BASIC OF VIDEO, CAMERA, SOUND

UNIT 1
Q1. Introduction to Video Camera, Parts, and Their Functions
❖ A video camera is a tool that captures moving pictures and sound.
❖ It lets you record special moments, such as birthdays, vacations, or any event you
want to keep forever.
❖ Video cameras come in different sizes: some are small and easy to carry, perfect for
vlogging, while others are larger and used by professionals to make movies.
❖ A video camera is a mechanical device used for recording purposes.
❖ A video camera records multiple frames at a time.
❖ In videography, we often record with 25 or 30 fps.
Video Camera Parts and Functions:
1. On/Off/Pause Button: This button turns the camera on and off. It also pauses recording
when you want to stop for a moment without completely turning off the camera.
2. Lens: The lens is the part of the camera that lets light in. It focuses the light so that the
images you record are clear and sharp. Different lenses can create different effects.
3. Aperture Ring: This ring controls how much light enters the camera through the lens. A
larger opening lets in more light, which is good for dark places, while a smaller opening lets
in less light for brighter situations.
4. Focus Ring: This ring helps you make the image sharp and clear. Turning the focus ring
allows you to zoom in on a subject or focus on objects that are far away.
5. Zoom Ring: The zoom ring allows you to change the lens's zoom level. Turning it lets you
zoom in closer to your subject or zoom out to capture a wider scene.
6. LCD: The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is the screen on the back of the camera. It shows you
what you are recording and lets you access the camera’s menus and settings.
7. Viewfinder: The viewfinder is a small screen or window you look through to see what you
are filming. It helps you frame your shots, especially in bright light when the LCD screen
might be hard to see.
8. Tally Light: This is a small light on the camera that shows when the camera is recording. It
helps everyone know that filming is happening.
9. Gain Control: Gain control adjusts the camera’s sensitivity to light. Increasing the gain can
help capture brighter images in low-light situations, but it can also add noise to the video.
10. Receiver for Wireless Mic: This part receives audio from a wireless microphone, allowing
you to capture clear sound without cables getting in the way.
11. White Balance: This feature adjusts the camera’s colors to look natural under different
lighting conditions. It helps prevent strange color tones in your videos.
12. Microphone/Audio Inputs: These ports let you connect external microphones to
improve sound quality. You can use different microphones for different situations.
13. ND Filter/Filter Wheel: An ND (Neutral Density) filter reduces the amount of light that
enters the camera without changing the colors. It helps you take clear videos in bright light
by allowing you to adjust settings like shutter speed without overexposing the image.

Q2. Types of Video Cameras, Equipment, and Accessories

Types of Video Cameras
1. Camcorders:
❖ Consumer cameras are designed for everyday users. They are easy to use and
affordable, making them popular for personal use.
❖ A camcorder is a portable electronic device that combines a video camera and a digital
recorder in a single unit for recording video footage.
❖ It typically features a built-in lens, a digital sensor, a microphone, and storage media
like a memory card.
❖ They often include additional features like zoom controls, manual focus, image
stabilization, and different recording modes.
❖ Allow digital zoom
❖ Fixed lens
❖ Low budget

2. DSLR:
❖ These cameras use a mirror system to reflect light into an optical viewfinder. They have
interchangeable lenses and large sensors for high-quality images.
❖ You can change the lenses on a DSLR, so you can use different lenses for different types
of pictures. It also lets you control settings like focus and brightness, giving you more
options for how your photos and videos look.
❖ DSLR cameras are popular with both photographers and videographers because they
take great pictures. You can use them for many things, from casual vlogs to
professional movies
3. ENG Camera (Electronic News Gathering Camera):
❖ ENG cameras, or Electronic News Gathering cameras, are specialized video cameras
designed for television news production.
❖ ENG cameras are typically portable, lightweight, and designed for easy transport,
enabling journalists to capture news quickly on location.
❖ ENG cameras have long-lasting batteries, allowing them to be used for hours without
recharging. This is important for reporters covering news stories.
4. EFP Camera (Electronic Field Production Camera):
❖ EFP cameras are used for video production in various settings, such as reality shows,
documentaries, and corporate videos.
❖ These cameras are more advanced than ENG cameras and can have higher-quality
lenses and sensors. They often allow for more control over audio and video settings.
❖ Ideal for capturing high-quality video in controlled environments or outdoor settings
where professional-grade footage is needed.
❖ High image quality and advanced features like interchangeable lenses
5. Studio Camera
❖ Studio cameras are used in television studios for live shows. They are made to create
the best quality videos and are usually placed on tripods or stands.
❖ These cameras have large sensors and advanced lenses, which help capture clear
images. They often come with remote controls for zooming in and focusing easily.
❖ Studio cameras are connected to equipment that allows live editing and broadcasting.
❖ They are mainly used for professional TV productions like talk shows, interviews, and
multi-camera setups. Studio cameras are built to be stable and deliver high-quality
video.
Equipment and Accessories
1. Tripods: Tripods hold the camera steady, helping to prevent shaky videos. They are useful
for interviews and long recordings.
2. Microphones: External microphones improve sound quality. There are different types, like
small lapel mics for interviews and shotgun mics for specific sounds.
3. Lighting Kits: Good lighting is important for clear videos. Lighting kits, like softbox lights and
ring lights, help create a nice look.
4. Gimbals and Stabilizers: These tools keep the camera steady while you move, so your
videos look smooth and professional.
5. Memory Cards: Memory cards store your video files. It's important to have fast and high-
capacity cards for recording videos.
6. Batteries and Chargers: Extra batteries are essential for long shoots, ensuring your camera
stays powered during recording.
7. ND Filters: Neutral Density (ND) filters reduce light entering the camera. They help when
filming in bright places to avoid overexposed images.
8. Camera Bags: Camera bags protect your camera and accessories when you travel. They help
keep everything organized and safe.
9. Screen Protectors: These protect the camera’s screen from scratches and damage.

Q3. Broadcast Standards

Broadcast standards are guidelines that TV networks follow to ensure their content is
appropriate, ethical, and legal. This is also called Broadcast Standards.
There are also technical standards that define how videos should be produced, including:
- Resolution: How clear the picture is (e.g., HD or 4K).
- Frame Rate: How smooth the motion appears (e.g., 24fps or 30fps).
- Color Encoding: Ensures colors look the same on different screens.
The following are the broadcast standards-
National Television System Committee(NTSC)
1. Definition: NTSC stands for National Television System Committee, a color television
standard developed in the U.S. in the late 1940s.
2. Frame Rate: It broadcasts at a frame rate of 29.97 frames per second (fps).
3. Resolution: NTSC has a standard resolution of 480i, meaning 480 lines of vertical resolution
in an interlaced format.
4. Aspect Ratio: The standard aspect ratio for NTSC is 4:3.
5. Usage: Primarily used in the U.S., Canada, and parts of South America; it is being replaced
by digital broadcasting standards like ATSC.

PAL (Phase Alternating Line)

1. Definition: PAL stands for Phase Alternating Line, a color television broadcasting standard
developed in the early 1960s, primarily used in Europe and other parts of the world.
2. Frame Rate: PAL broadcasts at a frame rate of 25 frames per second (fps), which is ideal for
handling the 50 Hz electricity supply common in many regions.
3. Resolution: The standard resolution for PAL is 576i, meaning 576 lines of vertical resolution
in an interlaced format.
4. Aspect Ratio: PAL typically uses a 4:3 aspect ratio for standard broadcasts, but it also
supports widescreen formats (16:9) in digital broadcasts.
5. Color Encoding: PAL employs a color encoding system that alternates the phase of the color
signal between lines, which helps reduce color distortion and provides more accurate color
reproduction compared to NTSC.

SECAM (Sequential Color Memory)

1. Definition: SECAM stands for Sequential Color with Memory, a color television broadcasting
standard developed in France in the 1960s.
2. Frame Rate: SECAM broadcasts at a frame rate of 25 frames per second (fps), similar to PAL,
making it suitable for regions with a 50 Hz electricity supply.
3. Resolution: The standard resolution for SECAM is 576i, which consists of 576 lines of vertical
resolution in an interlaced format.
4. Aspect Ratio: SECAM primarily uses a 4:3 aspect ratio for standard broadcasts, with support
for widescreen formats in digital transmissions.
5. Color Encoding: SECAM transmits color information sequentially, using frequency
modulation to encode color data, which helps minimize color bleeding and distortion,
providing stable color quality.

ATSC- Advanced Television Systems Committee

1. Definition: ATSC stands for Advanced Television Systems Committee, which is a set of
standards for digital television broadcasting developed in the U.S. in the 1990s.
2. Digital Transition: ATSC replaced the older analog NTSC standard, allowing for high-
definition (HD) and standard-definition (SD) broadcasts with improved audio and video
quality.
3. Resolution and Formats: ATSC supports various resolutions, including 720p, 1080i, and
1080p, accommodating both high-definition and standard-definition content.
4. Aspect Ratio: ATSC primarily uses a 16:9 aspect ratio for widescreen viewing, which has
become the standard for modern television displays.
5. Features: ATSC includes advanced features such as multiple audio channels, interactive
services, and support for data broadcasting, enhancing the viewing experience compared to
previous standards.
Q4. Lenses & Filters: Types and Functions
Prime lens
❖ A prime lens is a camera lens with a fixed focal length, meaning it cannot zoom in or
out.
❖ Prime lenses often provide better image quality than zoom lenses because they are
designed for a specific focal length.
❖ They usually have a larger maximum aperture (like f/1.8 or f/2.8), which allows more
light to enter. This helps in low-light conditions and creates a nice background blur
(bokeh).
❖ Prime lenses are generally lighter and smaller compared to zoom lenses, making them
easier to handle, especially for handheld shooting.
❖ They are often more affordable than high-quality zoom lenses with similar image
quality.
❖ Popular prime lens focal lengths for video include 24mm, 35mm, 50mm, and 85mm,
each providing a different perspective.
Zoom lens
❖ A zoom lens is any lens with a variable focal length.
❖ In Videography, we mostly use a zoom lens. The most common zoom lens used by
videographers is a 6-72 mm zoom lens.
❖ With a zoom lens, you can shoot different kinds of shots without changing lenses. You
can go from wide shots (showing a lot of space) to close-ups (focusing on one thing)
easily.
❖ Many zoom lenses can automatically focus on moving subjects, which makes filming
easier.
❖ There are different zoom lenses for different uses, like wide-angle zooms for
landscapes or telephoto zooms for capturing distant subjects
❖ There are affordable zoom lenses for beginners, but you can also find expensive ones
used by professionals, offering better quality and features.
Standard lens
❖ A standard lens typically has a focal length of around 35mm to 50mm, which
closely matches the perspective of the human eye
❖ It’s a good all-around lens that can be used for many types of shots, like portraits,
landscapes, and everyday scenes
❖ Standard lenses create a natural view that feels familiar, making them perfect for
storytelling in videos.
❖ They often provide sharp and clear images, which makes your videos look better
❖ They are usually smaller and lighter than zoom lenses, so they’re easy to carry
around and handle.
Wide-angle lenses
❖ A wide-angle lens has a short focal length (typically 24mm or less) that allows you to
capture a wider view of the scene.
❖ It lets you fit more into the shot, making it great for landscapes, architecture, and
group photos.
❖ Wide-angle lenses typically have a deeper depth of field, meaning more of the scene
will be in focus, which is great for landscapes.
❖ They are often compact and lightweight, making them easy to carry and use for long
periods.
❖ Wide-angle lenses come in various price ranges, from affordable options to high-end
models, depending on the quality and features.
Fisheye lens
❖ A fisheye lens is a type of ultra-wide-angle lens that captures a very wide field of view,
often up to 180 degrees or more.
❖ Fisheye lenses create a unique, rounded distortion effect that makes straight lines
appear curved, especially near the edges of the frame.
❖ They allow you to capture a lot of the scene in one shot, which is great for showing large spaces
or dramatic angles.
❖ Fisheye lenses can be used for close-up shots, where the subject is very close to the
camera, creating a dramatic effect.
❖ Most fisheye lenses are compact and easy to carry, making them suitable for travel and
on-the-go shooting.
Telephoto lenses
❖ A telephoto lens has a long focal length (typically 70mm or more) that allows you to
zoom in on distant subjects.
❖ It brings faraway objects closer, making it great for wildlife, sports, or any situation
where you can’t get close to the subject.
❖ Telephoto lenses create a nice blurry background (bokeh) that helps your subject stand
out, giving your videos a professional look.
❖ They can be used for various types of photography and videography, including
landscapes, events, and portraits.
❖ Telephoto lenses can vary widely in price, from affordable options to high-end models
used by professionals.
Filters
UV Filter
1. Lens Protection: It acts as a shield to keep the camera lens safe from scratches, dust, and
dirt.
2. Clearer Videos: It reduces the haze or misty look that can show up in outdoor videos,
making the footage clearer.
3. Better Colors: It can help reduce any bluish tint in outdoor shots, making colors look more
natural.

ND (Neutral Density)
An ND (Neutral Density) filter for a video camera works like sunglasses for your camera lens.
It makes everything look less bright without changing the colors. Here’s how it helps:
1. Smoother Movement: It lets you capture smoother motion, like making a waterfall look
soft and flowing.
2. Better Videos in Bright Sun: It helps when filming in very bright sunlight so that your video
doesn’t look too bright or washed out.
3. Blurry Backgrounds: It allows you to blur the background and keep the focus on your
subject, even when it’s sunny.

Polarizer
A polarizer (or polarizing filter) for a video camera is like special glasses that reduce glare and
make colors pop. It’s especially useful when filming outdoors.
1. Reduces Glare: It cuts down reflections from water, glass, or shiny surfaces, making them
look clearer in your videos.
2. Makes Colors Richer: It helps make colors, like blue skies and green trees, look deeper and
more vibrant.
3. Improves Contrast: It can give your shots better contrast, making the details stand out
more.

Diffusion filter
A diffusion filter for a video camera is like a soft-focus lens that smooths out the look of your
footage. It’s often used to create a dreamy, gentle effect.
1. Softens Light: It spreads light evenly, reducing harsh shadows and making the light look
softer on the subject.
2. Smooth Skin: It can make skin look smoother by softening small wrinkles and blemishes,
giving a more flattering look to people on camera.
3. Creates a Dreamy Effect: It adds a slight glow to highlights, creating a romantic or cinematic
feel to your video.

Color filters
Color filters for a video camera work like tinted glasses that change the colors in your video.
They can make your footage look different and create a certain mood.
1. Set the Mood: Warm colors (like yellow or orange) can make scenes feel cozy, while cool
colors (like blue) can make things feel calm or mysterious.
2. Fix Colors: If your video looks too green or too blue because of the lighting, a color filter
can help make the colors look more natural.
3. Add Style: They can make the sky look more dramatic or give your video a unique, artistic
look.

Q5. Camera Control and Adjustment:

 UNIT 2
Q1. Types of shot
Extreme Long Shot (ELS)
An extreme long shot shows a big area, making the person or object look very small. It’s often
used to show landscapes or cities.
This shot helps set the scene and shows how big or empty a place is compared to the subject.
Long Shot (LS) or Wide Shot (WS)
A long shot or wide shot captures a person or object from a distance, showing the entire body
and most of the background.
It helps the viewer understand where the scene occurs and gives a sense of the space around
the subject.
Medium Long Shot (MLS)
A medium-long shot shows a person from around the knees up, capturing both the person
and some background.
It’s useful for showing the person clearly while still giving an idea of where they are, perfect
for conversations or actions.
Medium Shot (MS)
A medium shot shows a person from the waist up, focusing on their expressions and body
language while still including a bit of the background.
It’s great for showing interactions between people, like conversations, because it captures
both facial expressions and some movement.
Medium Close Up (MCU)
A medium close-up shows a person from the chest up, highlighting their facial expressions
while still showing a little background.
It’s ideal for focusing on emotions and reactions, making it useful for interviews or scenes with
important dialogue.
Close-up (CU)
A close-up shows a person’s face or a specific detail up close, filling most of the frame with
that subject.
It’s great for capturing emotions and expressions, making viewers focus on the small details.
Extreme Close-up (ECU)
An extreme close-up focuses on a very small detail, like someone's eyes, a tear, or a specific
object, filling the entire frame.
It’s used to highlight tiny details or intense emotions, making the viewer focus on something
very specific.
Establishing Shot
An establishing shot shows a wide view of a location or setting at the start of a scene, giving
viewers an idea of where the scene is taking place.
It helps set the context and mood, letting the audience know the time and place before the
action begins.
TWO SHOT
A two-shot is a camera shot that frames two people together, usually from the waist up.
It’s great for showing interactions or conversations between two characters, capturing their
reactions and body language.
Aerial Shot
An aerial shot is taken from high above, often using a drone or helicopter, providing a wide
view of a landscape or scene.
It helps give a sense of scale and perspective, showing the relationship between elements in
the environment and setting the overall context.
Point-of-view shot (POV)
A point-of-view shot shows what a character sees, making the audience see the scene from
that character’s perspective.
It helps create a connection between the viewer and the character, making the experience
more personal.
Cut-in
A cut-in shot focuses on a specific detail of a scene, like a hand or an object, while still showing
the larger context around it.
It helps draw attention to important elements, enhancing the story by providing more
information or emphasizing key actions.
Cut-away
A cut-away shot shows something outside of the main action, like a reaction shot or an object
related to the scene.
It helps provide context, show reactions, or add information without cutting away from the
main scene completely.
Q2. Camera Angles
The camera angle is simply about where the camera is placed in relation to the subject. Placing
the camera directly in front of an object can change how that object appears. The height of
the camera also plays a big role in how we see the image. Camera angles affect how the
audience experiences the scene and what parts are highlighted. Each shot requires placing
the camera in the best position to show the subject clearly.
1. Bird’s Eye View (Top Angle):
- The camera is placed directly above, looking straight down.
- It feels like you’re looking at the scene from the sky.
- This angle shows the whole area, making people look small.
- It’s used to show large places like cities or open fields.
2. High Angle:
- The camera is above the subject, looking down.
- It makes the subject look smaller and weaker.
- This angle is used when the subject feels helpless or powerless.
- It makes the viewer feel stronger than the subject.
3. Eye Level (Normal Angle):
- The camera is at the same height as the subject’s eyes.
- It gives a natural view, showing the subject as they really are.
- This angle is used in normal scenes like conversations.
- It helps the viewer feel like they’re on the same level as the subject.
4. Low Angle:
- The camera is placed below the subject, looking up.
- It makes the subject look bigger and more powerful.
- This angle is used to make someone look strong or important.
- It makes the viewer feel smaller and less powerful.
5. Worm’s Eye View:
- The camera is very low, close to the ground, looking up.
- It makes the subject look very tall and huge.
- This angle is used to show things from a dramatic or big perspective.
 - It makes the viewer feel tiny or amazed.
6. Dutch Angle (Canted Angle):
- The camera is tilted to one side, making the view slanted.
- This angle is used to create a feeling of confusion or tension.
- It makes the scene feel a little off or strange.
- It’s often used in scenes where something is wrong or unsettling.

Q3. Camera Movement

- Camera Movement refers to moving the camera to guide the viewer’s attention and add new
information to the frame.
-In 3D space, Movement can be up, down, left, right, forward, or backward.- It introduces new
things in the frame or highlights something specific.
- Moving objects in a scene naturally draw the viewer’s attention compared to still ones.
- Camera movement can help make a scene more dynamic and engaging.
- It is an important tool for storytelling, helping viewers focus on what’s important.
1. Pan: The camera rotates left or right while staying in one spot. This movement is used to
follow action across the screen or to reveal more of a scene. For example, if a character walks
from one side to the other, the camera pans to keep them in view.
2. Tilt: The camera moves up or down from a fixed position. This is useful for looking at tall
objects, like a building, or for showing something below.
3. Pedestal (PED): The entire camera moves vertically up or down. This changes the height of
the shot without tilting the camera. It can be used to shift focus from a character’s face to
their feet or vice versa.
4. Zoom In and Zoom Out: The lens changes the focal length to make a subject appear closer
(zoom in) or farther away (zoom out) without moving the camera. This technique emphasizes
important details or emotions in a scene.
5. Dolly In and Dolly Out: The camera physically moves closer to (dolly in) or farther from
(dolly out) the subject. This creates a smooth transition that enhances the depth of the scene,
drawing the viewer into the action.
6. Track In and Track Out: Similar to dolly movements, tracking refers to moving the camera
alongside the subject. Tracking in moves the camera closer, while tracking out moves it away,
keeping the subject in focus.
7. Truck: The camera moves horizontally left or right. This movement is used to follow a
moving subject or to reveal new elements in the scene without changing the distance from
the subject.
8. Arc Movement: The camera moves in a curved path around the subject. This provides
dynamic angles and perspectives, allowing viewers to see the subject from different
viewpoints.
9. Shift Focus: This technique involves changing the focus from one subject to another in the
same shot without moving the camera. For example, shifting focus from a character in the
foreground to one in the background directs the viewer’s attention where it’s needed.

Q4. Rules of Composition

Types of Composition
Rule of Thirds
- Divide the frame into nine equal sections using two horizontal and two vertical lines.
- Place important elements along these lines or at their intersections.
- This creates balance and makes the image more engaging.
Leading Lines
- Use natural lines in the scene to guide the viewer’s eye to the main subject.
- These lines can be roads, paths, or any linear elements.
- They add depth and direct attention to the composition.
Framing
- Utilize elements within the scene to create a "frame" around the subject.
- This can be done with objects like trees, windows, or doorways.
- It helps isolate the subject and draw focus to it.
Symmetry and Balance
- Arrange elements symmetrically to create harmony in the composition.
- Balanced compositions are visually pleasing and create a sense of order.
- They often enhance the impact of the image.
Depth
- Create a sense of depth by including foreground, middle ground, and background elements.
- Layering these elements makes the image feel more three-dimensional.
- It adds perspective to the composition.
Negative Space
- Use space around the main subject to emphasize it.
- This simplicity allows the subject to stand out clearly.
- It can create a feeling of calm and focus.
Contrast
- Incorporate contrasting colors, shapes, or textures to highlight the main subject.
- This draws attention and creates visual interest.
- It helps certain elements stand out more than others.
Pattern and Repetition
- Include repeating elements or patterns to create rhythm in the composition.
- This adds texture and can draw the viewer’s attention.
- Patterns can make the image more engaging and visually appealing.
Asymmetrical Balance:
- Unlike symmetrical balance, arrange different elements to create balance without mirroring.
- This approach adds dynamism and visual interest to the composition.
- It can make the image feel more spontaneous and lively.
Point of View (POV):
- Change the angle from which the shot is taken to impact the composition.
- Shooting from above, below, or at an angle can alter the perception of the subject.
- This can add uniqueness and emotional depth to the image.
 UNIT 3
Q1. Light and its Properties
Light is necessary to see objects and create images. It helps brighten a scene, show details,
and set the mood. Light also adds emotion and makes visuals more impactful.
The key properties of light and their impact:
• Intensity (Brightness): The brightness of light affects how exposed the subject appears in
an image.
• Quality of Light: Light can be hard or soft.
• Direction of Light: The angle and direction of light affect how the subject looks,
influencing its shape and texture.
• Color Temperature: This refers to the light’s color tone, which can range from warm to
cool.
Basic Properties of Light in Simple Language
1. Reflection:

• Reflection happens when light hits a surface and bounces back.

• It allows us to see objects around us as light reflects into our eyes.

• In photography, reflectors are used to direct light, following the law that the angle of
incoming light equals the angle of reflected light.

2. Refraction:

• Refraction occurs when light changes direction as it passes through different materials,
like water or glass.

• This creates effects like objects appearing bent or distorted.

• Creative props like crystal balls or water can be used to produce unique visual effects.

3. Dispersion:

• Dispersion splits white light into its colors (VIBGYOR) due to varying wavelengths, like in
rainbows.

• Red light has the longest wavelength, while violet has the shortest.

• Examples include the rainbow effect from prisms or sunlight through glass.

4. Colour Temperature:

• Colour temperature defines the warmth or coolness of light, measured in Kelvin (K).
 • Higher values (5000K) produce cool blue tones, while lower values (3000K) give warm
yellow tones.

• White balance adjusts the camera to interpret white light correctly.

5. Intensity:

• Intensity refers to how bright or dim the light is.

• Bright light creates sharp, dramatic effects, while dim light adds mystery or softness.

• It helps set the mood, highlight subjects, or create specific emotions in a scene.

Q2. Different types of Lights

1. Nature of Light Source

• Natural Light: Sunlight or moonlight, used in outdoor shoots. It is uncontrollable in terms

of direction or intensity, so timing and location are crucial.

• Artificial Light: Produced by sources like studio strobes, electronic lamps, or flashlights.
It is highly adjustable in direction, angle, and intensity, ideal for indoor and outdoor
support.
2. Effect of Intensity

• Hard Light: Creates sharp shadows and highlights textures. Often used to portray strong
or intense emotions, like villains in films. Achieved through spotlights and low-key
setups.

• Soft Light: Diffused and scattered light that smooths textures and creates a warm look.
Used to reduce harsh shadows, it can be achieved with reflectors, diffusers, or a softbox.
3. Traveling of Light Rays

• Spotlight: Focused light with a narrow beam, highlighting specific areas. Examples
include ellipsoidal and focusable spotlights.

• Floodlight: Broad light that illuminates larger areas with soft shadows. Examples include
scoops and softboxes.
4. Luminant Used in Bulbs

• Incandescent: Produces warm, orange light (2400K–2600K) by heating a filament.

• Fluorescent: Efficient lighting (2700K–6500K) generated through gas-filled tubes.

• HMI (Hydrargyrum Medium Arc-length Iodide): Produces outdoor-standard light

(5600K) using gas discharge.
Q3. Other tools used in Lighting: Diffusers, Reflectors, Cutters and Gels
Diffusers
1. Diffusers are semi-transparent materials that make light softer by scattering it.
2. They help reduce glare and harsh shadows, creating even lighting.
3. Using a diffuser can make the image look smoother and more balanced.
4. An example is a softbox, which wraps around a light source and diffuses the light.
5. Sunlight can be softened using a scrim, which scatters the light and reduces its
harshness.
Reflectors
1. Reflectors are surfaces that bounce light onto a subject to fill in shadows.
2. They are placed opposite the main light source to redirect the light.
3. Reflectors help prevent shadows on the face during outdoor portraits and avoid
silhouettes.
4. They come in different colors and surfaces, changing the quality of light they reflect.
5. Gold reflectors create warm, bright light, while white reflectors produce soft, even
light.
Cutters
1. Cutters, or flags, are thick black cloths stretched over a frame.
2. They block light from reaching specific areas, controlling where light falls.
3. The position of the flag is adjusted using a stand to direct light accurately.
4. Cutters help create defined shadows and avoid unwanted light spots.
5. They are used to shape and control the light in a scene, adding more focus.
Gels
1. Gels are colored, transparent sheets made of polyester or polycarbonate.
2. They change the color of light to create effects or correct lighting for specific
conditions.
3. Gels can be used to set the mood or atmosphere in a photo or video.
4. They are placed in a frame and attached in front of the light source.
5. Gels fade over time, and those with intense colors will wear out faster.
Q4. Basic Lighting Techniques
a) Lighting shapes what we see and guides the audience's attention.
b) It sets the mood and creates contrast by making some areas light and others dark.
c) Lighting helps show details and emotions in a scene.
d) It directs where the audience should look and highlights certain parts of the scene.
e) Lighting helps set the story's tone or genre, making it look scary, happy, or serious.

1. Three-Point Lighting
Three Point Lighting is a popular lighting technique used in video, film, and photography. It
uses three lights to create a 3D effect that makes the subject look more realistic and
interesting. The three lights are:
• Key Light: This is the main and brightest light. It is placed to the side of the subject, creating
shadows on the opposite side. It is usually placed at an angle of 15 to 70 degrees, with 45
degrees being the most common.
• Fill Light: This light fills in the shadows made by the key light. It is softer and less bright
than the key light and is placed in front of the subject, opposite the key light, to add detail
and depth while keeping some shadows.
• Back Light: Also called a rim light or hair light, this light is placed behind the subject. It
creates a glow or outline around the subject, making them stand out from the background.
This helps add depth and separates the subject from the background.

2. Four Point Lighting

• Four Point Lighting is an extension of three-point lighting, adding a background light.

• The background light illuminates the scene’s background, showing its texture, shape, and
depth.

• This setup helps place the subject within the scene, giving a better sense of space and
adding more visual interest.

3. Flat Lighting

• Flat Lighting makes the light even with minimal shadows on the subject.

• The key light is placed directly in front of the subject, facing the camera, creating a bright
and smooth appearance.
• This type of lighting is used to make people look attractive or youthful and is commonly
found in comedies, romantic scenes, and commercials for a happy and clean look.

4. Cross Keying

• Cross Keying uses two lights to illuminate two people from opposite sides.

• The key light for one person also acts as a backlight for the other person, and vice versa.

• This setup is quick and easy, ideal for filming two people talking in a two-shot or over-the-
shoulder shot.

5. Low Key Lighting

• Low Key Lighting has more shadows and darker areas, creating high contrast between light
and dark.

• It uses very little to no fill light, making the key light much stronger and more dominant.

• This type of lighting is used for intense and dramatic scenes, often found in thrillers, horror,
or serious dramas. A specific style, called Rembrandt Lighting, uses minimal fill light for
strong shadows and a classic look.
6. High Key

• High-key lighting has minimal shadows and many bright areas, creating a well-lit scene.

• The key and fill lights are nearly equal in brightness, resulting in a 1:1 ratio.

• This type of lighting creates a light, bright, and cheerful mood, commonly used in
comedies, light-hearted scenes, and commercials for a happy and positive feel.

Lighting Ratio

• A lighting ratio shows the difference in brightness between the key light and the fill light.

• For example, if the key light is twice as bright as the fill light, the ratio is 2:1; if it is four
times as bright, the ratio is 4:1 or 8:1.

• Higher ratios create more contrast and a dramatic effect, while lower ratios result in less
contrast, making the scene look smoother and softer.
 UNIT 4
Q1. Audio Elements in Video Programmes: Lip Synchronized Sound, Voice Over,
Music, Ambience And Sound Effects
Audio elements in videos are important because they enhance the experience. They work with the
visuals to show emotions, give extra meaning, and help viewers understand what's happening.

Lip Synchronized Sound

1. Definition: Lip sync means ensuring a person’s mouth movements match pre-recorded
sounds, such as spoken words or singing.
2. Use in Live Performances: In concerts or stage shows, artists use lip sync to match their
mouth movements with the sound the audience hears through speakers.
3. Use in Videos and Movies: In films, TV shows, or online videos, lip sync ensures that actors'
mouth movements match the dialogue or music playing.
4. Techniques and Processes: Different methods are used for lip-syncing, like using special
software or practicing movements carefully.
5. Why It’s Important: Lip-syncing makes videos, movies, and performances look realistic and
smooth, helping the audience believe that the person is speaking or singing.

Voice-over
1. Definition: A voice-over is when someone’s voice is heard in a video, but the narrator is not
shown on screen. It adds information or explanations to what is happening in the video.
2. How It Works: The narrator’s voice helps guide the audience by explaining what’s
happening, giving background information, or sharing thoughts and opinions without
appearing on screen.
3. Purpose: Voiceovers help connect with the audience by adding extra depth and
understanding to the content.
4. Why It’s Used: Voiceovers make storytelling clearer and more engaging. They are used in
documentaries, news segments, and fiction films to provide context, share insights, or narrate
events.
5. Examples: In the movie 500 Days of Summer, the narrator’s voice guides us through the
story, but we never see them.
Music
1. Purpose: Music is added to films and videos after filming to create the right emotions, like
happiness, sadness, or excitement, and set the overall mood.
2. Film Score: This is original music composed specifically for a movie. It includes opening
themes, background tunes, and other music that helps enhance the mood and atmosphere.
3. Role: Music plays a key role in storytelling by supporting the visuals, enhancing the
emotions, and creating a more powerful experience for the viewer.
4. Choosing Music: When making a video, it's important to choose music that fits the emotion
you want the audience to experience, ensuring it matches the scene’s tone.
5. Example: In Frozen, the song "Let It Go" is used to make the scene more emotional and
memorable, emphasizing the character's feelings.

Ambient Sound
1. Definition: Ambience, also known as ambient audio or background noise, refers to the
sounds that fill the background of a scene or location to make it feel more realistic.
2. Example: If a scene is set in a house in a village, the ambience might include birds chirping
in the background. In contrast, a house in a city would have sounds of traffic and vehicles.
3. Functions
• Audio Continuity: Ambience helps maintain a seamless flow between shots.
• Avoiding Silence: It prevents an unnatural silence when there is no other sound.
• Establishing Mood: Ambience sets or reinforces the atmosphere, helping to convey
emotions or the setting.
4. Purpose: Ambience adds depth to a scene, making it feel more authentic and immersive
for the audience.
5. Importance: By including background sounds, ambience supports the storytelling and
enhances the overall experience of a film or video.

SOUND EFFECTS
1. Definition: A sound effect is an artificially created or enhanced sound used to emphasize
actions, moods, or emotions, synchronized with specific scenes.
2. Purpose: Sound effects add realism and depth to a video, enhancing the audience's
experience.
3. Importance: Sound effects make videos more engaging and realistic, drawing the audience
into the story.
4. Common Techniques
• Echo: Adds delayed signals to simulate a large space.
• Phaser: Creates an electronic effect by splitting and filtering the sound.
• Equalization: Adjusts frequency bands to shape the sound.
• Time Stretching: Changes speed without altering the pitch.
5. Example:

• Foley: The sound of bacon frying can be made by crumpling cellophane.

Q2. Use of Microphones, Audio Mixers for Recording

Microphones are devices that pick up sound and change it into an electrical signal. They are
important for getting high-quality audio, especially in films, music, and media. When filming,
the camera is usually far from the action and may pick up unwanted background noise. Using
a microphone helps capture clear and focused sound.
1. A microphone is a device that turns sound into electrical signals.
2. It is used to record, amplify, and transmit voice or music.
3. It has a small part called a diaphragm that captures sound waves.
4. The diaphragm changes the sound waves into electrical signals.
5. These electrical signals can then be used in different devices or systems.

Use of Microphones
Types of Microphones and Their Uses
1. Based on Pickup Patterns
❖ Unidirectional (Cardioid)
▪ Use: Good for news events, meetings, and places where you want to avoid
background noise.
▪ How It Works: Picks up sound mainly from the front and blocks noise from the sides
and back.
▪ Example: Shotgun microphone.
❖ Bidirectional
▪ Use: Great for interviews with two people facing each other.
 ▪ How It Works: Picks up sound from the front and back but not from the sides.
▪ Example: Hypercardioid microphone.
❖ Omnidirectional
▪ Use: Works well for recording groups of people or capturing the sound of a moving
speaker. Also good for recording natural background noise.
▪ How It Works: Picks up sound from all directions equally.

2. Based on Mechanism
❖ Dynamic (Moving-Coil)
▪ Use: Perfect for loud settings like live events and outdoor recordings. They can
handle loud sounds without damage.
▪ How It Works: Has a diaphragm connected to a coil that moves inside a magnetic
field to create an electrical signal.
❖ Condenser (Electret/Capacitor)
▪ Use: Best for studio recordings and situations where high-quality sound is needed.
They pick up more detail but are more sensitive and can be damaged by shocks or
changes in temperature.
▪ How It Works: The diaphragm moves against a backplate to create an electrical
signal.
❖ Ribbon (Velocity)
▪ Use: Used mostly indoors and preferred by singers for their warm sound.
▪ How It Works: A thin ribbon moves inside a magnetic field to create an electrical
signal. They are very sensitive but not as durable and should not be used outdoors.

Audio mixer
An audio mixer is a device used to control and combine different sound sources into one
output. It’s important when you have several audio sources, like microphones, CD players, or
other devices, and need to adjust them together. The final sound is sent to a recorder or
speaker.
Basic Controls on a Mixer Channel
1. Gain:
• Controls how strong the incoming sound is.
 • Helps make the sound louder or quieter. Too much gain can cause distortion (a bad, fuzzy
sound).
2. Equaliser (EQ):
• Let you adjust different sound levels (high, mid, low).
• Helps make the audio clearer and removes unwanted sounds.
3. Pan:
• Controls where the sound comes from in the left or right speaker.
• Creates a sense of space, making the mix more interesting.
4. Fader:
• Controls how loud or soft each sound is in the final mix.
• Lets you make certain sounds stand out more.
5. Phantom Power:
• Provides power to special microphones called condenser microphones.

Functions of an Audio Mixer

1. Input: Boosts and controls the volume of the incoming sound.

2. Mix: Combines different sounds to make one balanced audio.

3. Quality Control: Adjust the sound to make it clearer.

4. Output: Sends the mixed sound to a speaker or recorder.

5. Monitor: This lets you listen to the audio before it is recorded or broadcast to make sure
it sounds good.

Q3. Audio Control and Adjustment in Video Camera: Audio Level & Audio
Channel

In video production, controlling and adjusting audio is important to ensure good sound quality
that matches the visuals.

1. Manual Audio Control: You can manually adjust the audio levels to suit the needs of your
scene.
2. Auto Gain Control (AGC): The camera automatically adjusts the audio levels to keep the
sound consistent, but sometimes it can cause unwanted changes in volume.
3. Audio Meters: These show the audio levels visually, helping you see if the sound is too
loud or too quiet.

Audio Levels and Control

1. Audio Levels:
• Audio levels are measured in decibels (dB), with 0dB being the loudest level.
• Levels above 0dB can cause distortion (clipping), which makes the sound unclear.
2. Auto Control (AGC):
• AGC automatically adjusts audio levels, making quiet sounds louder and loud sounds
softer to prevent distortion.
• It may amplify unwanted background noise, lowering overall sound quality.
3. Manual Control:
• Manual control allows you to adjust audio levels yourself, giving you better sound quality
and creative freedom.
• It requires constant attention to avoid audio issues and maintain the best sound.
4. Audio Meters:
• Bar graphs show the strength of the audio signal visually.
• VU meters display the volume in decibels and help monitor audio levels accurately.

Audio Channels
1. Mono (Monophonic):
• Mono sound means one single audio channel.
• Both ears (or speakers) hear the same sound equally, so there is no difference between
the left and right.
• It's great for speech (like in radio shows or phones) because everyone hears the same
thing.
• But it doesn’t give a sense of direction or space, so it feels flat.

2. Stereo (Stereophonic):
• Stereo sound has two separate channels (left and right).
• Each ear (or speaker) gets a different sound, creating a sense of direction and space.
 • It helps you "hear" where sounds are coming from, like a train moving across the
screen.
• This is used in music, movies, and concerts.
• Stereo is more complex and expensive to record, as it uses two microphones.

3. Surround Sound:
• Surround sound uses multiple channels (at least 3, but usually 6 or more).
• The sound surrounds you from all directions (front, sides, and rear).
• It makes you feel like you're in the middle of the action, creating a realistic experience.
• Common in home theaters and cinemas.
• It was first introduced in 1940 by Disney in the movie Fantasia, using three front
channels and three more at the back.

In short:
• Mono is a simple and flat sound.
• Stereo adds depth with left and right channels.

Q4. In-camera editing and File Formats

In-camera editing
1. In-camera editing means filming scenes in the exact order they’ll appear in the final
movie, so no editing is needed later on.
2. It takes a lot of planning because every scene must be shot just right.
3. This method saves time and effort by skipping post-production editing.
4. It’s limiting because if changes are needed, you’d have to reshoot scenes.
5. It pushes the director and crew to be creative and precise to get it right during filming.

File Formats
1. Uncompressed Audio
• No compression means high-quality sound but takes up a lot of space.
• PCM (Pulse Code Modulation): Commonly used in CDs and DVDs. It converts analog
sound into a digital format by sampling the sound waves.
 • WAV (Waveform Audio File Format): A popular format that stores uncompressed PCM
audio. Works on both Windows and Mac.
• AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format): Similar to WAV but created by Apple. Mainly
used on Mac devices.
2. Lossy Compressed Audio
• Compresses data to reduce file size but may lose some sound quality.
• MP3: Removes sounds that people can't hear, which reduces the file size. It's widely
compatible with most devices.
• AAC (Advanced Audio Codec): Offers better sound quality than MP3 at the same file
size. Used by platforms like YouTube, iTunes, and Android.
• WMA (Lossy): Developed by Microsoft. Provides better quality than MP3 but isn’t as
popular.
3. Lossless Compressed Audio
• Keeps the original sound quality intact while reducing the file size.
• FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec): Open-source format that reduces file size by up to
70%. Preferred by people who care about audio quality (audiophiles).
• ALAC (Apple Lossless Audio Codec): Apple’s version of lossless compression,
compatible with iOS and Mac devices.
• WMA (Lossless): Not as efficient in compressing files but supports Digital Rights
Management (DRM). Mainly used on Windows.