After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, Islam split into Sunni and Shia factions.

Sunnis supported elected leadership, starting with Abu Bakr, and is the majority today, while Shias believed leadership should stay within the Prophet's family, starting with Ali.
The Qur'an is the holy book of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad. The Sunnah refers to the practices, sayings, and actions of Prophet Muhammad. Together, they form the foundation of Islamic law and guidance for
Muslim life. Both are in Arabic. ### Islamic achievements spanned many fields. Al-Khwarizmi founded algebra, advancing math and astronomy. Mu. astronomers improved star charts and invented astrolabes. In medicine, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote the
Canon of Medicine, introducing quarantine and caring of patients, while Al-Razi studied smallpox and founded hospitals. Architecture featured iconic mosques like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Dome of the Rock. Ibn Rushd integrated Aristotle
into Islamic philosophy. Ibn al-Haytham advanced optics and developed the scientific method, and Al-Jazari built mechanical devices like clocks and pumps. ### "People of the Book" refers to Jews and Ch., with Abraham’s sons Ishmael (ancestor of
Arabs) and Isaac (ancestor of Jews) playing key roles.### Muhammad, born in Mecca in 570 CE, was orphaned young and raised by his uncle. He worked as a merchant and was known for his honesty. In 610 CE, he received his first revelation from the
angel Gabriel. Muhammad faced persecution in Mecca and, in 622 CE, fled to Medina with his followers (the Hijra), marking the start of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, he became both a spiritual and political leader, uniting the Arabian Peninsula under
Islam. He returned to Mecca in 630 CE, where he cleansed the Kaaba of idols. He died in 632 CE, leaving a legacy as the final prophet in Islam. ### The first four caliphs were Abu Bakr (632–634), who united Arabian tribes and defeated rebels; Umar
(634–644), who expanded Islam into Persia, Syria, and Egypt; Uthman (644–656), who standardized the Qur'an and expanded the navy; and Ali (656–661), who faced civil war, leading to the Sunni-Shia split.### Jihad means striving in God's path, with
greater jihad referring to inner spiritual struggle and lesser jihad referring to defense of Islam. The Umma is the global Mu. community. ### Mecca, the holiest city in Islam, houses the Kaaba, while Medina is where Muhammad built the Prophet's Mosque
after his migration. ### The major caliphates were the Rashidun (632–661), with its capital in Medina and an emphasis on early expansion and consolidation; the Umayyad (661–750), centered in Damascus, which expanded into Spain and India; the
Abbasid (750–1258), with its capital in Baghdad, known for the Islamic Golden Age of science, medicine, and literature; and the Ottoman (1517–1924), with its capital in Istanbul, which controlled much of SE Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.
### Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, a duty for all Mu. able to do so. ### Islamic caliphates bordered the Byzantine and Sassanian empires, leading to conflict. However, Mu.-Ch. relations varied, with periods of conflict like the Crusades but also
coexistence, with Ch. often allowed to practice their faith under Mu. rule. ### The Five Pillars of Islam are the fundamental acts of worship and practice that define a Mu.'s faith and practice. ###After Muhammad’s death, the Muslim community (ummah)
must select a new leader, since Muhammad had no son or designated heir. One group felt that Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and closest male relative, should become Islam’s leader (follows Bedouin traditions). Another group wanted more experience and
supported Abu-Bakr, Muhammad’s friend, father-in-law, and a military leader. ### Abu Bakr is chosen as the First Caliph (“deputy” of the Prophet), and this causes a split. He fought against Bedouin tribes who wanted to break away from the ummah and
maintained unity through military conflict. He and the next 3 Caliphs are known as the “Rightly Guided Caliphs” or Rashidun.### Those who supported Abu-Bakr later become known as the Sunni sect of Islam. Those who wanted Ali (and later his son
Husain) later become the Shi’a sect of Islam (now known as Shiite). This division lasts till today with Sunni being the large majority.### Umar ibn al-Khattab became the 2nd Caliph after Abu-Bakr’s death. Umar maintained unity by dividing the spoils of
war from outsiders among the ummah. Umar spreads Islam to present-day Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.###Uthman ibn Affan is elected as the 3rd Caliph. Uthman spreads Islam through Egypt and into Northern Africa. Uthman’s family, the Umayyads, originally
opposed Muhammad long ago, and some members of the ummah resented him. Uthman is assassinated in 659, contributing to growing tensions.###Ali ibn Abi Talib becomes the Fourth Caliph. Ali is Muhammad’s cousin and the second person ever to
convert to Islam. Conflict arose between Ali and Uthman’s family, led by Mu’awiyah, the Muslim governor of Syria. Ali tried to resolve the conflict with diplomacy, not warfare, and ultimately was stabbed to death in 661. ### Caliph Years and Major
Developments ### Abu-Bakr 632-634 11-13 AH. Fought Bedouin tribes that tried to break away and maintained unity through military conflict. ####Umar 634-644 13-23 AH. Fought outsiders and expanded Islam to Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.###Uthman
644-656 23-35 AH. Spreads Islam through Egypt and into Northern Africa.##### Ali 656-661 35-41 AH. Conflict arises between Ali and Umayyads, leading to two sects of Islam.### Abu Bakr invoked jihad, or “striving,” to encourage the expansion of
Islam. The Bedouins had superior military skills, creating a strong army. ###The Persian and Byzantine Empires were weak foes. Non-Christians in the Byzantine Empire and non-Zoroastrians in Persia were persecuted and welcomed Islamic invaders.
Islam’s message of equality had wide appeal among the people it spread to. ###Conquered peoples could maintain their own religion but had to pay a poll tax to avoid military duties, creating a strong economic base. Those who converted to Islam
avoided the poll tax, providing an added incentive. ### When Islam expanded, the old trade networks of the Classical Period were revived between Africa and Eurasia. Centers of learning flourished in Cairo, Baghdad, and Cordoba in Spain.###Arabic
becomes the shared language of Muslims. Mecca becomes the “international” city where Muslims from across Eurasia and Africa come together and exchange information and cultural traditions.

Rashidun Caliphs After Muhammad passed away in 632 CE, a caliph led the community of Muslims in Arabia. A caliph was a political and spiritual leader. From 632-661, the Rashidun Caliphate was in charge as they were extended family members of
Muhammad or closely associated with him in life. The Rashidun caliphs had to first handle the issue of people leaving the faith when Muhammad died. Abu Bakr, the first of the Rashidun’s, brought the people back and dealt with the succession issues as
Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, stated that he should be the next leader. In time he came under the leadership of Abu Bakr, thus ending the infighting among the Arab tribes. With peace established, Abu Bakr started to expand outside of
Arabia with their eyes on the Byzantine and Persian Empires that were weak after a severe plague, wars, and fighting from Central Asian groups. He was moving into Iraq and Syria when he passed away. The successive leaders would continue to
expand into Persia and North Africa even as assassinations started to take out some of their leaders, like the last, Ali, who finally led the Arab Empire from 656 to 661. Umayyad Caliphs The Umayyad Empire started to reign in 661 after the death of Ali.
They greatly expanded their empire, taking Spain and Morocco in the West and the Indus River in the East. They tried to take western Europe but were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Tours. However, while they reigned, they controlled roughly
30% of the world's population. The Umayyad rulers were Sunni Muslims and promoted the spread of the religion; however, they did not force people to convert; they just had to pay an additional tax. However, they did gain converts, but the Umayyads
were criticized for their preferred treatment of Arab Muslims over other Muslims. The Umayyad Empire created a stable central government that divided the empire into provinces. The capital was in Damascus, where the Umayyads built a beautiful
Mosque named after their dynasty. They also constructed the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. The empire also created a postal service, a common currency, made Arabic the official language, standardized weights and measures, and created a banking
system based on credit. Troubles mounted for the caliphate in the 8th century. As expansion slowed, so did the revenue coming into the government, but the rulers continued to live in splendor. Critics advocating for a simplistic lifestyle for leaders rose up
and threatened the Ummayad’s power. Abu al-Abbas invited all of the ruling family to a dinner where he had them killed and hunted down those that were not present. Only one family member made it to Spain to set up the Caliphate of Cordoba.
However, the Abbasid Empire now ruled the Middle East and North Africa. Abbasid Caliphs The Abbasid Caliphate had risen to power by admonishing the morals, spending, and administration of the Umayyad Dynasty. Abu al-Abbas founded the new
dynasty with the support of the Shi’a Muslims as he was a descendent of one of Muhammad’s uncles. He wanted to bring equality to all Muslims and allowed non-Arab Muslims to attain higher positions within the Empire. He also ended the military
expansions, which reduced the power of the military elite. The Abbasid Caliphs also reworked the bureaucracy and focused on creating a center of learning when moving the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. This push for scholarship would be seen
under the reign of Huran al-Rashid, who was admired for his support of artists, philosophers, and places of learning. Yet, he did not establish a solid plan for succession which plagued the Abbasids like it did the Umayyads. Baghdad passed
Constantinople in terms of size and wealth as merchants sold items from the Silk Road in the numerous markets throughout the city. Palaces and Mosques made by some of the world's best architects decorated in the “City of Peace”. The dynasty served
during the golden age of Islam. Yet, their power started to decline in the 9th and 10th centuries and places in North Africa and Persia began to break off for self-rule. During the 10th century, the caliphs only ruled over areas within Mesopotamia. Fatimid
Caliphate The Shi’a Muslims had supported the Abbasids and helped them defeat the Umayyad Caliphate; however, once they were in power, they embraced Sunni Islam and started incorporating Persian leaders and leadership styles within their
government, thus alienating the Shi’as. In 909 CE, Shi’s Allah al-Mahadi Billah of the Fatimids declared himself caliph and ruled over North Africa. The Fatimids claimed that they were descendants of Muhammad’s daughter to legitimize their rule. In 969,
they established their capital in Cairo. The city was a major trade center but also an important cultural and artistic center known for its work in pottery, glass, ivory, and rock crystal. Eventually, they would expand into Palestine as the Abbasids were unable
to stop the fragmentation of their empire and even ruled over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. However, the majority of the people under the Fatimids were Sunni Muslims which caused issues to arise over and over again. A Sunni revival in the 11th
and 12th centuries further hurt the dynasty to bring peace and unity. They lost their holdings in Palestine and Syria to the Byzantines, Turks, and European Crusaders. Like the Abbasids, areas started to break off until Saladin conquered them in 1171

Rashidun Caliphs After Muhammad passed away in 632 CE, a caliph led the community of Muslims in Arabia. A caliph was a political and spiritual leader. From 632-661, the Rashidun Caliphate was in charge
as they were extended family members of Muhammad or closely associated with him in life. The Rashidun caliphs had to first handle the issue of people leaving the faith when Muhammad died. Abu Bakr, the
first of the Rashidun’s, brought the people back and dealt with the succession issues as Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, stated that he should be the next leader. In time he came under the
leadership of Abu Bakr, thus ending the infighting among

the Arab tribes. With peace established, Abu Bakr started to expand outside of Arabia with their eyes on the Byzantine and Persian Empires that were weak after a severe plague,
wars, and fighting from Central Asian groups. He was moving into Iraq and Syria when he passed away. The successive leaders would continue to expand into Persia and North
Africa even as assassinations started to take out some of their leaders, like the last, Ali, who finally led the Arab Empire from 656 to 661. Umayyad Caliphs The Umayyad Empire
started to reign in 661 after the death of Ali.