuboidal or columnar cells.
Give an example of each.
★ Squamous cells are perfect for passive processes like filtration and diffusion since they are thin
and flat. They are located in places where efficient gas exchange is required, like the lungs, where
fast exchange is needed, also in blood and lymphatic capillaries. Cuboidal and columnar cells, on
the other hand, are more resilient and usually engaged in active processes like absorption and
secretion. In the kidney tubule lining, for instance, cuboidal cells actively absorb and produce
chemicals, whereas columnar cells in the inner lining of the digestive tube take nutrients from
broken-down food and secrete mucus and enzymes to help with digestion.
6. What is the function of an epithelial free surface that is smooth? of one that has microvilli? of one
that has cilia?
★ The smooth, free surface reduces friction and helps lessen flow resistance; it is most frequently
found in places like the lining of blood vessels. The surface that has microvilli is stationary,
which is responsible for absorption since it increases the surface area and allows for better
absorption. Lastly, a surface that has cilia is not stationary, as it is designed for movement to let
particles or cells move over the epithelial surface and mucus, helping to keep the lung free by
keeping dust out of the airway.
7. Name the ways in which epithelial cells may be connected to one another, and give the function
for each way.
★ Hemidesmosomes connect the cell to the basement membrane, which stabilizes the tissue and
prevents tissue movement. Desmosomes connect the epithelial cells together, providing
mechanical stability for tissue, especially those tissues subject to stress. Additionally, as
suggested by their name, tight junctions provide barriers to stop materials from passing between
cells and, with the aid of adhesion belts, tie cells together tightly. Lastly, the gap junction is in
charge of enabling tiny ions and molecules to move between cells, facilitating intercellular
communication, and coordinating cellular processes.
8. Define gland. Distinguish between an exocrine and an endocrine gland.
★ The organs responsible for secretion are called glands. The glands are made up of epithelium
supported by a network of connective tissue, and they are formed from the infolding and
unfolding of epithelium in the embryo. One of the two types of glands is the endocrine gland,
which is connected to a vast blood artery network and secretes hormones straight into the blood.
In contrast to other types of glands, exocrine glands release their products directly through ducts
to a specified site, which could be the skin or the free surface of the organ. Examples of these
products include saliva, enzymes, perspiration, and digestive system secretions.
9. Explain the differences among connective tissue cells that are termed blast, cyte, and clast cells.
★ The specialized connective tissue cells responsible for the extracellular matrix are referred to as
blast, cyte, and clast. Their responsibilities are different. The blast comes first and is the one that
made the matrix. The cyte is the one that preserves it, whereas the clast disassembles the matrix
for remodeling.
10. What are the functions of connective tissues?
★ Connective tissue is in charge of providing tissues with support and protection by producing
structures like bone and cartilage, which give our body a strong foundation and shield important
organs. It connects and binds tissues together, as seen in tendons that link muscles to bones and
ligaments that connect bones at joints. Additionally, connective tissue is crucial in transporting
substances throughout the body, as blood, a type of connective tissue, carries oxygen, nutrients,
and waste products to and from cells. It also fills spaces within and/or between organs.
11. What are the major connective tissue types? How are they used to classify connective tissue?
★ The major kinds of connective tissue are adult and embryonic connective tissue. All adult
connective tissue types develop from mesenchyme, the embryonic connective tissue that forms
initially and is derived from mesoderm and neural crest cells during the third and fourth weeks of
development. After eight weeks of development, the majority of mesenchyme has become
specialized into three forms of adult tissue. The first type of connective tissue is called the
connective tissue proper. It consists of two types: loose connective tissue, where the matrix is
loosely arranged like areola, adipose, and reticular, and dense connective tissue, which is flexible
and supportive and has a matrix compactly arranged. The supporting connective tissue, which
comprises bone and cartilage for support and mineral storage, is the second kind of adult
connective tissue. The fluid connective tissue, on the other hand, is the last type and includes
blood and hematopoietic tissue for immune response and material transport.
12. Describe areolar connective tissue, and give an example.
★ One type of loose connective tissue is areolar connective tissue. It has fibers with fibroblasts,
macrophages, and lymphocytes located in the spaces between the fibers, which allow for the
support, elasticity, and exchange of nutrients across tissues. It is present in many parts of our body
as it fills the spaces between organs and tissue. Example, they can be found beneath the skin that
support and connect the skin to underlying tissue.
13. How is adipose tissue different from other connective tissues? List the functions of adipose
tissue.
★ What makes the adipose connective tissue different is that aside from an extracellular matrix that
envelops the cells, it also consists of specialized adipocytes, which are characterized by a high
content of lipids from the cytoplasm. Not only does it provide support, just like other connective
tissue, but it also stores energy and cushions organs. It is essential for both mechanical protection
and energy balance since it lowers body temperature and cushions joints and organs.
14. Describe dense collagenous connective tissue and dense elastic connective tissue, and give two
examples of each.
★ Elastic and collagenous forms of dense connective tissue are distinguished from irregular and
regular forms. Regular collagenous connective tissue is white in color and has collagen fibers
arranged in a consistent direction, often found in tendons and ligaments, which connect muscles
to bones and bones to one another. As opposed to this, irregular collagenous connective tissue,
which makes up the dermis—the tougher, deeper layer of skin—has collagen fibers arranged in
different planes or directions. Regular elastic connective tissue contains collagen and a large
number of elastic fibers aligned in the same direction, which gives elastic ligaments and the
connective tissue lining blood vessels their strength and flexibility. Irregular elastic connective
tissue, which combines various elastic fibers with bundles and sheets of collagenous fibers
oriented in different orientations to enable the arteries to effectively stretch and recoil.
15. Describe the components of cartilage. Give an example of hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and
elastic cartilage.
★ The cartilage lies within a space called lacunae. Its cells are called chondrocytes, and the matrix
contains collagen fiber, proteoglycan, and elastic fibers. It has no blood vessels and nerves. The
first type of cartilage is hyaline cartilage, which is rich in proteoglycans and collagen fibers. This
type of cartilage, which is found in the rib cage and at the ends of long bones, has a smooth
surface that facilitates joint movement and a glassy, translucent appearance under a microscope.
The other component is called fibrocartilage, which is tougher and more compressible. It has
significantly thicker collagen fiber bundles than proteoglycan and is mostly located in body parts
where joints get a lot of pressure, like our knee, which also contains hyaline. Last but not least is
the elastic cartilage, which is evidently rich in elastic fiber in addition to collagen and
proteoglycan, which provide flexibility. It can be found in places with elastic but stiff surface
characteristics, like the external ears and aorta.
16. Describe the components of bone.
★ Osseous tissue, another name for bone, is a hard connective tissue made up of a mineralized
matrix and living cells that support and shield other tissues and organs. They are found in space
called lacunae. Two different kinds of bones are referred to as "spongy bones" because they
resemble sponges due to the gaps that exist between the trabeculae, or bone plates. The other is
the more compact, more solid bone that has nearly no room between its many, thin layers of
mineralized matrix, called compact bone.
17. Describe the cell types and matrix of blood, and list the functions of blood.
★ The blood contains a liquid matrix where the blood cells can move freely. Blood has three
different types of cells: platelets, which aid in clotting, white blood cells, which provide
immunological defense, and red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body. Our
blood's job is to carry various materials throughout our body, including waste products,
hormones, oxygen, protein, and nutrition. This also controls the pH and temperature, as well as
clotting mechanism and immunological responses to defend against infections.
18. Functionally, what is unique about muscle? Which of the muscle types is under voluntary
control? What tasks does each type perform?
★ Well, the thing that makes the muscle unique is the ability of the muscle to contract and generate
force, which is very important in our body for it to be able to function. It has three types: cardiac,
which is found in our heart and provides the force to pump blood throughout the circulatory
system; skeletal, which is attached to the bone and permits movement of the body; and smooth
muscle cells, which are found in visceral or smooth muscle tissue, such as the walls of hollow
organs and blood vessels, and are essential for controlling functions like digestion and blood flow.
Among the three of them, the skeletal muscle cells are the only ones under voluntary control,
which allow our body to move and maintain posture. The rest are involuntary muscle cells, as
they are not under conscious control. The body may function smoothly and efficiently without the
need for voluntary effort since both types of muscles automatically maintain key physiological
functions.
19. Functionally, what is unique about nervous tissue? What do neurons and glia accomplish? What
is the difference between an axon and a dendrite?
★ The nervous system is special because of its capacity to both receive and transmit impulses,
which permits communication between different parts of our bodies and acts as a receptor for
stimuli. Electrical signals are transmitted by neurons, or nerve cells. It is made up of dendrites,
which are shorter than axons and receive and transmit impulses toward the cell body, and axons,
which are far longer and send impulses away from the cell body. Conversely, glia support and
shield neurons, help with signal transmission, and preserve homeostasis.
20. Compare mucous and serous membranes according to the type of cavity they line and their
secretions. Name the serous membranes associated with the lungs, heart, and abdominopelvic
organs.
★ Mucous membrane linings line cavities such as the reproductive and excretory channels that are
exposed to the outside world. It has mucous glands, which release mucus to help maintain
moisture on the surface and guard against pathogens. On the contrary, the serous membrane
corresponds to cavities that are closed off to the outside world, such as the pericardial cavity,
which is connected to the heart; the pleural cavity, which is related to the lungs; and the peritoneal
cavity, which is connected to the abdominopelvic cavity. Despite lacking glands, they release
serous fluids that lessen organ friction.
21. What is the function of the inflammatory response? Name the five symptoms of inflammation,
and explain how each is produced.
★ When tissue gets damaged, an inflammatory response takes place. This defense system works to
keep out dangerous substances and assist in repairing any injury that has been inflicted. The five
symptoms are as follows: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbed function. It is caused by the
release of a chemical mediator following an injury, which causes the blood vessels to dilate and
produce redness and heat. White blood cells and clotting protein enter the tissue more quickly due
to blood vessel permeability. Water then follows protein through osmosis, causing the tissue to
swell and eventually produce edema, which raises blood pressure, causes pain, and limits
movement and tissue destruction, which causes disturbed function.
22. Define tissue repair. What is the difference between regeneration and fibrosis?
★ Tissue repair involves restoring tissue to its original form and function after an injury or being
damaged. Normal function is only restored through regeneration, or the replacement of the dead
cell with a new one that is identical to the injured cells. Scar tissue is created as a result of
fibrosis; while it might not completely restore tissue function, it does offer structural support.
Tissues possessing a high potential for regeneration generally undergo regeneration, whereas
tissues with a restricted capacity for regeneration frequently experience fibrosis.
23. Describe the process of tissue repair when the edges of a wound are close together versus when
they are far apart.
★ The healing process is referred to as primary union or primary intention if the wound's edges are
closed together. Here, the wound fills with blood and clotting proteins. The clot is in charge of
closing the wound and warding off infection. These proteins contain fibrin, which aids in the
wound's ability to bond together. On the other hand, the process for healing distant wounds is
known as the secondary intention or union. While there are some similarities between it and the
primary union, there are also a few differences because the clotting protein might not be able to
close gaps and seal due to its distance. The process of covering the wound and promoting
regeneration may take longer because it requires more extensive tissue development, including
granulation tissue, and a higher degree of scarring.
24. Describe the effect of aging on cell division and the formation of extracellular matrix.
★ Age affects how cells form and repair as well as the formation of extracellular matrix because
aging slows down cell division and reduces red blood cell synthesis in older adults, which slows
down healing and regeneration. It also causes changes in the extracellular matrix, including
decreased collagen production. The collagen is fragile and less flexible, and the decreased
elasticity of connective tissue increases wrinkles on the skin and may increase the chance of bone
breaks in older people.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. What types of epithelium are likely to be found lining the trachea of a heavy smoker? Predict the
changes that are likely to occur after he or she has stopped smoking for 1 or 2 years.
★ The pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which is connected to the cilia that secrete mucus to
catch and get rid of debris from the lungs, is the type of epithelium that is primarily present in the
trachea. My analysis of information leads me to the conclusion that, as this is the trachea of a
heavy smoker, it has inhaled smoke and chemicals that damage and irritate the cilia and boost the
activity of goblet cells, which in turn causes a buildup of mucus. The epithelium is likely to
regenerate and recover after the person gives up smoking for a year or two. This will improve
respiratory clearance and lessen chronic coughing as cilia grow back and mucus production
returns to normal.
2. The blood-brain barrier is a specialized epithelium, called endothelium, in capillaries that
prevents many materials from passing from the blood into the brain. What kind of cell connections
would you expect to find in the blood-brain barrier?
★ The blood-brain barrier is a specialized endothelium that is based in capillaries. It prevents
multiple substances from passing from the bloodstream to the brain, as was indicated in the
paragraph above. As a result, I've concluded that the tight junction, which forms barriers and
prevents material from passing between cells, is the type of cell connection between endothelial
cells. In order to preserve the brain's protective environment and regulate its chemical
composition, only certain molecules from the blood can enter the brain through the tight junction,
a connective tissue that limits substance flow.
3. One of the functions of the pancreas is to secrete digestive enzymes that are carried by ducts to
the small intestine. How many cell layers and what cell shape, cell surface, and type of cell-to-cell
connections would you expect to be present in the epithelium that produces the digestive enzymes?
★ Usually, the pancreatic epithelium that produces a lot of digestive enzymes is a simple cuboidal or
columnar epithelium with a single layer of cells. Microvilli are present on the free surface of these
cells to enhance the surface area available for secretion. Tight junctions are a feature of
cell-to-cell connections that help to keep the environment for enzyme secretion under control and
stop leaking into the surrounding tissues.
4. Explain the consequences
a. if simple columnar epithelium replaced the nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium that lines the mouth
b. if tendons were composed of dense elastic connective tissue instead of dense collagenous
connective tissue
c. if bones were made entirely of elastic cartilage
★ a. Since the simple columnar epithelium is really made for absorption and secretion and is not
structured to withstand the frequent wear and friction that occurs in the oral cavity during eating
and speaking, replacing the nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium in the mouth would
severely impair the tissue's ability to withstand abrasion and mechanical stress. Because the tissue
no longer has the protective keratinization and many layers of stratified squamous epithelium,
which aid in damage resistance and offer a strong barrier against pathogens, the tissue would be
more vulnerable to injuries and infections.
b. This only means that tendons would be more flexible but have less tensile strength if they were
made of dense elastic connective tissue rather than dense collagenous connective tissue. Despite
its ability to stretch and recoil due to its abundance of elastic fibers, thick elastic tissue is not as
durable or able to give structural support as dense collagenous tissue. We know that strong tensile
strength is necessary to preserve joint stability and effective movement in the tendon, as it is in
charge of transmitting force from muscles to bones. It would be less efficient for the tendons to
transfer muscular forces through dense elastic tissue in place of dense collagenous tissue, which
could result in joint instability and decreased movement efficiency.
c. If elastic cartilage were the only material that made up bones, they would be extremely flexible
but terribly weak in terms of stiffness and structural strength. Rich in elastic fibers, elastic
cartilage offers durability and flexibility, which makes it ideal for structures that need to keep
shape while permitting movement, such as the ear and the epiglottis. Yet, in order to support the
body, secure important organs, and allow for mobility, bones must possess lots of hardness and
strength. If elastic cartilage were to replace bone, it would not be able to provide the required
hardness and load-bearing capability of bone tissue, which could risk structural integrity and
cause serious functional limitations.
5. Some dense connective tissue has elastic fibers in addition to collagen fibers. This enables a
structure to stretch and then recoil to its original shape. Examples are certain ligaments that hold
together the vertebrae (bones of the back). When the back is bent (flexed), the ligaments are
stretched. How does the elastic nature of these ligaments help the back function? How are the fibers
in the ligaments organized?
★ With the example given, it informed me that the flexibility and stability of the back are largely
dependent on the elastic properties of several ligaments, such as those that join the vertebrae in
the spine. Because these ligaments are made of collagen and elastic fibers, they can revert to their
previous shape after the strain is relieved, allowing the back to bend or flex. This flexibility
allows for a number of movements while preserving the spine's natural alignment and support.
These ligaments' interconnected fiber arrangement allows for the required stretch and recoil while
offering strength and durability in a variety of directions. Because of their structure, ligaments are
able to support the spinal column and distribute and absorb mechanical pressures during
movement.
6. The aorta is a large blood vessel attached to the heart. When the heart beats, blood is ejected into
the aorta, which expands to accept the blood. The wall of the aorta is constructed with dense
connective tissue that has elastic fibers. How do you think the fibers are arranged?
★ The dense connective tissue in the aorta contains elastic fibers that are organized in concentric
layers or sheets. Because of this particular setup, the aorta can efficiently handle the extra volume
of blood that the heart pumps out with each heartbeat. The aorta expands to take up the extra
pressure as blood pressure rises, causing the elastic fibers to stretch. The elastic fibers recoil when
the heart relaxes, which aids in the aorta's restoration to its former shape and keeps blood flowing
through the channel continuously. The placement of elastic fibers contributes to the overall
effectiveness of the circulatory system by enabling the aorta to withstand the stretching and
recoiling required to control blood pressure and smooth out the rapid flow of blood.
7. Antihistamines block the effect of a chemical mediator, histamine, which is released during the
inflammatory response. When could taking an antihistamine be harmful, and when could it be
beneficial?
★ As mentioned above, antihistamine inhibits the action of histamine, a chemical mediator of
inflammation. Because they lessen the inflammation caused by histamine, they may help to
relieve the symptoms of allergic reactions, such as sneezing and itching. They could, however, be
harmful if they obstruct the immune responses that are required in situations where the immune
system has to be activated or repaired. This could hinder healing or raise the risk of infection.
