MSCE

WORLD
HISTORY
NOTES
 WORLD HISTORY
1. CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
a. Major Countries Involve in the First World War
b. Locating the Major Countries involved in the First World War on a World Map
c. Events that took place between 1870 and 1914 in Europe in relation to the First World War
 Unification of Germany
 Shifting of Balance of Power in Europe
 Imperialism
 Nationalism
 Capitalism
 European Domination of the World
d. Causes of the First World War
 Political alliances
 The Arms Race
 Nationalism in the Balkans
e. The Highlights of the First World War
 Murder at Sarajevo
 Entry of the USA into the war
 Withdrawal of Russia
 Switching sides of Italy
 Entry of the European women into the workforce
f. Factors that led to the Defeat of Germany
g. Impact of the First World War

2. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INTER WAR PERIOD

 The Paris Peace Conference and the Versailles Treaty
 The League of Nations
 Economic Problems in Europe
 Economic Situation in Asia (Japan)
 The Great Depression
 The Communist Revolution in Russia

3. DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOCRATIC GOVERNMENTS IN EUROPE (GERMANY)

4. THE SECOND WORLD WAR

 The major Countries involved in the Second World War
 Location of the Major Countries involved in the Second World War
 Causes of the Second World War
 Events leading to Second World War
 Highlights of the Second World War
 Factors that led to the Defeat of Germany and her Allies

Page 1 of 97
  Results of the Second World War
5. DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR:
I. THE FORMATION OF THE UNO
 Origins, aims and membership
 Organisational Structure
 Strengths and Weaknesses
 Differences and similarities between UNO and League of Nations
II. POST WAR ALLIANCES
 Economic Alliance (COMECON, COMINFORM)
 Political Alliance (NATO, Warsaw Pact)
 Locating members states of post-war alliances on a world map
 Background to Post-War Alliances
 Impact of Post war alliances
III. THE COLD WAR
 Meaning
 Causes
 Different Conflicts in the Cold War (Iron Curtain Speech, Korean War, Cuban Missile crisis,
Congo crisis)
 Impact of Cold War
6. DECOLONISATION IN ASIA AND AFRICA
 India
 Kenya
7. POST- COLONIAL AFRICA UP TO 2000
 Expectations at Independence
 Socio-economic and political achievements in Africa from independence up to 2000
 Impact of post-colonial challenges and crises on Africa’s political and economic development
after 1990

Page 2 of 97
 WORLD HISTORY

TOPIC ONE: CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

MAJOR COUNTRIES THAT WERE INVOLVED IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

- These include the following; Germany, Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, Turkey and USA.

Map of the World showing the Major Countries Involved in the First World War

1. Germany
- It was formed in 1871 after uniting several German states under Prussia.
- The first Germany was destroyed by Napoleon Bonaparte, a French king.
- By 1890, it was a leading state in Europe both economically and militarily
- It was ruled by emperors with the title Kaiser (The First one, Kaiser William I)
- It also had the chancellor who acted as the Prime Minister.
2. Britain
- It was probably the most powerful country at this time because it had a vast empire.
- It competed with Germany in trade
- It isolated itself from European affairs at the first
- It was a democratic state with a parliament of elected representatives.
3. France
- It lies to the west of Germany.
- It was an agrarian state and less powerful than Germany
- It had a large population
- It was a democratic state with a parliament.
- Its emperor was Napoleon III
4. Italy
- It lies in the Mediterranean Sea.
- It was a newly united country.
- It was poor in industrial resources.
- It was politically and economically weak but had an ambition to set up a big overseas empire.

Page 3 of 97
 - Its emperor was Vittorio Emanuele II (1861-1878) and Prime Minister was Giovanni Lanza (1869 -
1873)
5. Russia
- It lies to the East of Germany.
- It was partially agrarian and industrial state.
- It was an autocracy under Tsar (title of their kings)
6. Austria-Hungary (Habsburg empire)
- It was a large agrarian empire.
- It had the following countries; Belgium, Italy, France (South west), Austria and Hungary
- It was multi-ethnic empire.
- It was affected by slav nationalism problems
- It had no colonial interests.
7. Turkey (Turkish or Ottoman empire)
- It covered a large area close to the Mediterranean Sea and Black sea.
- It had countries like Greece, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey.
- It was ruled by a Muslim sultan (Sultan Abdul Hamid II).
- It was referred to as the “The Sick Man of Europe” because it was falling apart as its subjects started to
fight for independence.

EVENTS THAT TOOK PLACE BETWEEN 1870 AND 1914 IN EUROPE IN RELATION TO THE
FIRST WORLD WAR

a. Unification of Germany
- It started in 1862 when Kaiser William I appointed Otto Von Bismarck as the Prime Minister
(Chancellor).
- Bismarck’s aim was to unite German states under Prussia.
- Besides, he wanted to unite Germany army after Napoleonic wars.
- To achieve this, he had to overcome two powerful nations in Europe
i. Austria-Hungary (Austro-Prussian war/Seven weeks war) 1866
- Germany fought with Austria-Hungary.
- The results of this war include;
 Austria-Hungary was defeated.
 German states under Austria joined Prussia
 The power and influence of Prussia increased.
ii. France (The Franco-Prussian War) 1870-71
- Germany fought with France.
- It was settled by the treaty of Frankfort.
- The treaty had the following terms
 France surrendered the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia
 France paid 200 million Francs to Prussia as compensation
- It had the following results
 France was defeated and lost territories such as Alsace and Lorraine.
 Formation of new state of Germany
 Shift of balance of power as Germany became the greatest in Europe.
 A potential war of revenge from France.
b. Shifting of Balance of Power
- In early 1900, there were four superpowers in Europe with almost equal powers economically, military
and politically.
- These include; Russia, France, Prussia (Germany) and Austria.

Page 4 of 97
 - The equal power of these nations led to the balance of power in Europe as no country was stronger than
the other.
- The balance of power promoted peace as the countries feared to attack one another.
- However, the balance of power shifted when Germany (Prussia) defeated Austria and France.
- By 1871, Germany had become a dominant state in Europe and Bismarck a leading statesman.
c. Imperialism
- It the tendency of powerful nations to seize another territory often by force.
- In the 20th century, European states were busy colonising territories in Africa and Asia.
- Britain built a vast empire.
- Others like France and Germany also colonised pieces of land in Africa.
- Italy had an ambition to build an overseas empire
- It was only Austria-Hungary that had no colonial interests.
- Imperialism made countries strong as they found sources of raw materials and markets of their finished
products.
- It also brought serious conflicts as countries competed for colonies.
d. Nationalism
- It the desire of people with common culture and interest to rule themselves.
- States in some empires began to fight for independence e.g.
- Belgium, Italy, South west France broke away from the Habsburg Empire.
- Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro also broke away from the Turkish/Ottoman Empire.
- This usually created hatred and tension between states and their colonial masters.
e. Capitalism
- It is an economic, political and social system based on private ownership of property, business and
industry with the aim of maximising profits.
- Some of the European nations changed their system to capitalism.
- This made them grow rich and powerful to become superpowers.
- With this, they were able to control other nations and territories.
f. European Domination of the World
- Since most European states grew rich and powerful, they dominated the world.
- Later on, it was USA which emerged the richest and powerful nation in world especially after the First
World War.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

A. POLITICAL ALLIANCES
Politics: Ideas and activities involved in getting power in a country.
Alliance: An arrangement between two or more people or countries to work together to achieve something.
Ally: A country that makes an agreement with another country to work together and help each other
especially during war.

Reasons Countries signed Alliances

a. For mutual defence against aggressors or enemies during the war.

b. To balance up power between the rival blocs.
c. To boost economic cooperation among members e.g. Anglo-Japanese Treaty (1902)
d. To secure imperialism worldwide e.g. Entente Cordiale (1904).

Page 5 of 97
Origin of Political Alliances

- They were started by Germany after uniting German states under Prussia.
- Otto Von Bismarck started the alliance system because;
 He wanted to isolate France after defeating her in the Franco-Prussian war
 To prevent France from getting back the territories of Alsace and Lorraine.

THE THREE EMPERORS’ LEAGUE OR DREIKEISERBUND (1872)

Reason why it was signed

- This was initiated by Bismarck with the aim of isolating France.

- He knew that she would be looking for allies should she decide to avenge her defeat.
The Emperors involved include;

 Francis Joseph (Austria-Hungary)

 Kaiser William 1 (Germany)
 Tsar Alexander II (Russia).
- However, it was only a verbal agreement.
- Bismarck chose Russia because;
 She was France’s most suitable military ally
 Feared a two-front war from Russia and France.
- He also chose Austria-Hungary because;
 She was a close ally and easier to control after the seven weeks war of 1866.
Terms of the League.

-The three emperors agreed to help one another if one of them was attacked by another country
particularly France.
THE DUAL ALLIANCE (1879)

- The signatories were Germany and Austria-Hungary

Reason
 Russia pulled out of the Three Emperor’s League.

Why did Russia pull out?

 Because she had quarrelled with Austria-Hungary over the Ottoman empire (the Balkan
Region)
 Russia wanted it splitted so that she can control some territories while Austria-Hungary wanted
it to remain intact
- Bismarck tried to reconcile the two but his efforts proved futile.
- He finally chose Austria-Hungary because she could be easily controlled unlike Russia.
REINSURANCE TREATY (1887)

- It was signed between Germany and Russia

Reasons
 To continue to isolate France as the pull out of Russia had comprised it.
 To avoid two-front war
Conditions/Terms

Page 6 of 97
 
It guaranteed neutrality between the two countries in any war and that they should not attack
each other.
 It was to be renewed after three years.
- Though the treaty helped but it still meant that the two-front war was possible
TRIPLE ALLIANCE (1882)

- This was formed when Italy joined the Dual Alliance.

Why did Italy Join the Dual Alliance?

 She was angry with French seizure of Tunis.
 She was also aware that Germany and Austria- Hungary were enemies of France.

- This however did not make up for the loss of Russia because;
 Italy was not a first class power like Russia.
 Austria-Hungary was Italy’s traditional enemy.

Terms
- The three countries pledged to help one another during any war.

- However, Italy pulled out of the Triple Alliance in 1904 because she wanted French support for her
occupation of Tripoli.
The Rise of Kaiser William II

- He became a Germany emperor (Kaiser) in 1889.

- He was an extremely boastful personality who wanted popularity.
- He was less cautious and took no advice from anybody.
- He openly provoked and challenged other countries deliberately.
- He aimed at showing that Germany was the greatest in Europe e.g.
 He quarrelled with Bismarck in 1890 and dismissed him and instead appointed less able
ministers.
 He did not renew the Reinsurance treaty with Russia and as a result, the treaty lapsed in 1890.
DUAL ENTENTE (1893-94)

- This was an agreement signed between Russia and France in 1893.

Reason why it was signed

 Because Kaiser William II failed to renew the reinsurance treaty.
Consequences/effects

 It made Russia grew suspicious and drew closer to France an adversary of Germany.
 It made the two-front war a great possibility as Russia and France promised each other mutual
support in the event of Germany attack.
Terms of the Entente


The two countries promised each other help in the event of war particularly from Germany,
Italy and Austria-Hungary.
 France gave economic aid to Russia to assist in industrial and agricultural development.
THE POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION.

Meaning

Page 7 of 97
 - This was a deliberate policy of Britain in which she decided to be aloof or take little part from
European political affairs.

Why Britain pursued the policy

- She wanted a peaceful Europe in order to;

 To develop trade in other parts of the world.

 To promote colonialism worldwide to secure raw materials, market and living space.
Reasons Britain dropped the Policy in 1896
a. Colonial disputes with France in Asia and Africa
- This made their relations to become increasing bitter.
- These were at Siam (Thailand) and at Fashoda (over Egypt and Sudan)
b. Her influence in the middle east and the security of Indian frontiers seemed threatened by;
- Russian expansion in Persia and Afghanistan.
- The growing German interests in the Turkish Empire e.g. her plans to build the Berlin-Baghdad
railway.
c. Germany a land power was trying to rival the British naval power.
- Between 1898 and 1900, two navy laws were passed, which allowed for massive shipbuilding.
- This was a challenge to the British navy supremacy.
d. The Jameson raid of 1896.
- In the raid, the Boers defeated the British.
- Kaiser William II sent a telegram congratulating Paul Kruger for the Boer’s success.
e. The mounting political tension in the whole of Europe.
- This made each country feel insecure as they felt surrounded by enemies.
- Due to these reasons, a high sense of insecurity developed in Britain and hence dropped her policy of
splendid isolation.
- She therefore started looking for allies.
THE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE (1902)

-This was an alliance between Britain and japan.

-This was the first alliance Britain made after dropping the policy of splendid isolation.
-The behaviour of Germany made Britain to look for an ally in the far east in order to;
 Resist Germany
 Check Russian expansion in the far east
- To this effect, an agreement was reached between Britain and Japan in 1902.
- It had the following terms;
 Japanese fleet would protect British territories in the Far East in any war.
 Britain would support Japan in an event of any war
ENTENTE CORDIALE (1904)

- This was a surprising agreement between Britain and France.

- The term “entente cordiale” means “a friendly understanding.”
Reasons why it was signed

 both were threatened by the behaviour of Kaiser William II

 Germany rearmament.
- In fact, it was only a friendly agreement and not necessarily a war alliance.
Terms
- It was intended to settle old colonial disputes in Africa.
- With this, Britain took Egypt while France got Morocco.
Page 8 of 97
 - This eventually made the two countries closer and became friends.

- Unofficially, it had other implications e.g.

 It showed that Britain, France and Russia might be one side against Germany and Austria-
Hungary in a future war.
 It also suggested possible British intervention if Germany attacked France.
Why was it kept a secret?

- Because France and Britain had no legal right over Morocco as it was under joint supervision of the
Great Powers since 1800.
- It leaked two years later.

THE ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT (1907)

- This was an agreement between Britain and Russia.

Reason why it was signed
- Because of the German threat
- However, it was not a military alliance.
Terms
- By this agreement, Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes over Afghanistan, Persia and Tibet.

- This agreement completed the Triple Entente, which had Britain, France and Russia.

HOW THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM CONTRIBUTED TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD
WAR

1. It divided Europe into two armed rival camps.

- These include; the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary and the Triple Entente of
Britain, France and Russia.
- It meant that an attack on one member of the rival camp would involve several other countries.
- The Triple Alliance changed to Central Powers during the war when others countries like Turkey and
Bulgaria joined the Triple Alliance.
- The Triple Entente changed to Allied Powers when countries like Serbia, USA, Japan etc. joined the
Triple Entente.
- The First World War was fought between the Central Powers and Allied Powers.

2. It escalated minor conflicts.

- In each alliance, members promised to help each other if attacked.

- This made minor conflicts to turn to big issues, which eventually caused war e.g. affairs in the
Balkans involving Serbia and Austria-Hungary

3. The details of alliances were kept a secret and this created tension, fear and suspicion among nations in
Europe.
- The politicians called the alliance system as the “Balance of Power” because they believed that the size
and power of the two alliances would prevent either side from starting the war.

B. THE ARMS RACE

- It was the competition in the production and accumulation of military hardware in the pre-war years.

Page 9 of 97
REASONS FOR THE ARMS RACE

1. Defence
- To protect their countries, merchant fleets and colonies e.g. Japan, Germany, Italy etc.
- To protect her overseas empire e.g. British
2. Prestige
- Other countries built a large navy and army just to show off e.g. Germany.
NAVAL RIVALRY BETWEEN BRITAIN AND GERMANY

- The arms race was more pronounced between Britain and Germany.
- This was so due to their naval competition.
Germany Activities

- Appointed Admiral Tirpitz as the Chief naval staff.

- Formed the navy league
- Passed navy laws. E.g.
- Between 1898 and 1900 two navy laws were passed which provided for large programme for
shipbuilding e.g. cruisers and torpedoes
- The 1900 navy law allowed for the building of 41 battleships and 60 cruisers
British Response

-Being an island saw this as a direct challenge.

-The British naval chief, Admiral Fisher, imitated Tirpitz by doing the following;
 Built more battleships
 Formed the naval league, which stressed the German danger.
 Launched a super battleship called the H.M.S Dreadnought in 1906, which was faster, more
powerful and more heavily armoured than any other warships. This was considered a
breakthrough.
Germany Response

- Copied exactly the dreadnought. By 1911, she had 4 against 8 of Britain.

- Germany also built another powerful ship, the Panther.
- By 1914, the situation between the two countries was as follows;
Type Britain Germany
Dreadnoughts 20 13
Older Battleships 40 22
Battle Cruisers 58 7
Light Cruisers 44 34
Destroyers, 300 144
MTBs
Submarines 78 28

Intervention
- Conferences to limit sizes of navies were held.
- They failed because there was no understanding between Britain and Germany.

EUROPEAN ARMIES (1914)

COUNTRY SOLDIERS BATTLESHIPS

(MILLION)
Germany 8.5 40

Page 10 of 97
 France 3.5 28
Russia 4.4 16
Britain 0.7 64

ACTIVITIES DURING THE ARMS RACE

1. Increasing armies (mobilisation)

2. Building of arms than before
3. Increasing defence budget
4. Introduction of compulsory military training (Conscription)
HOW THE ARMS RACE LED TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

- It heightened tension between some countries e.g. Britain and Germany.

- Each country was heavily armed as such if slightly provoked, a country was most likely to engage in
war to test its weapons.
- Conscription and mobilisation made countries ready for war.

C. IMPERIALISM
- This is a system in which a country rules other countries, sometimes using force to overpower them.
Reasons for Imperialism

a. To exploit raw materials for industrial production

b. To find market for finished products
c. To create a living space for the displaced Europeans
d. To civilise the colonies and prepare them for independence
e. To protect the white settlers and missionaries.

THE FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS (1905)

- This was initiated by Kaiser William II who learnt of the secret entente between France and Britain.
- By this time, he had seen that Italy was no longer a reliable ally and Austria-Hungary had serious
internal problems.

Why Kaiser William Initiated it?

- His aim was to test the strength of the Entente Cordiale of 1904.
- Germany did not consider the Entente Cordiale a serious one as Britain and France constantly
quarrelled.

- By this time, he was less afraid of the two-front war as the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war
(1904 - 05) revealed Russian weaknesses.

What Kaiser William II did?

 In 1905, he complained that Germany interests in Morocco were being flouted.
 He landed at Tangier in Morocco and assured the Moroccan sultan of Germany support
 Proclaimed Morocco independent of France.

- France wondered what to do and later on gave in to Germany demands for an international meeting to
settle the problem.
The Algeciras Conference (1906)

- It was held in Spain.

Page 11 of 97
Major agreements

 Morocco was to be independent

 France was given a special right to act as “policemen” in the area.
- This greatly displeased Germany.
- During the meeting
 Only Austria-Hungary supported Germany
 Other Great Powers i.e. France, Britain and Russia constantly outvoted Germany.
Results of the Conference

 It strengthened the “Entente” as Britain supported France.

 Secret military talks began between the two countries.

THE SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS (1911)

- This is described as the worst of the pre-war crises.

Cause of the Crisis

- In 1911, French troops occupied Fez to help the Sultan of Morocco against rebels in a civil war and
protect European interests there.
- It was likely Morocco could become a French protectorate.
Germany’s Response

- It strongly protested this and demanded compensation for German interests.

- Kaiser William II sent a warship called the Panther to the port of Agadir in Morocco.

Reaction of Other Countries

- They were annoyed but above all Britain which disliked this show of force at the sea.
- As a result, Britain also sent a fleet of warships.
- Britain was threaten because;
 Germany could have annexed her trade routes in North Africa
 Germany could have established a naval base at Agadir.
- Besides, the French troops stood firm and made no major concessions.
- Kaiser William II sensed danger and therefore, withdrew the warship.
- He also agreed to French supremacy in Morocco as France handed over two territories in Congo.
- France and Britain were convinced that Germany was their enemy.

Effects of the Crisis

- They antagonised Germany towards the International community. Only Austria-Hungary which had no
colonial interests in Africa supported Germany.
- They cemented relations between Britain and France as both saw Germany as a common enemy.
Besides, their interests in Africa were maintained.
- Germany got a large part of French Congo as compensation for giving up land in North Africa.

HOW THE MOROCCAN CRISES CONTRIBUTED TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST

WORLD WAR

a. They promoted hostility and suspicion among great powers of Europe e.g. Britain and France felt
threatened by Germany.
Page 12 of 97
 b. It promoted divisions among the great powers of Europe e.g. Britain and France supported each
other throughout against Germany and Austria-Hungary. This deepened ill feelings that already
existed.
c. From the 1906 Algeciras conference, the allies during the First World War could be traced e.g.
Austria-Hungary with Germany and France with Britain and other European nations.

D. NATIONALISM IN THE BALKANS

Meaning of Nationalism
- It is the desire of people with common culture and interest to gain independence and rule themselves
THE BALKANS

- This was the region located in the South Eastern part of Europe.
- It consisted of several states such as Turkey, Romania, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro
among others.
- These states were under the Turkey and formed the Turkish Empire or Ottoman Empire.
- The Turkish Empire was also called the “sick man of Europe” because of its political instability or
falling apart.
INTERESTS OF THE FOLLOWING IN THE BALKANS

A. Russia

 To support independence of some Balkan states (pan-Slavism) so that she could control some of
them.
 To open trade routes to the Mediterranean sea
 To have an ice free passage for her ships from the Dardanelles and Bosphorus into the
Mediterranean.
 Russia considered herself a big slave brother because she had the largest number of slav speaking
people

- Russia opted for the Balkans since

 Her expansion in China had been stopped by the Japanese
 She needed to divert attention from internal problems to recovering prestige lost at the hands
of Japan.
 Her expansion into Persia and Afghanistan had been limited by an agreement with Britain in
1907.
B. Serbia
- To promote Pan-Slavism and independence from Austria-Hungary (Pan slavism is a feeling for self-
rule of the slavs).
- To claim Bosnia-Herzegovina because it had many Serbs and to have access to the Adriatic Sea.
- To have access to the sea on the Adriatic coast.
- In all this, she was supported by Russia.

C. Austria-Hungary
- She wanted to expand her sphere of influence or dominate the Balkans. She wanted to gain a big
territory in the Balkans from the Adriatic Sea to Aegean Sea.
- To prevent the breakup of the Turkish Empire to prevents revolt or rebellions.
- To prevent Pan-Slavism. She wanted to eliminate Serbia and have all Slav people under her control.
- In 1908, she annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina and this angered Serbia and Russia.
- Austria – Hungary had the support of Germany in the Balkans
Page 13 of 97
THE YOUNG TURKS (1908)

- This was also called the Committee of Union and Progress.

- It was led by Enver Bey.

Aims
 To create a strong Turkey
 To avoid breakaways from her or to prevent Pan-Slavism.

- They hated to see the Ottoman Empire as a sick man of Europe i.e. falling apart.
- They therefore;
 Replaced Sultan Abdul Hamid II with Muhammad V because he corrupt and inefficient.
 Began to modern and to reform the government.
- This attracted attention of Russia and Austria-Hungary.
- Because the revolution meant a possibility of a strong and modern Turkish Empire which would repel
their interests in the Balkans.
THE BALKANS LEAGUE (1912)

- It was formed in 1912.

- It was led by the Greek Prime Minister Vernilos.

Members
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro.

Reasons for the formation

 To fight the Young Turks
- Since they had failed to administer the Ottoman Empire.
 To foster nationalism.
- Each member wanted to be independent of the Turkish Empire.
THE FIRST BALKAN WAR (1912 - 1913)

Cause
- This war began when members of the Balkan league attacked Turkey.

Results
 The Turks were defeated were driven out of the Balkans
 Most of remaining territories of the Turkish Empire were captured.
 Albania was created as a new state.
 There were quarrels among Balkan states when sharing the Turkish empire

- Austria – Hungary was against the sudden collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The London Treaty (1913)

- This was arranged by Britain, Germany, Russia, Italy and Austria-Hungary in order to bring peace.
- It was held in London in May 1913.
- A peace treaty was forced upon the victorious members of the Balkan League.

Terms of the Treaty

 Members of the Balkan league divided up the former Turkish Empire among themselves.
Page 14 of 97
  It divided Macedonia
 It created a new state of Albania

- However, Serbia was not happy because she wanted Albania

- She wanted it because it would give her access to the Adriatic Sea
- Unfortunately, Austria-Hungary blocked her.
- Instead, Albania was declared an independent state.
- All this was to prevent Serbia from becoming more powerful.

THE SECOND BALKAN WAR (1913)

Cause
- It started because Bulgaria was dissatisfied with the territories she gained at the London treaty.
- She hoped for the port Salonika in Macedonia which was given to Serbia instead.
- To this effect, Bulgaria attacked fellow members of the Balkan League.
- Turkey supported her.
- Bulgaria was defeated at the battle of Stip.

The Treaty of Bucharest, August 1913

- It was once again arranged by Britain and Germany in order to bring peace

Terms/Agreements
 Bulgaria lost her territories like Adrianople
 Greece was given Southern Macedonia
 Serbia received Macedonia and Romania.
THE RESULTS OF THE BALKAN WARS/HOW THE BALKANS CONTRIBUTED TO THE
OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

a. Defeat of the young Turks

- The Turks were defeated and their empire collapsed.
b. Intervention of big powers
- Britain and Germany intervened and cooperated with each other in order to settle problems in the
Balkans
c. Exacerbation of tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
- The tension was brought about by;
 Austria-Hungary annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, which Serbia wanted
 Austria-Hungary was refusing Slav people to join Serbia.
 Austria-Hungary blocked Serbia from getting Albania at the treaty of London which would
have given her access to Adriatic Sea.

d. Countries aligned themselves alongside their allies. It is possible to trace allied and central powers from
the Balkans events.

E. MURDER AT SARAJEVO AND THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I

- This acted as the immediate cause of the First World War.
- Francis Archduke Ferdinand, the heir to Austrian Emperor and his wife Sofia Chotex paid an official
visit to Sarajevo in Bosnia.
- They wanted to watch army manoeuvres at Sarajevo.
- On Sunday, 28th June, 1914, the two were assassinated by a Bosnia Serb terrorist, Gavrillo Princip.
- This murder was planned by the Black Hand, a secret society of Serbia.

Page 15 of 97
 - However, it is not clear whether the Serbian government knew of the plot.

Austria-Hungary Reaction to the Murder

- Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the murder and seized this as an opportunity to eliminate Serbia.
- To this effect, on 23rd July, 1914, Austria sent a stiff ultimatum (a list of demands).
- She demanded a satisfactory answer within 48 hours.
- Some of the demands include;
 Serbia to end anti-Austrian feeling among Slavs
 To bring members of the Black Hand to justice
 To allow Austrian officials to enter Serbia freely
- Serbia accepted most of the demands but Austria did not want any diplomatic solutions.

How the Murder at Sarajevo Contributed to the Outbreak of the First World War
 The failure of Serbia to comply with the demands in the ultimatum made Austria-Hungary to
declare war on Serbia on 28th July, 1914.
 Austria declared war on Serbia as German assured her of her support “blank cheque”
 Russia called for an immediate mobilisation of its forces because she had promised support to
Serbia.
 Germany demanded that Russia should demobilise her forces and when she refused, Germany
declared war on Russia on 1st August, 1914.
 Germany had also demanded that France should guarantee her neutrality and when France
rejected, Germany declared war on France on 3rd August, 1914.

The Schlieffen Plan

- The Germany attacks were based on this plan.

- It was made by Count Alfred Von Schlieffen, a German chief of staff.
- In this plan, Germany intended to knock out France within weeks before the slow-moving Russian
army was ready.
- To do this effectively, it was necessary to attack France through neutral Belgium because
 the Franco-German border was hilly
 It was also well-defended.
- On August 4, 1914, the German armies invaded Belgium.
- This however was in defiance to the treaty of 1839 which guaranteed neutrality of Belgium.
- To the surprise of Germany, Belgium put up fierce resistance which frustrated the Schlieffen plan.
- Britain demanded that Germany should withdraw before midnight and when she refused, she declared
war on Germany on August 4, 1914.
- The French had plan 17 as the opposite of the Schlieffen plan.

Reasons Why the Schlieffen Plan Failed

 Belgium posed unexpected resistance and therefore extended the plan.

 Germany faced unexpected war from two fronts i.e. Belgium and France.
 Britain attacked Germany
 The movement of soldiers in the trenches caused delays.
 Russia mobilised quickly and attacked eastern Germany.

THE HIGHLISTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Page 16 of 97
 a. Murder at Sarajevo
- The murder in Bosnia led to the outbreak of the First World War.
b. Entry of USA into the war
- USA joined the war in 1917 under Woodrow Wilson because the German submarines were
sinking American merchant and civilian ships.
- One ship which was sunk in 1915 was the Lusitania, a British ship, in which many Americans
died.
- This raised the morale of Allied powers as USA supplied them with food, merchant ships and
loans.
c. Withdrawal of Russia from the war
- Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 because there was a communist revolution and the new
government led by Lenin stopped the war.
- When withdrawing, she signed the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Germany in 1918.
- This treaty had the following terms;
 Russia lost a lot of territories to Germany e.g. Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia,
Georgia and Ukraine.
 She paid 300 million roubles as compensation to Germany
 She lost 26% of her population and railway, 32% agricultural produce, 73% of coal fields
and iron to Germany.
d. Switching sides of Italy
- She changed from Central to Allied powers.
- She switched because she was promised territories in the secret London treaty of 1915.
- However, Italy was heavily defeated by Germany and Austria in 1918.
e. Entry of European women into the workforce
- Before the war women served as servants and housewives.
- The war created high demand of soldiers, which changed the status of women.
- This created a huge gap of workforce to be filled probably by women.
- In the workforce women performed the following roles;
 Worked in ammunition factory to produce bullets and shells.
 Worked as steel workers, road repairs, bus drivers and ship builders
 They worked as grave diggers
 Served as bank clerks
 Started working in farms as labourers
 Joined police
 Joined army and navy to do non-combat jobs
- In the army, they performed the following roles;
 They worked as radio electricians
 Served as accountants
 Served as nurses to care for wounded soldiers
 Worked as cooks

Impact of Women Entry into the Workforce

- It boosted countries’ production.

- It proved that women were capable and productive as men.
- Women enjoy new economic and occupational opportunities that were deemed masculine.
- Women were empowered to demand equality with men in the workforce.

THE RIVAL CAMPS DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Page 17 of 97
The Central Powers

- By 1914, the central powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, with the
last two joining in 1914 and 1915 respectively.
- Turkey joined because Germany’s influence in The Turkish Empire was strong
- Bulgaria also joined because she wanted to gain the territories she had lost during the Balkan wars.
The Allied Powers

- In the other camp (The Allies) had the following;

- Russia, France, Britain, Italy, USA, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND HER ALLIES

a. Failure of the Schlieffen plan. It brought a two-front war on Germany from Belgium and France. It also
made Russia to attack the eastern as well as Britain to join the war.
b. The allied were superior at the sea i.e. British blockade choked the central powers as it caused food
shortages and crippled exports.
c. Failure of the German submarine or U-Boat campaign as the British, Americans and Japanese offered
resistance.
d. The joining of the USA into the war brought a lot of new supplies to the allies.
e. The allied political leaders were strong and competent unlike those of central powers i.e. Lloyd George
(Britain), Clemenceau (France), Woodrow Wilson (USA) against Kaiser William II (Germany)
f. Germany was let down by her allies and was constantly having to help out Austria and Bulgaria.
Eventually, the defeat of Bulgaria by the British and Serbs dealt blow to the German soldiers.
g. The switching of sides of Italy reduced the strength of central powers.
h. Germany experienced heavy losses and lost most of her best troops by 1918.

THE ARMISTICE (1918)

- It is an agreement to stop fighting.

- Though Germany put up massive resistance but her position became hopeless particularly when
Bulgaria, Austria and Turkey were defeated.
- Kaiser William II abdicated and fled to Holland.
- It was General Ludendorff who took over.
- An Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918 marking the end of the First World War.
- It had the following terms;
 Germany surrendered her fleet and war materials
 She was to evacuate all her territories
 Her treaty with Russia and Romania, Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest respectively were annulled.
- Germany surrendered and accepted many harsh terms of the Versailles Peace settlement.

IMPACTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

a. The Central Powers were defeated.

b. Death, which led to depopulation. It is estimated that over 11 million people died in Europe
c. Destruction of property e.g. buildings, industries, roads, bridges etc.
d. It led to the collapse of some empires e.g. Germany, Husburg and Russia and this led to the birth of
new states such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
e. It created problems of inflation due to decline of industries.
Page 18 of 97
 f. Some countries accumulated huge debts especially from USA. This led to the weakening of France and
Britain as world powers.
g. It led to the development of new systems of government e.g. communism in Russia, dictatorship in
Germany and Italy.
h. It led to the formation of international bodies in order to preserve peace e.g. The League of Nations.
i. USA emerged as the richest nation in the world. This was so because the war was not fought there, as a
result it was less affected. Also many European countries burrowed money from USA.
j. Changing of gender roles and women were brought into the workforce
k. It led to outbreak of diseases like influenza which killed many people.

TOPIC 2: DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INTER-WAR PERIOD

- This was the period between 1919 and 1939.

- It is called Inter-war period because it is in between the two great wars, the first and second world wars.

1. THE VERSAILLES PEACE SETTLEMENT

- It took place at Versailles palace in Hall of Mirrors in Paris (France).

- It lasted for a year from January 1919 to January, 1920.
- In attendance were about 32 nations but the defeated countries were not invited.
- All the important decisions were made by the “Big Three”.
- These include; Clemenceau (France), Lloyd George (Britain) and Woodrow Wilson (USA). Vittorio
Orlando of Italy who mainly had territorial gains, made the Big Four.
AIMS OR AGENDA OF THE TREATY

a. To re-organise Europe so as to maintain world peace, security and stability.

b. To reward the winning countries
c. To cripple Germany so that she should not start another war.
d. To re-draw the map of Europe and restore the balance of power
e. To reconcile the warring powers of the First World War.
f. To free different races dominated by the Central Powers
g. To disarm all the nations
h. To develop strategies that would preserve the territorial integrity and independence of countries in
Europe.
i. To recognise the principle of nationalism and self-determination by giving independence to the
oppressed nations.

ATTITUDE OF THE BIG FOUR AT THE CONFERENCE

George Clemenceau
- To revenge and punish Germany severely by crippling her economically and militarily.
- This was to make Germany unable to attack her again in future
Lloyd George

- He was a moderate person but had pressure from the British who wanted Germany to be punished.
- He was for a moderate punishment for Germany
- He wanted justice but did not want revenge
Vittorio Orlando

- He wanted to gain the promised territories by the allies by the treaty of London (April, 1915)
Page 19 of 97
 - His idea was rejected because it was against the self-determination policy.
- He therefore hated the Versailles treaty.
Woodrow Wilson

-
He was interested to bring world peace and stability rather than to punish Germany.
-
He also promoted self-determination policy and discouraged punitive damages in order to avoid future
conflicts and wars.
- The conference was based on his 14 points
WOODROW WILSON 14 POINTS

1. To end secret diplomacy among countries

2. Freedom of navigation in international waters
3. Removal of economic barriers and equality of trading conditions
4. Reduction of armaments consistent with national security
5. Settlement of colonial disputes recognising interests of colonies and claims of mother country
6. Recognition of Russian territory
7. Restoration of Belgian sovereignty
8. France to be evacuated and Alsace and Lorraine to be returned to France.
9. Readjustment of Italian borders
10. Self-government to be given to the people of the old Austro-Hungarian empire
11. New and acceptable boundaries to be drawn up in the Balkans
12. Self-government to be given to the people of the Old Turkish empire. The Dardanelles to be opened
permanently.
13. Creation of Poland as an independent state.
14. The creation of a general association of nations.

ATTITUDE OF THE BIG FOUR TOWARDS NON-WESTERN COUNTRIES

- They were only two non-western countries at the Versailles peace treaty i.e. Japan and South Africa.
- These were given little consideration and were treated as second class.
- However, they benefitted the following from the peace treaty
 They became members of the League of Nations
 They were given territories e.g. Japan was given islands in the Pacific while South Africa, German
South West Africa (Namibia)
- During the conference, five treaties were signed with each defeated power separately e.g.
 Versailles Treaty with Germany (28th June 1919)
 St Germain Treaty with Austria (10th September, 1919)
 Neuilly Treaty with Bulgaria (27th November, 1919)
 Trianon Treaty with Hungary (4th June,1920)
 Sevres and Lausanne treaty with Turkey (1920 and 1923 respectively)

THE TERMS OF THE VERSAILLES PEACE SETTLEMENT.

1. Germany lost territories in Europe e.g.

 Northern Schleswig to Denmark
 Alsace and Lorraine to France
 West Prussia and Posen to Poland,
 Memel to Lithuania.
 Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium
 Islands in the Pacific to Japan
Page 20 of 97
 - In addition, the following decisions were arrived at some Germany territories in Europe

a. The Saar
- It was to be administered by the League of Nations for fifteen years.
- A plebiscite (public vote) would decide its future
- Its coal mines to be given to France.

b. The Rhineland
- It was on the border of Germany and France.
- It was to be occupied by the Allies, who will evacuate it in three stages
- Its eastern part is to be demilitarised (remove military forces in this area)

c. The Upper Silesia

- It was on the border between Germany and Poland.
- A plebiscite was to determine its future.

d. The former Russian territories of Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were
declared independent.
- These were given to Germany by Russia at Brest-Litovsk treaty.
- This was an example of Self-determination being put in practice.

2. Germany was to be divided into two by the Polish Corridor.

3. The union between Austria-Hungary and Germany (Anschluss) was forbidden.
- Their union was seen to be dangerous as the activities of the two in the Balkans led to the
outbreak of the First World War.
4. Poland was recreated with a corridor to the Baltic containing the German port of Danzig.
- This port (Danzig) was declared a free city under the League of Nations.
- This was so because its population was entirely German.
5. All German colonies in Africa became mandated territories under the League of Nations. These
include; Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon and Togo.
6. The disarmament clause
- The Germany army was to be reduced as follows;
 Army to have 100,000 men
 Navy to be small with 6 battleships
 No air force, submarine, tanks and armoured vehicles.
7. Reparations and War Guilt Clause.
- Germany and her allies were found guilty of starting the war.
- It was therefore charged reparations as compensation for war damages.
- It was charged to pay the sum of £6,600 million to be paid in instalments
- This sum was arrived at in April 1921 by the Reparations Commission.
8. Setting up of the League of Nations.
- It was set up and its aims and organisation were set out in League Covenant.
ASSESSMENT OF THE VERSAILLES PEACE SETTLEMENT

STRENGHTS
a. Formation of the League of Nations.
- It managed to pave way for the formation of the League of Nations.
- This was hoped to maintain world peace and promote social and economic development of
countries
b. Self-determination policy
Page 21 of 97
 - It managed to encourage minority groups to become independent.
- Some of them include; Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became independent of Germany.

c. Diplomatic rights of smaller nations were observed.

d. France regained her lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine
e. It restored the balance of power in Europe.
f. It brought diplomatic understanding in Europe had failed before and after the First World War.

WEAKNESSES
a. It was a dictated peace (a diktat)
- This was so because the defeated powers including Germany were not invited to the
discussions.
- They were simply ordered to do what was required.
b. It was extremely harsh and unfair to Germany e.g.
- The reparations were too much and unrealistic for Germany to pay.
- Germany lost many territories more than necessary
- This would obviously cripple the economy of Germany as it lost it potential markets and
sources of raw materials
c. It was dominated by the Big Three
- These were France, Britain and USA.
- These dominated the conference hence it was not a worldwide representation. With this, it was
seen as biased.
d. Wrong people signed the treaty
- It was the newly elected government, the Weimer Republic, which signed the treaty instead of
the Admirals who took over from the Kaiser.
e. Partial application of the self-determination principle.
- This was applied to all people except the Germans e.g.
 Those Germans in the Polish corridor were given to Poland for economic reasons
 Those in Sudetenland were included in Czechoslovakia for geographical and defence
reasons
 Austria, a German state, was not allowed to unite with Germany.
f. It created a power vacuum.
- Germany was surrounded by small and weak states to the East e.g. Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Latvia and Finland
- This meant that Germany could easily conquer such states in future war.
g. It did not pay much attention to economic needs by creating many small new states.
- This means more boundaries were created and more tariffs (custom duties) as a result prices of
goods increased.
- This affected trade negatively.
h. Creation of many national minorities within states.
- Europe was so mixed up that it was impossible to draw up tidy national boundaries containing
one race only.
- Countries pledged to respect the rights of minorities but often relations were bitter.

Page 22 of 97
2. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Formation of the League of Nations

Origins

- It is a brain child of Woodrow Wilson.

- It was formed on 10 January, 1920.
- It had its headquarters at Geneva in Switzerland.
- It was as a result of the Versailles Peace Settlement
- The founding members include;
 Lord Robert Cecil (Britain)
 Leon Bourgeois (France)
 Woodrow Wilson (USA)
 Jan Smuts (South Africa)
Aims

a. To maintain peace and security through collective action.

- This was to be achieved through diplomacy and sanctions (economic sanctions e.g. no aid, no
trade, and military sanctions e.g. peace keeping troops)
b. To solve social and economic problems by promoting social and economic development among
nations.
Membership

-At the beginning, in 1920, there were forty-two member states e.g. Britain, France, Serbia, Italy, Japan
etc.
- The number rose to fifty by 1924 and fifty-five by 1926 with countries like Germany among others
joined.
- USA did not join because its senate refused to approve or ratify of the League
- Russia also was not allowed to join because of communism
- Germany became a member only up to 1935 when Adolf Hitler withdrew because of disagreements on
disarmament.
- Other countries that withdrew were Japan and Italy
ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

- The League had five main organs or bodies which made it to function properly. These include;
The Secretariat

- It had its headquarters at Geneva in Switzerland.

- It had a small and efficient staff of international civil servants.
- It was headed by a Secretary General. Its first secretary general was Eric Drummond of Britain.
 To carry out a civil service and administrative work of the league
 To prepare agenda for meeting
 Writing minutes of meeting
 Preparing reports and resolutions for decision making
 Keeping records of League’s meetings
 To make payments

THE COUNCIL

- It was the executive of the league.

Page 23 of 97
 Membership
 It had four permanent members.
- These include; Britain, France, Italy and Japan.
- Each permanent member had a right of veto.

Right of Veto

- It is the right by a member of the League to object the decision made by the League or other
members of the league in the assembly.

- USA was also supposed to be a permanent member but their senate did not approve of the league.
- It preferred to follow the policy of isolationism or non-involvement in European affairs.
- It followed this policy to avoid draining their economy
 There were also lesser powers.
- These were members who would sit in the council for short periods.
- By 1922 there were six and their number increased to nine by 1926.

Meetings and Decision Making

- It met at least three times in a year and each member had one vote.
- Decisions had to be unanimous.
- With this, even small countries possessed the right of veto.

Functions
- It was responsible for security operations of the league.
 To deal with specific political disputes among nations
 To formulate plans for disarmament
 To expel members of the league who had violated the covenant.
 To supervise the mandates
 To appoint staff e.g. Secretary General
 To execute arbitral awards
- In dealing with these disputes, it followed the following steps
a. Diplomatic sanctions
- This involved holding peaceful discussions with the aggressor.
b. Economic sanctions
- This involved banning member states from trading or giving aid to the aggressor.
c. Military sanctions
- This meant that member states should attack the aggressor collectively.
- It also meant that aggressor could not buy military hardware from the member states.
THE ASSEMBLY

- It was based in Geneva in Switzerland.

- It served as the Parliament of the League and it was the superior organ of the League.
- It had representatives of all the member states.
- It met once in a year and each member had one vote.
Functions

 To revise peace treaties

 To discuss general policy
 To approve and pass the league’s budget
Page 24 of 97
  To admit new members to the league
 To elect non-permanent members of the council.
 To discuss and make decisions on international problems
 To appoint the 15 judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice
 To approve the appointment of the Secretary General

Decision Making

- Its decisions had to be unanimous.

- This meant that all member states should support or agree on one particular matter.
- It also meant that all member states should vote the same way.

The Permanent Court of International Justice

- It was based in Hague in Holland

- It had fifteen judges from different nations and these were elected after 9 years.
- This was to avoid favouritism in passing verdict.
- It could not force member states to appear before it nor did it enforce its verdicts.

Functions
 To deal with legal disputes between member states
 To give legal advice to the Assembly or Council on various matters e.g. on treaties.
COMMITTEES/COMMISSIONS

- These were instituted to deal with various specific socio-economic problems. These include
a. The Mandates Commission
- It looked after the colonies especially those that were under Germany.
- It prepared them for independence.
b. The Disarmament Commission
- It limited the mass production of military hardware among member states
- This was done to avoid future wars.
c. The Refugee Commission
- It looked after the welfare of refugees in their host nations.
- It organised their repatriation together of prisoners of war.
d. The Slavery Commission
- It worked out ways of abolishing slave trade
- It enforced procedures for abolishing slave trade
e. The Health Organisation
- It investigated causes of epidemics e.g. cholera
- It disseminated correct information about drugs.
f. The International Labour Organisation
- It improved the conditions of work in the world e.g.
 Fixing minimum wage rates
 Fixing minimum hours of working per day
 safety and health conditions at work
 dealing with unemployment
 abolishing child labour
 making provisions for retirement benefits etc.

Page 25 of 97
FUNCTIONS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

a. To maintain peace and security

b. To promote social and economic development

ASSESSMENT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

-The League of Nations somehow achieved in certain areas, however it is generally regarded as a
failure.
STRENGHTS

a. Socio-economic achievements
- Many of its committees and commissions managed to solve a number of social and economic
problems e.g.
1. The International Labour Organisation managed to;
- Fix a maximum working day and week
- 00S0pecify minimum wages
- Introduced sickness and unemployment benefit
- Introduced pensions
- Collected and publish a lot of information about labour which governments used
- Campaign to end child labour
2. The Refugee Organisation managed to look after the welfare of refugees and prisoners of war
- It was managed to repatriate some refugees and prisoners of war e.g. it assisted
thousands of prisoners of war in Russia to return to their countries.
- It also gave help to thousands of people fleeing from Nazi persecution in Germany.
3. The Health Organisation achieved in
- Investigating causes of diseases
- Combated some disease epidemics e.g. Typhus in Russia
- Campaign to wipe out leprosy
- Provision of fresh water in Third World Countries
- It campaign against drug addiction and drug smuggling
4. The Mandates Commission supervised successfully the former colonies of Germany and
Turkey.
5. It successfully restored financial stability in Austria after financial problems due to the First
World War.
6. It promoted education through intellectual co-operation and exchange programmes among its
members.

b. Political Achievements
- The league of nations managed to successfully settle some disputes between nations e.g.
1. The dispute Finland and Sweden over Aaland Islands in 1920.
- The League ruled in favour of Finland.
2. Between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia in 1920.
- Upper Silesia was an industrial region rich in iron and steel industries.
- It was on the border of the two countries and it contained both the Germans and the
Poles.
- The League of Nations decided that it should be divided or partitioned between the two
countries in 1921.
3. Greece invasion of Bulgaria.
- The Greeks attacked Bulgaria in October 1925.
Page 26 of 97
 - The League ordered a ceasefire and the two countries stopped fighting.
- The Greek troops withdrew and paid compensation to Bulgaria.
4. The border dispute between Iraq and Turkey over Mosul.
- Turkey claimed Mosul when it actually belonged to Iraq.
- The League decided that Mosul should be given to Iraq in 1924.
5. It was managed to settle disputes in South America between Peru and Colombia, and between
Bolivia and Paraguay.
6. The Mandates Commission supervised successfully the former colonies of Germany and Turkey.
7. It successfully enforced the control over manufacture and sale of arms through the disarmament
committee.
8. It facilitated the signing of peace treaties that promoted world peace e.g. Locarno treaty

WEAKNESSES

a. It failed to solve disputes concerning the big powers e.g.

 Japan and China over Manchuria in 1931
- Japan a big power attacked a Chinese province of Manchuria in order tap its raw materials e.g.
iron and coal.
- She also viewed it as a potential market as well as to survive the great depression.
- China appealed to the league but she was not assisted because Japan had a right of veto.
- Due to this, Japan withdrew from the League in 1933 in order to control Manchuria.

 Italy attack of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935

- Italy under Benito Mussolini attacked Ethiopia
- Italy did this because she wanted sources of raw materials and also that she felt cheated at the
Versailles peace settlement.
- She also wanted to avenge defeat at the battle of Adowa in 1896.
- Ethiopia appealed to the league.
- The league condemned Italy and applied economic sanctions.
- However, these sanctions were half-hearted as they did not include exports of oil, coal and steel
to Italy.
- This encouraged Italy to completely occupy Ethiopia.
- Italy therefore managed to flout the league’s order and also withdrew in 1935.
- This case had the following effects
 Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions and therefore drew closer to Hitler
 Small states lost all the faith in the League
 Hitler was encouraged to break the Versailles treaty
b. It was closely linked to the Versailles Peace Treaty.
- The members who formed the league were those of the Allied powers.
- Those that lost the war were not invited.
- This encouraged hatred.
- The League therefore lacked authority of a body promoting world peace.
c. It lacked worldwide membership
- It did not have a broad membership. For example;
 USA never joined, which deprive the league of resources.
 Germany was not allowed to join until 1926 but also withdrew in 1935.
 Russia was side-lined until 1934.
 Japan and Italy withdrew in 1933 and 1935 respectively.
d. It was Eurocentric.
Page 27 of 97
 -This means it was based in Europe and was regarded as a personal property of Britain and
France.
e. It had no army.
- This was so because it depended on members to volunteer their forces. This made it difficult
for the league to enforce its decisions.
f. It lacked funds.

- This was so because it depended on contributions from member states.

- Some members sometimes failed to pay their contributions especially during the time of the
Great depression.

g. Failure of the World Disarmament conference (1932-33).

- At this conference, Germany demanded for equality of armaments with France.
- When this was not granted, Germany withdrew from the League and started to arm herself.
- In addition, the major powers refused to disarm.
- This created suspicions among the nations.
h. Weak covenant
- It was not decisive in acting against an aggressor.
- For instance, article 16 asked members to supply troops if necessary.
- This was to say, each member would decide for itself whether to fight or not in a crisis.
- This clearly made no sense of the idea of collective security.
- Efforts to change the article were made but failed due to unanimous decision.
i. Weaknesses in the organisational structure
These include;
 The power of veto.

- When a big power is not in agreement with a decision, she could veto the decision in the
Council and hence the League could not take action e.g. Japan when it attacked the
Chinese province of Manchuria.

 The unanimous decision.

- It wasted much time as members in the Assembly or Council could not agree on one point.

 The Permanent Court of International Justice could not force its members to appear before it
nor did it enforce its verdict.
j. It was overruled by the Conference of Ambassadors.
- This was formed by the ambassadors from France, Japan and Italy and it was based in Paris
(France)
- On a number of occasions it decided against the League. For example

 The Lithuania Case of 1920.

- The League supported Lithuania in her claim of Vilna, her capital which was captured by
Poland.
- She claimed it because it contained many poles.
- However, the conference of Ambassadors insisted that it should go Poland.
- The League accepted this decision.

 The Corfu Incident of 1923.

- There was a border dispute between Greece and Albania over Corfu.

Page 28 of 97
 - The Italians working for the League to make peace were killed and Italy blamed Greece for the
murder.
- Greece knew nothing of the plot.
- However, Benito Mussolini, the leader of Italy demanded huge compensation.
- He therefore attacked and occupied the island of Corfu.
- Greece appealed to the League but Mussolini refused to obey the League and actually
threatened to withdraw from the league.
- The conference of ambassadors ordered Greece to pay the full amount.

3. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN EUROPE AFTER WORLD WAR I

- After the First World War, many European countries faced problems. The major ones include;
a. Huge debts
- Many European countries burrowed money from USA and therefore accumulated huge debts.
b. Low industrial production
- This happened due to death of productive people, destruction of industries and bankruptcy because of
war expenses.
c. Heavy dependence on imports
- Most of them imported food and basic needs from USA due to economic crisis as a result of war
d. Slow economic growth
- The war generally disrupted economic activities of European states.
- Most of them were recovering slowly due to war expenses.
e. High unemployment rates
- This was due to low industrial production, war debts and closure of industries.
+
ATTITUDE OF THE ALLIES TOWARDS GERMANY IN PAYING REPARATIONS

France (George Clemenceau)

- She wanted to squeeze out more money from Germany in form of reparations. This money was to be
used for home consumption and pay back war loans to USA.
- She wanted Germany to suffer for causing the war.
Britain (Lloyd George)

- He was against the harsh reparations and argued for a smaller sum.
- He wanted to moderately punish Germany to avoid future aggression.
- This was to promote trade with Germany and boost her economy to avoid conflicts.
- However, she still wanted to use Germany’s reparations to pay back loan to USA.
USA (Woodrow Wilson)

- He opposed the payment of reparations by Germany.

- He wanted to end conflicts among European nations
- He promoted international cooperation and settle disputes together
- Assist Germany boost her economy and defence through financial assistance.

PROBLEMS GERMANY FACED WITH REPARATIONS

a. Loss of economic region of Ruhr.

- France and Belgium took the region in 1923 when Germany fell behind payment of reparations.

b. High unemployment.

Page 29 of 97
 - This was due to closure of industries and economic crisis.

c. Hyperinflation.

- Prices of goods went up

- The Germany currency lost value (devaluation) due to printing of more money
- The savings of people became worthless.

d. -+
e. Slow economic growth

f. Poverty.

- Lack of basic needs like food, shelter etc.

All these problems were mainly blamed on war which took a lot of investment.

SOLUTIONS TO GERMANY’S ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

A. GUSTAV STRESEMANN POLICIES (1923)

- He was a chancellor and foreign minister from 1923 till his death (1929)
- He did the following;
a. Stopped the printing of worthless money to reduce inflation.
b. He replaced the old currency with a new one to ease inflation
c. He began payment of reparations to France, Belgium and Britain in order to improve
relations.
d. He also signed the Locarno treaty in 1925 with France and Belgium to improve
nternational relations.
e. He called off the strike in the Ruhr region to boost the country’s production and economy.
f. He asked for financial assistance from the USA.

B. THE DAWES PLAN (1924)

- It was an economic plan by USA under General Charles Dawes
Aims

 To improve Germany economy

 To ease entire European economic problems.
- It was launched in London in 1924 where Germany, France and Britain were in attendance.
- It had the following;
a. To develop Germany economically by investing in her industries e.g.

- USA gave Germany $40,000,000 and some 800 million gold marks.

b. To assist Germany in payment of reparations e.g.

- She was to pay annually what she could afford depending on her annual budget
- It was spread over a longer period of time.
c. France agreed to withdraw from the Ruhr.

1q`
Page 30 of 97
 Importance of the Dawes Plan

a. It reduced unemployment in Germany

b. Germany economy started to recover by opening more industries
c. Germany was able to pay reparations to Britain, Belgium and France
d. The allies were able to pay back their debts to USA and balance their budget
e. Improvement in international relations among Germany, Belgium and France

C. THE YOUNG PLAN (1927)

- This was another USA economic plan to boost Germany economy
- It was organised by Owen D. Young
- It terms include; +
 Germany received another USA loan amounting £60 million
 It reduced the reparation figure from £6,600 million to £2,000 million
 It reduced the number of years for payment of reparations from 66 to 59
- However, it did not materialise because
 The onset of the Great Economic depression in USA in 1929
 The death of Gustav Stresemann in 1929

4. ECONOMIC SITUATIONS IN ASIA (JAPAN)

IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON THE JAPANESE ECONOMY
POSITIVE
a. Growth of the manufacturing industry
- There was a boom in manufacturing industries because many industries in Europe were destroyed e.g.
ship building, ammunition and textiles.
- It also faced no competition from Europe hence was able to get huge amounts of raw materials for
industries and had expanded market.
- It increased her volume of trade and exports.
- Improvement in industries especially navy made Japan a dominant military force in Asia.
b. Creation of employment
- The growth of industries created massive job opportunities in Japan
c. High population growth
- The population rose rapidly. It is estimated to have risen from 44 million in 1990 to 56 million in
1920.
- It mainly rose due to foreign traders and young people flocking to ports seeking employment.
- The increased population provided cheap labour for the industries
NEGATIVE
a. Shortage of food supply
- Rapid increase in population in Japan led to shortage of food.
- Worse still, Japan was still exporting rice due food shortages. This caused rice riots in some
provinces.
b. Post-war Economic recession
- After the war, the prices of many commodities fell sharply e.g. cotton and silk
- There was a slump in manufacturing output due to limited access to raw materials
- The re-opening of trade routes and inter-continental trade between Europe and USA made Japan lose
dominance.
- There was reduced demand of Japanese goods in Europe like silk

Page 31 of 97
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ASIA FOR ASIANS (PAN-ASIANISM)
- It is an idea that Asia should unite against Western or European imperialism.
- Japan had developed following a “western model” of civilisation during the Meiji era (1868 -1912)
- Being a non-western nation it felt to continue developing in a non-western way and therefore influenced
fellow Asian nations to follow suit.

WHY JAPAN CHAMPIONED THE THINKING OF ASIA FOR ASIANS DURING THE INTER-WAR
AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR PERIOD
a. Economic problems in Japan
- Despite westernisation, Japan influenced numerous economic hardships, this therefore forced her to
return to traditional values to solve the problems.
- For her to develop her economy, she had promote economic relations with other Asian countries like
China.
- Some people in Japan did not like the growing influence of Western ideas and values on Japanese
systems.
b. Japan was the most industrialised and modernised country in Asia.
- This made her feel strong enough to control other territories
- She also hoped to tap raw materials and find market for her industries
c. The rise of militant forces in Japan
- She had a strong and aggressive army like the “Black Dragon society” which encouraged its
government to take over territories in Asia. For example, they took over Manchuria from China
d. Imitation of the growing USA’s influence in the Western hemisphere
- Just as USA which dominated the Western hemisphere, Japan wanted to dominate the Eastern world
and become the lord of Asia.
- She also hoped to use her leadership role to repel westernisation in Asia.

RESPONSE OF WESTERN COUNTRIES TO THE EXPANSION OF JAPAN INTO ASIA

- They were alarmed but could not offer any resistance since they were weakened by the First World War.
- Only USA could challenge Japan.

HOW USA CHALLENGED JAPANENSE PLANS TO DOMINATE ASIA

a. She demanded that China should be open to all nations.

- This angered Japan as she hoped to control it solely.
b. She tried to limit the size of the Japanese navy.
- This did this by demanding building of battleships in the ratio of 5:5:3.
- This means battleships were to be built in ratio of 5 for Britain, 5 for USA and 3 for Japan.
c. She passed the Johnston Act which limited the Japanese immigration into the USA.
d. European countries charge heavy duty on Japanese goods.
- This lowered demand for Japanese goods since they became expensive in Europe.

IMPACT OF USA CONTROL OVER JAPAN

a. The relationship between the two countries became bitter.

b. Japan started regarding USA as a stumbling block to her plans in Asia.
c. Japan started to look for opportunities to defeat USA
d. Japan signed a treaty with Adolf Hitler called Anti-Comintern Pact
e. During the Second World War Japan fought on the side of Germany against USA.

Page 32 of 97
5. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE USA IN THE EARLY 1920

- During the First World War USA emerged as the richest nation.
- This was so because it had a lot of resources like food and military goods which she supplied to other
countries.
- The period of economic success in the 1920s is called Economic Boom.
- It was also called the “Roaring Twenties”.

The Economic Boom

- It refers to a state of prosperity whereby a country undergoes an increase in trade and profits which make
the economy grow rapidly.

- It happened from 1919 to 1929 under President Herbert Hoover.

- Hoover believed that poverty would end in the USA.
- He even dreamt of two chickens in every pot at every meal in America.
- Other changes include;

 Innovations in business organisations and manufacturing technologies

 increase in standards of living
 building of tall building (skyscrapers) and construction of roads
 greater use of electricity etc.
 use of new sources of energy
 commercialisation of media sector

FACTORS FOR THE ECONOMIC BOOM

a. Effects of the First World War.

- USA did not suffer much from the war since the war was not fought at its soils.
- Her industries were therefore not destroyed.
- USA instead benefited from the war through export of various products, war loans.

b. Availability of natural resources.

- These encouraged industrial growth e.g. iron, oil, steel etc.

c. Innovation and high industrial production.

- There is massive production of food, arms, films (Hollywood), automobiles (Henry ford and
Rockefeller) etc.

d. High agricultural production.

- This was possible due to favourable climate and fertile soils.

e. Availability of cheap labour.

- There were a lot of immigrants into USA from Europe, Africa and South America.
- This lowered production costs.

f. Good transport and communication

Page 33 of 97
 - This was mainly through well-developed canals, air transport, railway and road transport among
others.

g. Advertisements.

- This promoted trade and accumulation of wealth.

- This was done through radios, TVs, newspapers etc.

h. Reduced income tax.

-
This made people to have extra money to spend on home goods.
f. The USA’s diplomatic relations
- It had good relations with foreign countries which attracted foreign investment e.g. Britain
g. Availability of conducive climate and fertile soils
- This promoted agriculture which provided raw materials to industries.

How USA protected her industries from Foreign Goods

a. Introduction of high tariffs on imports to discourage an influx of foreign goods into USA.
b. Reduction in income tax to raise the buying power of the people.
c. Reduction in prices of local products to encourage people to buy USA goods.

THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION (1929 - 1933)

CAUSES

a. Impact of European Economic Recovery.

- Some European countries began to recover from the effects on the First World War and hence became
less dependent on USA.

b. Stiff competition in agricultural production.

- This led to overproduction of agricultural goods.
- As a result, prices fell as supply became too much.
- The situation was made worse by the following;
 The Johnston Act of 1921
- It limited number of immigrants to USA hence reducing demand or buying power.
 Change in mode of transport
- There were now more motor vehicles and people preferred them than horses. The
farmers who had overproduced fodder to feed horses were negatively affected.
- Vehicles increased from about 6 to 29 million.
 Change in eating habits
- People ate more vegetables and fruits instead of wheat and bread. This reduced
demand for bread and negatively affected wheat farmers.
 Reduced external demand
- Most of European countries due to peace could now produce their own agricultural
products instead of importing from America.
c. Mal-distribution of resources
- There was a big gap between the rich and the poor.
- Wealth was concentrated on few people like owners of industries and farms unlike the workers.
- This reduced the buying power from the general public.
d. Impact of USA tariffs
- USA introduced very high tax on foreign goods in order to protect its industries.
Page 34 of 97
 - This was to encourage people to buy USA goods.
- Foreign countries too introduced similar huge taxes to block USA’s exports.
- Other countries changed to new trade partners like Canada and Argentina for wheat.
- This led to stock piling of American goods.
e. Drought Conditions

- It occurred in the Mississippi valley in 1930.

- Many farmers incurred losses and could not pay their taxes or debts.
- Due to this, farmers had to sell their farms at a loss to pay taxes and debts. This is called “The Dust
Bowl”

f. Overproduction and capitalism

- Technological advancement led to increased production of goods in industries.

- However, industrial workers were paid less because the capitalists wanted to maximise profits.
- This reduced the buying power of the workers.

g. Speculation of stock exchange market

- There was a speculation or rumour that people were making a lot of profits for buying and selling
shares.
- In USA, shares were sold and bought at Wall Street in New York.
- A place where shares are bought and sold is called a stock exchange.
- This was not properly controlled as a result, on 24th October, 1929, 13 million of shares were sold
at Wall Street at a loss.
- This day is called Black Thursday
- Banks and individuals lost money causing the depression.

Impact of the Great Depression on USA and Europe

1. Closure of banks and industries

- Many banks closed because they loaned a lot of money to people who failed to pay back e.g. From
1929 up to 1933, 10,000 banks closed out of 25,000.
- Industries too closed due to bankruptcy of banks, shortage of raw materials and financial
resources.
2. Loss of savings
- Ordinary people who had their savings in the bank lost their savings.
3. High unemployment
- With the closure of industries and banks, many people lost their job.
- For example, between 1929 and 1993 almost 14 million Americans and 6 million Germans were
unemployed.
4. Inflation
- Currencies of many countries lost their value as result prices of many commodities rose.
5. Poor Living standards
- There was general poverty with shortage of food, poor housing and decreased income among
many people.
6. Decline in international trade

- This was so because of the USA policy of protecting domestic markets from foreign competition.

7. USA stopped giving loans

- It cut its aid to European nations.
Page 35 of 97
 - European countries that depended on USA loans like Britain, France and Germany among others
suffered.
8. Strengthening of Socialism in Eastern Europe and America

- The suffering caused by the depression made people hate capitalism and liberalisation.

9. Rise of dictatorship government

- Economic problems facing many nations in the world pave way to the rise of dictatorship
governments e.g. Adolf Hitler in Germany, Joseph Stalin in Russia, and Benito Mussolini in Italy.

THE NEW DEAL (1933)

- It was a series of domestic programmes put in place in USA by President Franklin Roosevelt to deal with
the Great Depression.
- He replaced Herbert Hoover in 1932 as a Democrat.
- He went on to serve as American president for four consecutive terms (1932-1948)
- He stated “I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a New Deal for the American people”.
- He also stated that Americans have to overcome fear in order to succeed. He stated that “the only thing
we have to fear is fear itself”.
- The New Deal had the following;
a. Giving direct help to poverty stricken people e.g. food, shelter, clothing etc.
b. Financing agricultural sector
c. Assisting the industrial sector. Laws were made to protect workers and combat the depression.
d. Lunched various projects to solve the social, economic and environmental problems.
e. +
f. Combating corruption and crime
g. Instilling moral values in the people
h. Introduction of pensions and sick pay.

THE NEW DEAL PROJECTS

a. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) – 1933

- It provided soup kitchens and tents to the poor
- It funded nursery schools for the children of the poor.
- It offered employment opportunities to the talented people e.g. musicians, artists, actors etc.
- It assisted the poor with capital to start small businesses.
- It created jobs through the construction of airports, roads, parks, libraries and federal theatres.

b. Emergency Banking And Financial Systems (EBFS) – 1933

- It assisted the banks that were about to collapse with Federal funds.
- The government temporary took over some banks to ensure their smooth recovery and therefore to
win back depositors’ confidence.
- It introduced the new stock exchange rates to attract share buyers.

c. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – 1933

- It offered job to young people in the rural areas through such activities like tree planting, tiding up
rivers and lakes, helping in the national parks etc.

d. Farmers’ Relief Act (FRA)

Page 36 of 97
 - It compensated farmers who agreed to reduce their output to control overproduction.
- This was hoped to raise prices for agricultural produce.
- It also gave loans to farmers and lowered farm input prices through subsidy.

e. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – 1933

- It was launched to combat special problems along the Tennessee River Valley.
- These problems include; soil erosion, flooding, extreme poverty and lack of electricity among
others.
- It therefore did the following;
a. Built dams for generation of electricity, irrigation and navigation.
b. Reafforestation to control soil erosion
c. Reduced tariffs on imports
d. Gave loans to house holders as compensation to slum destruction and their mortgage.

f. Social Security Act (SSA) – 1935

- It was jointly financed by the Federal and state governments, employers and workers.
- It introduced old age pensions and insurance to the old, widows and disabled people.

g. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) – 1933

- Its aim was to stabilise industrial production in order to stabilise the economy and increase wages.
- It made people to have permanent employment.
- This enabled them to have more money
- It introduced the Public Works Administration (PWA) with its projects of dams, bridges, schools,
hospitals, airfields etc.
- It introduced the National Recovery Administration (NRA) which did the following;

 Abolished child labour

 Introduced an 8 hour working period per day.

Achievements of the New Deal

a. It provided relief to the destitute and the jobless e.g. food, tents etc.
b. It led to development of USA e.g. the Tennessee Valley Authority
c. It promoted rights and benefits of workers through establishment of trade unions.
d. It prevented a revolution in USA because of Democracy and free enterprise unlike in countries like
Russia, Italy and Germany.
e. Minimised USA’s socio-economic problems by creating a lot of employment opportunities.
f. Agricultural production improved.
g. It also led to development of social infrastructures e.g. roads and hospitals were constructed.
Reasons for the Failure of the New Deal

1. Lack of support from industrialists and business men. These disliked the trade unions and workers’
rights.
2. The government borrowed a lot of money to finance the projects. This increased national debts.
3. New threats of war from Germany, Italy and Japan. This forced Roosevelt to change focus to
international affairs.
4. Opposition by the Supreme Court. In 1935, the Supreme Court opposed it especially the National
Industrial Recovery Act.
5. The farmers’ Relief Act reduced USA’s overproduction. This rendered many farm labourers jobless.

6. THE COMMUNIST REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA

Page 37 of 97
 BACKGROUND

- Russia is a big country in Eastern Europe with a population of about 130 million by 1900.
- It was largely an agrarian state.
- This means it was depending on agriculture as its main economic activity.
- Politically, it was an autocracy.
- This means a system of government where only one person has absolute power to rule.
- It was a monarch.
- It was ruled by kings.
- The title of the leader was Tsar (emperor) and his wife Tsarina.
- The last one being Tsar Nicholas II.
- Socially, the people were divided into classes and these include;
a. The Aristocrats
- The ruling class and were rich landowners.
b. The Bourgeoisie (Capitalists)
- Middle class rich land owners or industrialists.
c. The Proletariat
- The poor industrial workers.
d. Peasants (Serfs)
- These were the rural uneducated people who worked in the farms.
COMMUNISM

- It is a political or economic system which does not allow private ownership of property and treats all
people of all social classes equally.

REVOLUTION

- It is a process whereby people completely change their government or social system often by force.

CAUSES OF THE 1905 REVOLUTION

a. There was general poverty and low standards of living.

- Food was scarce and expensive and this made the people to riot.
b. Peasants were demanding land as the landlords had vast estates.
c. Workers complained of poor and harsh working conditions e.g. long working hours, poor wages,
overcrowding and unhygienic working environment.
d. People demanded that the power of Tsar be reduced.
- They wanted to do this by creating an effective duma “parliament” which would act as their
mouthpiece.
e. People were not happy with the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905).
- The defeat was a humiliation as they despised the Japanese as little apes.
- The people lost trust in the leadership of Tsar Nicholas II as the defeat implied Russia was declining as
a world power.
f. The secret police of Tsar called Okhrana was cruel and terrorising the people especially critics of the
government.

The Actual Revolution

- It started on Sunday 22nd January, 1905.

- It comprised a group of workers and peasants
- They were led by Father Gapon an orthodox priest.
- They marched to the winter palace in St. Petersburg to present their grievances to Tsar Nicholas II.
Page 38 of 97
 - The demonstration was peaceful and the demonstrators were unarmed.
- As they approached the winter palace, Tsar soldiers shot them killed many of them. This is
remembered as “the Bloody Sunday.”

Results of the 1905 Revolution

a. Many demonstrators died while others were injured

b. There were riots and strikes in Russia.
c. Some soldiers of Tsar rebelled or mutinied.
d. Some of the private estates were seized and destroyed and their landlords murdered.
e. Some of the top government officials like the Governor General of Moscow were killed
f. It led to the formation of the Soviet Council of workers by Leon Trotsky.
g. It led to the creation of the Duma though it was not effective.
- Tsar Nicholas II failed to handle the situation until on 30th October, 1905 he issued an imperial manifesto also
called October Manifesto. It had the following;
a. Improve industrial working conditions e.g. wages
b. Cancellation of redemption payments – payments of peasants to the government in return for freedom
and land.
c. Promise to genuine freedom of press
d. Establishment of an effective duma or parliament.

Why the 1905 Revolution Failed

a. It lacked a central leadership to offer coordinated and effective opposition.

b. The army was still loyal to Tsar
c. The black hundreds captured and executed many revolutionaries.
d. There was a strong traditional respect for the royal family. The Orthodox Church elevated them to deity
status.
e. The October manifesto which promised to solve some of the people’s grievances.

Importance of the 1905 Revolution

a. It acted as a symbol of later resistance in Russia against the Tsarist government.

b. It forced Tsar to change some of the oppressive policies through the October Manifesto

CAUSES OF THE MARCH 1917 REVOLUTION

a. Peasants ‘ grievances on land

- They needed their own land for cultivation.
- This was made worse because their population was growing too rapidly.
- They were oppressed by the landlords as they were working on the farms
- The prices of agricultural products were deliberately lowered and this negatively affected them as
they were already extremely poor.

b. Ineffective duma
- The Duma (parliament) existed on paper only as all its decisions were made or changed by Tsar
Nicholas II.
- It was merely acted as a rubberstamp of policies of Tsar.
- All the four Dumas failed i.e. of 1906, 1907, 1907 - 12 and 1912 – 1917.

c. Impact of the First World War

i. The productive young men were taken to war by force.
Page 39 of 97
 ii. =

- This angered the peasants and landlords as they were deprived of productive labour force.

iii. The soldiers were poorly armed and lack basics like food and medicine.

- This resulted in massive deaths.

- It is estimated that 5.5 million soldiers died.
- Many people did not like this and also the deserting soldiers joined the rioters.

iv. It caused severe hunger due to war expenses.

- This raised inflation which caused food prices to rise.

v. Industrial production declined

- This caused further food shortages.

vi. The government sent almost all vehicles to the battlefront.

- This suffocated transportation of people and food.

vii. The Tsar himself went to the battle field to lead the Russian army.

- He was therefore held personally responsible for the loss.

- He left the government in the hands of his wife Tsarina whom many Russians did not trust
because she a German.
- She was under the influence of Gregory Rasputin which many Russians did not like.

d. Problems faced by Industrial Workers

- Most of the industries in Russia were owned by the Government.
- Industrial workers faced a lot of problems like
 Low wages
 Long working hours
 Poor housing among others.
- This caused a lot of misery and starvation to the industrial workers.
- Those who protested were fined or beaten

e. Dissatisfaction with Gregory Rasputin

- He was a monk from Siberia and his real name was Gregory Yefimovich.
- He called himself a holy man.
- He found his way into winter palace after he healed Tsar’s son from haemophilia.
- People did not like Rasputin because
a. Through Tsarina he was able to influence Tsar on how to run the government e.g.
 Not to attend to the peoples’ grievances e.g. peasants, workers etc.
 To secure his position as Russian leader by killing some prominent politicians e.g. prime
minister, Peter Stolypin.
b. Morally, he was not exemplary as a holy man e.g. he was flirting with women in the palace, he
was a drunkard etc.
- Due to this he was called a “bogus holy man” (Rasputin).
c. He made people believe that Tsar was weak and unfit to rule Russia.

f. The Oppressive Government Policies

- To control opposition and revolution, the government used the following measures;
 Use of force and intimidation.
Page 40 of 97
 
It formed the secret police called Okhrana to deal with all anti-Tsarists
e.g. peasants, industrial workers, Jews and the Intelligentsia (University lectures and students)
 Killing or exiling some to labour camps in Siberia
- The Russian Orthodox Church also promoted the Tsar to god.
 With this any opposition was regarded as a sin.
 This made the people to hate the church.

g. Influence of Marxist ideas

- The arrival of Lenin brought Marxist ideas. They influenced peasants, industrial workers and
soldiers to stage a revolution.

h. The Russo-Japanese War (1905)

- The people had not yet forgotten the humiliating defeat to Japan whom they regarded as little apes.
- With this, they were still bitter as the country had lost prestige.

The Actual March Communist Revolution 1917

- It began when the protesting workers were joined by the students.
- The Tsar ordered the army stop the demonstration.
- Unfortunately, the army refused and instead joined the demonstrators as well.

- On 15th March, the Tsar failed to contain the situation.

- He therefore abdicated and fled to Holland.
- As a result, a lot of Soviets or Councils were formed in Russia in different parts of the country.

THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT

- It was a temporary government comprising of some of the ex-duma members and elected representatives.
- It was formed on 14th March, 1917.
- It was led by Prince Lvov as a prime minister.
- In July, he was replaced by Alexander Kerensky, who became its outstanding leader.

Reasons why it was formed

- To replace the Tsar government.
- To prepare Russia for a genuine democratic government.

Main Duties

- To work on the constitution

- To arrange for elections.

- It promised people the following under Alexander Kerensky

a. An immediate election and granting all Russians the right to vote.
b. To give peasants more land
c. To pay industrial workers
d. To continue to fight in the First World War.

CAUSES OF THE NOVEMBER 1917 REVOLUTION

Weaknesses/failures of the Provisional Government

a. It delayed to hold elections.

Page 41 of 97
 - It made this decision as the First World War was still being fought hence not good time for
elections.
- However, this did not please many people.
b. It continued to fight in the war.
- The people wanted Russia to withdraw from the war because it caused many problems e.g.
death of millions of soldiers, high food prices, starvation etc.
c. Failure to conduct land reforms.
- This displeased many peasants as a result they seized land from the landlords.
d. It did not consider the industrial workers.
- Their wages were not increased
- They were still living under poor working conditions.
e. The arrival of Lenin.
- He influenced the peasants, industrial workers and the Bolsheviks to overthrow it.
f. The growing economic challenges.
- With inflation, there was rising of food prices, poor wages and shortage raw materials and fuel
among others.
- This gave chance to its opponents to discredit it and win support of masses e.g. Lenin and the
Bolsheviks.
g. There was division of power between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviets.
- These soviets ordered the army to disobey the Provisional Government through the Soviet
order number one.
- The army was ordered to take orders only from the Soviets leaving the Provisional Government
defenceless.

The November 1917 Communist Revolution

- It took place on 8th November, 1917.
- It was organised by Lenin and his Bolsheviks party.
- He included the peasants, proletarians and deserting soldiers.
- Leon Trotsky made most of the plans.
- He was a brilliant organiser and the leader of the Reds army.
- They seized key government buildings and arrested the Provisional Government ministers except
Kerensky who managed to escape.
- In an almost bloodless coup Lenin and the Bolsheviks rose to power.

LENIN (1870 - 1924)

- His real name was Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov

- Nicolai Lenin was just a nickname.
- He was born in 1870 in a middle class family.
- He studied law but developed political interest after his brother was hanged by the Tsarists Government
for a coup plot.
- In 1893, he joined the Marxist party to learn revolutionary activities.
- In 1895, he was arrested and sentenced to two years in prison.
- Later on, he was exiled to Siberia and then to Switzerland.
- In 1903, he joined the Social Democratic Party
- He became the editor of the newspaper, Iskra “The Spark”.
- Later, the Social Democratic party split into two, after the elections.
- These were the Bolsheviks (majority) and the Mensheviks (minority).
- Lenin became the leader of the Bolsheviks.
- He introduced the newspaper, the Pravada “The Truth” in 1912 as a tool of propaganda for the party.
Page 42 of 97
 - He was smuggled back to Russia in 1917 by the Germans in a sealed train.
- The Germans did this in order to cause a revolution.
- They hoped the revolution would take Russia out of the war.
- He immediately began to fight against the provisional government under Kerensky.
- They ousted him on 18 November, 1917.

How the Bolsheviks Gained and Consolidated Power

a. Rise of Vladimir Lenin

- He manipulated the weaknesses of the Provisional Government to gain support from the peasants,
soldiers, industrialist etc.
- He provided strong leadership which strengthened the Bolsheviks party and making it popular.
- His promise to create a strong Russian country attracted people to like and follow the Bolsheviks party.

b. Impact of Lenin’s slogan of “Bread, Peace and Land”.

Peace

- Lenin promised to withdraw Russia from the war.

- This happened in March 1918 by the treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Germany and Russia
- This marked Russia’s withdrawal from the war.
Bread
- Lenin promised food rationing to the Russians in order to combat the food crisis.

Land

- Lenin promised peasants land.

- A policy of abolishing and dividing up private estates was issued.
- This enabled him to gain peasant support.
c. He filled key positions in government with Communists.
d. Use of the Cheka

- He used a secret police called “Cheka” to silence his critics and opponents.
- These include; Mensheviks, Bourgeoisie and the Tsarists among others.
e. The support from the army

- It arrested, murdered and imprisoned the collaborators of Tsar

f. The support from foreign powers

- They supported revolutionary activities by providing funds, manpower and arms e.g. Sweden and

Germany

LENIN’S ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES

Achievements

a. He strengthened the Bolsheviks party by providing with strong leadership and making it popular in
Russia.
b. He withdrew Russia from the First World War in March 1918. He did this by signing the Brest-Lotvsk
treaty with Germany to end the war.
c. He introduced the New Economic Policy which had the following results;

Page 43 of 97
 - Increase in food production which reduced hunger and starvation
- Reduced inflation and stabilisation of economy due to the industrialisation
- It led to the emergence of rich peasants called the Kulaks.
- It involved the following
 Peasants to surrender only 10% of their food and keep the rest.
 Encouraged peasants to work seriously.
 Trade with West started again
 Government maintained only large industries, small ones with less than 20 employees were
returned to their owners.

d. He spread communism from Russia to many parts of world. This was enhanced by his belief of
permanent revolution.
- Political bodies were formed to promote world wide spread of communism e.g. Comintern (The
Communist International Bureau)
e. He paved way for the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). He did this by
uniting Russia with the surrounding states.
f. He managed to improve relations with Western countries e.g.

- Signed trade agreements with Germany and Britain in 1921.

- Signed the Rapallo treaty with Germany in 1922.
 In this, Germany recognised the Communist Government in Russia.
 It also had economic agreements.

- Britain also recognised the Communist Government in Russia in 1924

Failures

a. He introduced an economic policy called war communisation which led to nationalisation of the Russian
economy.
- He did this to support the civil war in Russia.
- It was therefore dictated by military needs and not economic needs hence the name “war
communism.”
- It involved putting all industries under government, banning of private trade and peasant
surrendering their surplus to the government and workers forbidden to strike.
- It had the following negative effects;
 It encouraged laziness among people since they lost their property
 It led to low industrial production
 It led to poverty and starvation which led to death of many people
 It led to inflation as the currency became valueless.
 It promoted strikes among peasants, industrial workers etc. due to the loss of property.
b. He established a secret police called “Cheka” which terrorised and executed many people in Russia
especially his opponents. This made people to hate his government.
c. He failed to spread communism to all parts of the world. The western countries resisted communism
because the revolution involved violence.
d. He did not have a clear succession plan. This led to frequent fighting and power struggle after his death
e.g. Stalin, Trotsky and Kamenev
e. He failed form a classless society as promised e.g. he did not distribute land and food to the peasants.
f. He rejected the genuine democracy in Russia by dissolving the Duma in 1918 and abolishing all
newspapers and magazine that criticised him
g. He was a ruthless dictator who paved way for more dictators in Russia e.g. Joseph Stalin.
Page 44 of 97
Lenin’s Domestic Policies

a. He abolished all social classes and ranks in the army and government. This was to create a free and
equal Russian society.
b. He abolished private ownership of land and industries and these were controlled by the state.
c. He abolished all newspapers and magazines that showed open opposition to the government.
d. He established a secret police, the Cheka, to silence opposition.
Lenin’s Foreign Policies

a. Belief in permanent revolution.

- This was to spread communism all parts of the world
b. To improve international relations with the West who hated communism e.g.
- Signed trade agreements with Germany and Britain in 1921.
- Signed the Rapallo treaty with Germany in 1922.
c. Britain also recognised the Communist Government in Russia in 1924

THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR (1918-20)

- It was fought between the Communist (The Reds) and the Anti-Communists (The Whites).
- The whites included; Mensheviks, Peasants, Tsarists and the soldiers.
- They were also supported by the Allied powers e.g. Britain, France, USA, Italy, Japan etc.

CAUSES
a. The Cheka police victimised even innocent people.
b. Communism was undemocratic to the liberal Russians as it did not respect people’s rights e.g. to
vote, to own property etc.
c. The church was not happy with the anti-religious tendencies of the Communists.
d. The land owners were bitter with the loss of their land to the peasants.
e. The Tsarists and Mensheviks wanted to take over the government and reclaim their lost positions.
f. The Western countries were not happy with Russia’s withdrawal from the First World War as it gave
Germany an advantage.
g. Dissolution of the Duma. It was dissolved by the Bolsheviks as they saw it as ineffective however,
many Russians considered it as their voice.
h. The prisoners of war from Czech rebelled and took control the trans-Siberian Railway line and
attacked Russians
i. The treaty of Brest Litovsk

- It made Russia to lose its best agricultural land and industries to Germany.
- Besides, Russia also lost territories to Germany e.g. Ukraine, Estonia and Lithuania. This
angered the Russian army

Reasons Why the Western Countries Supported the Whites

1. To get rid of the Communists who had nationalised their industries without compensation.
2. To block worldwide spread of communism by Russia
3. To re-engage Russia in the First World War against Germany.
4. To punish the Communist Government who had stopped honouring the financial support made by
the Tsarists Government to the Allies.

Page 45 of 97
Reasons Why the Reds Won

a. The Reds were well prepared and well organised e.g. had experienced army commander Leon Trotsky
and more troops.
b. The nationalisation policy enabled the Reds to have more resources e.g. food, weapons etc.
c. There were divisions among the Whites.
- They were not centrally organised.
- They even lost peasants support due to their brutal behaviour. This made the peasants fear for their
land in future.
d. The Reds had the support of the peasants because of land distribution.
e. Lenin had people’s support as they viewed him as fighting against the foreigners.
f. Western aid to the Whites was half hearted and later was stopped.
Results of the Civil War

a. The reds won the war

b. It led to the formation of the USSR
c. The economy of Russia became more centralised as more industries were nationalised.
d. It led to death of many people e.g. around 8 million.
e. It led to recognition of USSR by other European nations as a communist state e.g. Britain and
Germany. Later, Russia was admitted into the League of Nations in 1934.

The Death of Lenin and Power Struggle

- He died on 21st January, 1924 due to stroke.

- He was buried at Leningrad (Red Square) in Moscow.
- A power struggle started among the members of Central Executive Committee (Politburo) of the
communist party.
- At first, there was a triumvirate of Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev.
- All these three opposed Leon Trotsky, the leader of the Reds Army.
- However, the real power rivalry was between Stalin and Trotsky.
- Their main difference was on how communism should be spread i.e.
 Leon Trotsky believed in world wide spread of communism i.e. communism to be spread in all
parts of the world (the permanent communism)
 Stalin believed in the spread of communism or socialism in one country i.e. he intended to spread
communism in Russia only and build it into a strong state using the vast resources and industries.

JOSEPH STALIN (1879 - 1953)

- His real name was Joseph Vissarionovich Djugashvili

- He was born on 21 December at Gori in 1879 in Georgia (Russia).
- He adopted the name Stalin which means “man of steel”
- He was from a poor family and attempted to study theology.
- He joined Lenin in 1903 although he was exiled.
- He returned to Russia in 1917 to take part in the Communist Revolution.
- He became the editor of the party’s newspaper, the Pravada.
- He later became the Governor.
- In 1923, he became the Secretary General of the Communist party
- He eventually became the Russian ruler in 1924.

Page 46 of 97
 The Rise of Stalin to Power (Consolidation of Power)

a. Stalin support from the Politburo

- He was highly supported by most of the members of the Politburo.
- They supported him because he showed to be a fearless person as compared to Trotsky.

b. Use of political position

- He used his position as Secretary General to elect puppets in key positions in the governments.
- On the other hand, he fired all the people he saw as threats e.g. Leon Trotsky.

c. Use of Purges
- To secure his position, he killed or exiled his main rivals especially old members of the Bolsheviks party.
- These include; Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev and Bukharin among others.

d. Trotsky brilliance
- This worked against him as he became a threat among his fellow politicians e.g.
 As an army general, he had competently organised the November Communist Revolution and the
Civil War. This made others to fear him.
 Due to his brilliance, he was regarded as arrogant by other members and therefore unfit to be a
leader.
e. Use of propaganda
- He used disagreements to discredit and eliminate other contenders to the throne e.g.
 He got rid of Trotsky by convincing the masses against the idea of permanent revolution
 He also eliminated Bukharin by discrediting the New Economic Policy as opposed to the heavy
industrialisation.
Stalin’s Attempts to Make Russia Strong (Domestic Policies)

- Stalin considered Russia as behind economically as well as socially.

- He stated “We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good the lag in
ten years. Either we do it or they crush us”.
- He therefore came up both domestic and foreign policies or strategies to make Russia strong.
Political

a. Introduction of Communist Constitution

- He introduced a Communist constitution in 1918, which made Russia a communist state.
- With this, Russia became USSR (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics) and became almost a classless
state.
- In 1936, the Supreme Soviet was established in Moscow as the main instrument of the government.
- It was divided into two; Soviet of Union, which represented all people and the Soviet of Nationalities,
which represented different soviets.
- The Politburo and the Council of Ministers looked after the day to day activities.
b. Use of Purges
- It was a system of purifying the Russian state from political resistance by killing all its critics.
- He set up a secret police to arrest and kill all the suspects.
- Some were exiled or sent to labour camps.
- Targets include the old members of the Bolsheviks party and the Kulaks
- These were accused of extra-ordinary crimes like coups, spying for foreign governments and
trying to re-establish capitalism.

Page 47 of 97
 - For instance, Trotsky was exiled in Mexico where he was murdered by Stalin’s agent in 1940.

Reasons

 To secure his position as the Russian leader

 To end any form of political opposition by enforcing law and order
Effects
a. Poor governance in Russia as able and innocent people were killed.
b. Low agricultural production was kulaks were killed.
c. Stalin became a dictator.
d. Poor quality of education since it was controlled by police.
e. It led to atheism as the church was banned.
- Stalin’s wife committed suicide in 1935 to the shock of the purges.

c. The personality cult

- He elevated himself to a god-like figure and banned religious worship of any kind.
- People were encouraged to worship Stalin and believe in Communism rather than God.

Economic

c. Introduction of Collectivisation
- It was a system of joining small peasant farms into large collective farms.
- These large farms were called Kolkhoz.

Aims
 To encourage agricultural production in the collective farms
 To reduce inflation by boosting production of cheaper food while increasing exports
 To end the influence of the Kulaks who defied the government because of their riches.
 To encourage use of machines in the farms hence easing labour problems.
Effects


Many people died due to starvation or were killed while resisting it.

It promoted laziness among peasants as they were unhappy with forced requisition of grains.

It led to famine and starvation as the Kulaks killed their livestock and burnt their crops in protest of
the system.
 Literacy improved among peasants and industrial workers as schools were built near farms and
industries.
 Russia became self-reliant as the building of industries intensified.
 Improved defence as Russia became militarily strong.
- The collective farms were generally a failure to lower yields than expected.
- They also led to civil war as the Kulaks rebelled and the military was used to deal with them.

d. Launching of the Five Years Plan (1928 - 41)

- These were aimed at improving industrial output of Russia.
- Stalin set targets which had to be met a within specified period of five years.
i. The First Five Year Plan (1928 - 32)
- It focused on three main areas, which include the following;
 Transforming Russia from an agrarian to an industrial state.

Page 48 of 97
 - The industries that were targeted include; hydroelectric production, Iron, steel, coal and
oil industries.

 To improve literacy by teaching peasants and industrial workers how to read and write.

- Schools were built near farms and industries.

- Education was seen as key to industrial development.

 To mechanise agriculture.

- Farmers were given seeds, tractors and combine harvesters.

ii. The Second Five Year Plan (1932 - 37)

- It focused on heavy industries like tractor production and hiring overseas technical assistance.
- New factories were built

iii. The Third Five Year Plan (1937 - 41)

- It dealt with the food production.
- Later it changed to armament production due to threats of another world war.
STALIN’S FOREIGN POLICIES

Aims

 To avoid imminent attack from Western Countries

 To improve relations with Western Countries.

- To achieve this aim he did the following;

a. The 1932 Non-aggression Pact with Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Finland.
b. He signed a pact of defence against Japan in order to secure the Russian territories.
c. In 1934, Russia became of member of League of Nations.
d. In 1935, he signed the pact of the mutual assistance with France and Britain.
- However, this was interrupted by Russia’s desire to spread communism.
e. In 1936, got Russia involved in the Spanish Civil
- He supported Anti General Franco forces who were fighting to spread communism in Spain.
- General Franco was supported by Italy and Germany.
f. He signed the Nazi-Soviet pact in 1939 with Germany. This pact had the following agreements;
- To promote non-aggression between the two countries
- To weaken Poland by dividing it between them
- Russia took East Poland, Finland, Estonia and Latvia while Germany took West Poland and
Lithuania.
g. He began to spread communism and installing satellite communist states after the Second World War
e.g. in Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania, East Germany etc.
h. He participated in the conferences that led to the formation of the United Nations Organisation e.g.
Yalta, Potsdam, Moscow, Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco.
Achievements of Stalin

- On his achievements, he stated “Stalin found Russia working with a wooden plough and left her equipped
with atomic piles.”
- The following are a summary of his achievements;
a. He transformed Russia from an agrarian to an industrial super power through his policies like the Five
Years Plan.

Page 49 of 97
 b. He spread communism in Eastern Europe where he installed communist satellite states e.g. Poland,
Romania, Bulgaria etc.
c. He defeated Germany under Adolf Hitler during the Second World War.
d. He made Russia prominent in world political affairs i.e. became a super power again.
e. He promoted cold war between the western capitalists and eastern communists.
f. He promoted health e.g. increases access to hospitals and medicines, reduced cholera cases etc.
g. He promoted education.

- Many young people had easy access to university education.

- He also promoted girls’ education. Women were treated fairly and were given equal employment
opportunities as men.

h. He played an important role in the formation of the United Nations Organisation by attending meeting.

Failures of Stalin

a. His leadership was dictatorial which made people hate him.

b. Poor governance e.g. use of purges to silence opposition. Prominent Russian politicians were killed
e.g. Trotsky, Zinoviev etc.
c. His policy of collectivisation promoted laziness among farmers since they did not production of
crops in collective farms and forced requisition of grains.
d. Starvation and famine
- This was so because the kulaks resisted collectivisation and destroyed their crops.
- There was low industrial and agricultural production
e. Poor quality of education as it was controlled by the police.
f. He imposed communist governments in Eastern Europe and therefore violated their rights to self-
determination
g. He promoted atheism in Russia by banning churches and killing or exiling its leaders.

- He died in 1953 of heart attack

- He was buried next to Lenin in the Red Square.
- His successor was Nikita Khrushchev.
IMPACTS OF COMMUNISM IN RUSSIA AND THE WORLD

a. Destruction of liberty. Property rights of individuals were violated with the abolition of private
property.
b. It influenced nationalist movements in colonised countries in Africa and Asia due to nationalisation
ownership.
c. It communists revolutions in other parts of the world e.g. Cuba, Vietnam and Cambodia
d. It led to the end of absolute monarchy of Tsar Nicholas in Russia
e. Nationalisation of assets led to low productivity and people were not self-reliant but rather depended on
the state.
f. It promoted rights of women as communism accepted them and encouraged equality.
g. It promoted laziness in Russia and other communist states since people lost their property and also lost
sense of ownership.
h. It promoted strikes in Russia especially among the peasants and industrial workers.
i. It led to high inflation as the currency became values due to the banning of private trade.
j. It encouraged reign of terror led to exile, imprisonment or killing of opponents.

Page 50 of 97
TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT OF DICTATORSHIP GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY.

Dictatorship

- It is a form of government whereby one person holds complete power and is not answerable to anybody.
Socio-economic and Political Problems in Germany after the First World War

- Germany at this time was ruled by a provisional government called the Weimer Republic.
- It was led by Fredrick Ebert of the Social Democratic Party.
- It replaced the monarchy under Kaiser William.
- It signed the armistice on the 11th November, 1918 to mark the end of the First World War.
- The following are the socio-economic and political problems that Germany faced under the Weimer
Republic.

Social Problems
a. Depopulation

- The war caused massive loss of lives in Germany e.g. more than 1.7 million died.

b. Child labour

- Since most men died and many were injured, children and women were employed in factories and
mines

Economic Problems

a. Slow Economic Growth

- This was caused by war expenses, reparation payment and bankruptcy among others.
- In addition, the Great Economic Depression forced USA to stop giving loans to Germany.
b. Unemployment
- Due to the closure of industries
c. Inflation
- The currency became valueless and therefore prices of goods rose
d. General poverty
- Lack of food and low standards of living among others
e. Germany was extremely isolated at the end of the war. With this she lost her trade partners
and struggled to make diplomatic relations
f. Fear of communism.

- The threat of spread of communism from Russia caused insecurity to the wealthy landlords,
businessmen etc.

Political Problems
a. The government faced a number of rebellions. These include;
 The Communist revolt in 1919 called the Spartacist Rebellion
 The Kapp Putsch of 1920 which was organised by Dr Wolfgang Kapp
 The Munich-Beer Hall Putsch of 1923, which was organised by Adolf Hitler.
b. Political assassination
- These were organised by the private armies.
Page 51 of 97
 - The government failed to control these assassinations.
c. Inexperienced politicians in the Reichstag (parliament).
- The members of parliament had little experience in the democratic parliamentary system as such
they wasted much time in unnecessary quarrels.
d. Lack of confidence in the democratic government.
- Many did not trust the democratic Weimer Republic because of signing the armistice.

THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER

Background of Adolf Hitler

- He was born in 1889 in Austria to middle class Austrian parents.

- He attempted to study arts at Vienna Academy but failed.
- He earned his living by painting, selling postcards, beating carpets and shovelling snow.
- He went to Germany in 1912.
- When the First World War broke out in 1914, he fought in the war as a soldier.
- Due to his bravery, he was awarded an Iron Cross, and rose to the rank of Corporal.
- He was angered by the surrender of Germany in 1918 as he was convinced that Germany was not
defeated.
- This betrayal he called it “the stab in the back.”
- All those who signed the armistice in November, 1918, he called them “November Criminals”
- In 1919, he joined politics.
- He joined the Nazi Party and was not happy with Weimer Republic that signed the armistice.
- In 1924, he organised a rebellion capitalising on a number of problems Germany faced during this time.
- This rebellion was called Munich Beer Hall Putsch, which started at a drinking place.
- Due to this, he was arrested and sent to prison.
- While in prison, he wrote a book, “Mein Kampf” which means “My struggles”
- The book had a number of grammatical errors.
- The book emphasized his ideas and beliefs i.e.
 Germans are a superior race
 Condemning the Versailles peace settlement
 The policy of lebensraum etc.
- In 1924, he was released from prison.
- In 1930, elections took place in Germany.
- Paul von Hindenburg became the President and Von Papen the Chancellor.
- Hitler and the Nazi party lost as they won 107 seats out of 608.
- Von Popen tried to persuade Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Deputy Chancellor but Hitler refused as he
wanted to become the Chancellor.
- In January, 1933 they persuaded the president to appoint Hitler as the Chancellor and Von Papen as the
deputy.
- On January 30, 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor with Von Popen as the deputy.
- In 1935, Hindenburg the president died.
- Hitler therefore became both, President and Chancellor.
- He became the supreme leader of Germany and took the title “Fuhrer.”
The Rise of Adolf Hitler to Power

a. Hitler’s Personal Qualities and Beliefs

- He was a good public speaker or orator.
- This made it easy for him to persuade the masses e.g.
 He exposed the weaknesses of the Weimer Republic
Page 52 of 97
  His promise to undo the Versailles Peace Settlement etc.
- He was a good party organiser e.g.
 He introduced a newspaper as a propaganda tool that spread Nazi principles
 He distributed party uniform that attracted a lot of young men
 He introduced marching songs that eroded the Weimar Republic

b. Support from the Industrialists

- They supported Hitler and Nazi party because they were against communism as the Nazi were also
anti-communists.
- With communism, they would lose their land and industries.
- They also supported the Nazi because they were against strikes, trade unions, freedoms etc.
- They wanted to use workers without any opposition from the trade unions.

c. Impact of High Unemployment Rate

- Unemployment rate rose to about 6 million.
- Hitler promised an economic recovery, job opportunities, making German strong again.
- This made unemployed people to support Hitler and the Nazi party

d. Support from the Catholic Church

- It gave economic and moral support to Hitler and Nazi party.
- It had many members and it therefore influenced its members to support Hitler and the Nazi party.
- It is among the reasons why the Nazi party won the elections of 1933 over the Democrats and
other parties.

e. Impact of Reparations
- Hitler promised to stop payment of reparations which was causing misery to the people.
- This earned him much popularity and support among many Germans.
f. Militarism

- Hitler spoke and acted violently and used military to rise to power.

g. The Effect of the Great Depression

- He used the crisis as advantage to rise power

h. Influence of the First World War

- He used his military experience to eliminate the anti-Nazi political opponents

IDEOLOGIES OF THE NAZI PARTY

Origins of the Nazi Party

- At first, it was known as the German Workers’ Party.

- It was formed with the aim of counteract the growing popularity of communism.
- Adolf Hitler joined the party in 1919.
- He changed its name to the National Socialist Germany Workers’ Party.

Organisation of the Nazi Party (Principles)

1. To end the influence of other political parties in German and unite all the Germans.
2. To promote the re-birth of the strong German state by re-arming and through wars
Page 53 of 97
 3. To promote a dictatorship (totalitarian) system of government
4. To end the spread and popularity of communism in Germany
5. To encourage racism in Germany.
- It divided Germany into two;

 The Aryan race (the pure Germans)

 The non-Aryans race (other races like the Jews, Slavs, Coloureds) that were inferior.

Factors that led to the rise of the Nazi and their popularity

a. They promised to undo the harsh terms of the Versailles peace treaty.
b. The Weimar Republic became unpopular due to signing the armistice, the Versailles treaty and failing to
maintain law and order.
c. There was economic crisis in Germany e.g. food shortages, inflation etc.
d. Timely promises of the Nazi party e.g. offer for national unity, employment, prosperity etc.
e. The rise of Adolf Hitler with good leadership skills e.g. public speaking
f. Use of Nazi private army like SA, SS to silence opposition

HOW NAZI PARTY CONSOLIDATED POWER UNDER ADOLF HITLER

a. Use of the Gestapo and the Storm Troopers (SS)

- These were used to enforce obedience and discipline among the people.
- The people obeyed the government out of fear because the two bodies captured all state prisoners
and sent them to labour or concentration camps.
- They also prevented all forms of opposition by torturing and killing all the opponents.
b. Use of Concentration Camps
- These were special barracks surrounded by electrified fences with towers while unwanted people
by Hitler were sent to suffer barbaric punishment and death.
- They were established in 1933, and some of them include; Auschwitz, Duchau, Belsen, Sobibor
etc.
- These were taken as a means of eliminating opponents and traitors of the state.
- These include; the blacks, gypsies, communists, Social Democrats, Catholic priests, pastors, Jews
etc.
- For fear of death, many people became royal to the Nazi Party and supported it.

c. Enabling Law
- It was passed in Reichstag in 1933.
- It gave Adolf Hitler emergency dictatorial powers for the next four years or even more
- In order to have this law passed, the Nazi used intimidation and arrests e.g.
 Most of the Communist Party members of the Reichstag were arrested
 Few were allowed to enter the building.

d. Use of Propaganda
- Hitler and the Nazi used propaganda to convince the masses and win their support.
- He appointed Joseph Goebbels as Minister of Propaganda, who was an expert liar.
- Through propaganda tools like newspaper and mass rallies they spread the Nazi principles to win
support of people. For example;
 He stated that Germany never lost the war but was betrayed by the November criminals
who signed the armistice,
 He promised to undo the Versailles Peace Settlement etc.

Page 54 of 97
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF HITLER’S POLICIES

Hitler’s Domestic Policies

a. Arrest and Murder of all Political Opponents

- He arrested opponents without trial and later murdered them e.g.
 The Night of Long Knives (30 June, 1934).

- In this night, Hitler used Gestapo to kill about 400 politicians including Ernest Rohm the leader
of SA.

 The killing of the Jews (1935)

- In November, 1935, the Jewish Shops, houses and synagogues were looted and destroyed.
- Over 30,000 Jews were sent to labour camps while others were killed.
- This is called the “Crystal Night” or “Night of the broken glass.”
- He called this a final solution.

- He set up different private army to achieve this mission. These include;

 SA (Storm Troopers or Sturmabteilung)

- These were led by Ernest Rohm and they wore brown shirts.
- They were formed to get rid of opponents.

 SS (Schultz Staffel)

- These were led by Heinrich Himmler.

- They were protective squad or body guards of Hitler.
- They wore black shirts.

 Gestapo (Geheime Staats Polizei)

- They were led by Hermann Goering.

- It was a secret police set up by Hitler in order to silence opponents.

- These were torturing, killing and sending opponents to concentration camps

b. Banned all other Political Parties

- All parties except the Nazi were banned.
- He used false accusation to get rid of other parties.
- For example, they accused the Communist Party for starting the fire that burnt the Reichstag
building in 1933 when it was actually the Nazi who deliberately started.

c. The Nuremburg Laws/Anti-Semitic laws (1935)

- These were passed to eliminate the Jews and preserve the pure German race. He also blamed the
Jews for the Germany’s defeat in the First World War and all her problems. They included;
 Jews were deprived of German citizenship
 Inter-marriages between Jews and Germans were not allowed
 Jew were not allowed to be professionals e.g. doctors, lawyers, teachers etc.
 Jewish shops were marked with a star of David and inscription “Jude.”

Page 55 of 97
  Jews were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothes
 Jews could not go to cinemas or any other entertainment places.

d. Controlled the Judiciary

- They made laws to favour them.
- They also passed laws using unacceptable methods like intimidation e.g. the Enabling Law.
- The state was regarded as supreme and there was no protection to anyone. Due to this, people’s
right to life was heavily abused e.g. the killing of Jews.
- There were also arrests without trial which eventually led to murders.

e. Banning of Trade Unions

- These were banned because they were seen as source of resistance as they encouraged strikes,
boycotts etc.
- The Nazi party also made strikes illegal.
- The trade unions were replaced by the German Labour Front.

f. Controlled Education System

- Hitler controlled the curriculum by emphasising on two subjects namely History and Biology.
- All text books in the two subjects were re-written to include Nazi ideas
- The children were therefore indoctrinated with Nazi ideas.
- The boys were forced to join the Hitler Youth when 14 and the girls joined the League of German
Maidens.
- The first duty of the boys and girls was to obey Hitler.
- They were encouraged to betray their parents to Gestapo.

g. Controlled Religion
- The state controlled all religions as they were seen as possible sources of opposition.
- The Catholic Bishops protested when Hitler killed 70,000 mentally disturbed people.
- Hitler feared the Catholic Church because it was worldwide and was well organised.
- He therefore made an agreement with Pope Pius XI (Concordat) which had the following;
 Hitler not to interfere with the German Catholic Church
 The Catholic Church promised to dissolve the Catholic Centre Party and not to get involved
in politics.
- However, Hitler broke the agreement as he
 Banned the Catholic Youth as it was similar to Hitler Youth
 When the catholic protested the above, he closed all the Catholic Schools.
- When the Pope condemned him, he sent the priests, nuns and the Christians to concentration
camps.
- He also appointed a Nazi Bishop to represent all protestant churches.
- When some pastors protested, he sent about 800 pastors to labour camps.

h. Controlled all Communication institutions and media.

- These were controlled by the Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels.
- They censored all newspapers, books, films, radios, music and art so that they propagate Nazi
ideas.
- Around 4,000 books were banned especially those written by Jews or Communists.

i. Controlled the Economy

Page 56 of 97
 -He encouraged industrial production and exports to boost the economy and create job
opportunities.
- He controlled industries on what to produce and closed all those industries that did not comply.
- He forced foreign countries to get German goods by denying them any other form of payment.
- He controlled food prices and rents.
- He manipulated forex to avoid inflation.
- He introduced public works e.g. in agriculture, land, drainage and motor way building among
others to create jobs.
HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICIES (1933 - 39)

Aims

 To turn Germany into a great nation through rearmament and acquiring other territories
 Reverse or undo the Versailles Peace Treaty
 Recover all German lost territories
 Creation of the living space (Lebensraum)
Actual Policies

a. He withdrew Germany from the Disarmament conference and League of Nations in 1933.
- He did this because he demanded equality in armament with other countries like France.
- France and Britain refused, he withdrew Germany.
b. The German-Polish Pact (1934).
- It was signed between Germany and Poland in order to solve the border dispute.
c. The Anglo-German Naval agreement (1935).
- It was signed between Germany and Britain in which Britain allowed Germany to build her navy
up to 35% of British navy.
- German forces also re-occupied the Saar coal region.
d. He restored the armed strength of Germany.
- By 1935, he introduced conscription and building of air force intensified.
e. The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936).
- Signed between Hitler and Benito Mussolini of Italy with the following agreements;
 Recognise Austria as an independent country
 Follow dictatorship or totalitarianism governments
 Be to anti-communist
 Create living space
f. The Anti-Comintern Pact (1936)
- It was signed by Germany, Italy and Japan with the following terms
 Defend Japan from Russia
 Form dictatorship governments in the three countries
 Resist a worldwide spread of communism
g. Destroying the Versailles Peace Settlement e.g.
- In 1936, he sent troops to occupy the Rhineland, which was a demilitarised zone.
- He invaded Austria in 1938 and united it with Germany.
- He annexed Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in 1938
h. The Spanish Civil War (1936)
- Hitler and Mussolini assisted General Franco, a rebel of the government, in the Spanish civil war.
- They did this because General Franco was anti-communist
i. The Pact of Steel (1938)
- It was signed between Italy and Germany for mutual defence
- It strengthened the earlier Rome-Berlin Axis.
Page 57 of 97
 j.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact
- It was signed between Hitler and Stalin. It had the following terms;
 Non-aggression pact i.e. they promised not to attack each other
 Destroy Poland by dividing it into two.
- Germany took west Poland and Lithuania while Russia took east Poland, Finland, Estonia
and Latvia.
HITLER’S ACHIEVEMENTS

a. He created employment to millions of Germans through national labour service to do public works and
conscription.
b. There was improvement in agriculture, building of motor-ways, hospitals, schools and railways.
c. He encouraged industrial production of rubber, oil and cars.
d. He expanded production of guns, tanks, warships and airplanes and this made Germany regain its
military strength.
e. Farmers benefited from Nazi’s foreign policy of self-sufficiency in food.
f. He promoted the growth of literacy in Germany by making education compulsory to all children. He
also set up many public schools for German children.
g. He made Germany to become one of the strongest European powers through re-armament.
h. His foreign policy was generally a success e.g. destruction of the Versailles peace settlement and
creating of living space.

TOPIC 4: CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

a. CAUSES
Location of the Major Countries Involved in the Second World War

THE CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

a. Treaty of Versailles
- This is taken as the main cause because its terms which were harsh to Germany.
- It aimed at weakening Germany politically, socially and economically e.g. reparations, loss of territories,
disarmament etc.

Page 58 of 97
 - In an attempt to undo this treaty, Germany caused the war e.g. rearmament, occupation of territories like
Poland led to the war.
- Italy too felt cheated as she was did not get her promised territories. She therefore become aggressive e.g.
attacked Ethiopia
b. Aggression by Germany, Italy and Japan
- Germany became aggressive after Adolf Hitler took over power e.g.
 Withdrew from the League and began rearmament
 Occupation of territories e.g. Rhineland, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia and finally Poland which
led to the war.
- In 1936, Italy under Benito Mussolini attacked Ethiopia and thereafter withdrew from the League and
became aggressive.
- Japan also invaded Manchuria, a Chinese territory in 1931 and after it was condemned by the League, it
withdrew and became aggressive which led to the war.

c. Appeasement Policy
- This was a policy that was followed by Britain and France in which they tolerated the aggressors like
Germany in whatever they did in order to avoid conflicts.
Examples of Appeasement Policy at Work

German rearmament in 1935

- Britain allowed Germany to build up to 35% of its navy following the Anglo-German naval
agreement.

Italian attack of Ethiopia in 1936

- Britain and France encouraged Italy to go ahead with the invasion.

German re-occupation of the Rhineland in 1936

- Britain did nothing to stop Germany from occupying this territory.

The Spanish civil war of 1936

- France and Britain tolerated Germany, Italy and Japan when they supported General Franco.

Re-union of Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Anschluss)

- It was forbidden at Versailles but the two countries were allowed to re-unite in 1938.

The Munich agreement of 1938

- Germany was allowed to occupy territories e.g. Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia among others

Reasons Britain and France followed the Appeasement Policy

a. They feared spread of communism as Germany and Italy though undemocratic but were anti-
communist. In view of this, Britain and France opted for a lesser evil.
b. To civilise and control Hitler and Mussolini by treating them with understanding.
c. To avoid any war with Germany and Italy.
d. A feeling that Germany, Italy and Japan had genuine grievances on undoing the Versailles Treaty and
the League of Nations.
e. To reduce tension with Germany by helping her to boost the economy.

d. Failure of the League of Nations

- It was weak from its birth and failed to deal with a number of political crises.
Page 59 of 97
 - It was therefore challenged and some members withdrew e.g.
 Japan withdrew in 1931 after it was condemned for attacking Manchuria
 Germany withdrew in 1933 and started rearmament.
 Italy withdrew in 1936 after being condemned for attacking Ethiopia.

e. Failure of the Disarmament Conference

- It was held in Geneva in 1933.
- However, some countries like France refused equality in armament with Germany.
- Germany on the other hand felt she lagged behind and wanted to catch up.
- Hitler therefore withdrew from the conference and the League of Nations and started rearmament.
- Britain and France did likewise.
- This resulted again in the arms race.

f. Failure of Britain and France to reach an agreement with Russia

- Britain and France did not trust Russia because of communism.
- Russia approached the two countries for collective security but they were not willing.
- This forced Russia to turn to Germany.
- The two signed the Nazi-Soviet pact in 1939 where they agreed to share Poland between them.
- Germany was also assured of a one front war.

Events Leading to the Second World War

a. The Spanish Civil War (1936)

- In the Spanish civil war, General Franco, a rebel leader, was supported by Hitler of Germany and
Mussolini of Italy.
- This cemented the relationship between the two dictators.
- The civil war contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War in the following ways;
 Their victory gave Italy, Japan and Germany a hope to challenge Britain and France in an event of
war.
 It provided Italy and Germany with raw materials for rearmament
 It gave the aggressors (Germany, Italy and Japan) an opportunity to assess how their soldiers were
prepared for the war.
 It also enabled the aggressors to test their arms in a real war setting.

b. German Occupation of the Rhineland 1936

- Germany re-occupied the Rhineland in 1936 by sending about 30,000 soldiers in the area.
- This gave Germany a chance to flex her military muscle.
- It also encouraged her to do massive conscription and mobilisation of soldiers.
- This was Hitler’s strong statement of Germany to undo the Versailles Treaty.
- In all this, Britain and France did not do anything to stop Germany
- Instead Britain congratulated Germany for taking what once belonged to her

c . Renewal of the Anschluss (1938)

- This was banned at the Versailles Peace Settlement.
- However, Germany renewed her union with Austria-Hungary in 1938.
- This empowered Germany in the following ways;
 It boosted Germany military capacity as it enabled her gain about 100,000 men from Austria
for her army.
 It improved Germany’s weak economies after gaining Austria’s foreign currency.

Page 60 of 97
  It also enabled Germany to gain iron ore mines for her armament industries.
- Britain and France protested against this renewal of the Anschluss but took no further action.

c. Munich Agreement (1938)

- It took place in September, 1938 in Munich (Germany).
- The following attended;

 Chamberlain of Britain
 Daladier of France
 Mussolini of Italy
 Hitler of Germany.

Terms
 Hitler was empowered to acquire more lands in Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia.
 Threatened the Czechs to cut off financial aid if they resist the German entry
 Encouraged Hitler to colonise lands.
- These terms enabled Hitler to occupy more territories and in other cases even defying British requests.

d. Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1939)

- Following the Munich agreement, Hitler invaded and occupied Czechoslovakia.
- He did this because he claimed that the area contained some Germans.
- Britain and France criticised Hitler for acquiring a non-German territory and this did not work out.
- This therefore made Britain realise that the appeasement policy had failed.
- Due to this, Britain began to rearm in order to protect Germany’s possible target, Poland.

e. Invasion of Poland (1939)

- On 1 September, 1939, Hitler attacked Poland.
- This was done in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet pact of 1939.
- Hitler attacked Poland because;
 He was pursuing his policy of Lebensraum
 To gain back the port of Danzig and the Polish corridor
 To win back a road and railway line across the corridor to Germany.
- This event marked the beginning of the Second World War.
- Britain and France sent an ultimatum to stop Germany from occupying Poland.
- As a result on 3 September, they came in support of Poland against Germany and Russia.
- In a short time, Germany defeated Poland because she was assisted by Russia due to the Nazi-
Soviet pact.
- In addition, she used new fighting method called the Blitzkrieg “the lightning war”

THE HIGHLIGHTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Operation Yellow (1940)

- This refers to the Germany attack of Norway and Denmark, the British colonies (April 1940).
- He did this in order to safeguard the supplies of the iron ore that came to Germany from Sweden for
arms.
- Later in the same year, Hitler attacked Holland, Belgium and France (May, 1940)
- Holland surrendered after four days; Belgium in early June then France in the month end of June.

Page 61 of 97
 Reasons for the Defeat of France

a. The French forces were not psychologically prepared and were divided.
b. The French forces were poorly organised and had various military weaknesses.
c. There was poor communication between the army and the air force.
d. The defeated soldiers pressurised the government for an armistice.

Operation Sea Lion (August-September, 1940)

- This was Germany attack on Britain.

- After defeating Poland, Denmark, Norway, Holland and France, Britain stood alone against the Axis
Powers.
- Germany failed to defeat Britain because;
 The British radar stations detected Germany attack in time.
 Germany made a mistake of shifting from bombing airfields to London.
- This relieved Britain at that critical moment and enabled her to re-organise herself.
 The German jet fighters were ineffective as they could fly for a short time for refuelling.
- On the other hand, those of Britain were effective i.e. could fly and attack targets in distance
places and for a long time.

Operation Barbarossa (June, 1941)

- This refers to Germany attack of Russia.

- Germany attacked Russia for the following reasons;
 To stop the spread of communism
 To avoid a two front war from Russia and Britain
 To get more land in Eastern Europe (policy of lebensraum)
- However, Hitler was again defeated because;
 Russia had improved and was well equipped in terms of food and arms due to the five years plan.
 Russia received aid from Britain and USA
 The Germany army was not well equipped to fight as the soldiers froze to death during the winter
season.
 Hitler focused his attention on the oil fields in the south.
 The Soviet forces used the scorched-earth policy
Invasion of Pearl Harbour by Japan (7th December, 1941)

- Japan bombed Pearl Harbour, a USA naval base on the Island of Hawaii.
- The Japanese attack was led by Admiral Yamamoto.
- They managed to beat the USA radar system and raided Pearl Harbour in which thousands of people
were killed while others injured.
- Japan attacked the island in order to;
 Find raw materials for her industries
 Stop USA from giving aid to China, a country which was at war with Japan.
 Control the Pacific and establish military bases.
 The Japanese were impressed by Hitler’s victories over European nations e.g. Denmark, Norway,
Holland, Belgium and France.
- This forced to abandon isolationism policy and joined the Second World War on the Allied powers
against Japan
- This also encouraged Hitler to attack USA in order to assist Japan.

Page 62 of 97
The Holocaust

- Hitler took the Second World War as an opportunity to eliminate the Jews.
- He therefore killed about 6 million Jews and other non-Jews who were in concentration camps in
different parts.
- It was also part of a war strategy against Russia which also had a Jewish population

Operation Overlord (June, 1944)

- The Allied forces from Britain and USA liberated France, Belgium and Holland from Germany in June
1944.
- These were led by General Eisenhower of USA.
- It was also called D-Day “Doom’s Day to Germany and Deliverance Day to France.”
- These Anglo-American troops attacked Germany from the western side (France).
- On the other hand, the Russian troops attacked Germany from the Eastern side.
- Due to this pressure, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April, 1945.
- Soon afterwards, Germany asked for an armistice and withdrew from the war on 8 May 1945.
The Dropping of the Atomic Bomb on Nagasaki and Hiroshima

- After defeating Germany, Japan was the only axis power with the energy to carry on the war.
- USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6th and 9th August respectively.
- This left about 84,000 people dead at Hiroshima and about 40,000 at Nagasaki.
- The Japan was stubborn because they regarded their emperor as a god but die in his honour.
- However, with the dropping of the bombs, on 15th August Japan surrendered unconditionally.
- This marked the end of the Second World War.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND THE AXIS POWERS

1. The combined resources of USA, Russia and Britain easily defeated them.
2. Shortage of raw materials especially oil delayed their attacks on the Allied Powers.
3. Tactical mistakes cost the Axis powers the war e.g.
 Japan concentrated on battleships and not aircrafts.
 Germany had inadequate winter garments to resist frost in Russia.
 They easily switched off their fighting tactics
 Hitler’s refusal to take advice from his army generals.
 The switching of sides of Italy and the news of Mussolini’s death affected Hitler
4. The Axis Powers underestimated their enemies. For instance, Hitler did not know that by attacking
Britain, it meant that he was at war with the commonwealth.
5. Germany fought the war on two fronts. This was from Britain and France on one front and Russia from
another.
6. The allied powers learnt from their previous failures. For instance, they learnt to check Germany’s
Blitzkrieg attacks and importance of having air support and aircraft carriers.
7. The Allies controlled the North Sea which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment.
8. The unity, morale and determination of the Allied leaders and fighters.
9. Germany’s inability to control her many territories and some turned against her.
10. External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere to the Allies.

RESULTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Death and depopulation of people about 37 million were killed during the war.
2. Destruction of infrastructure like houses and industries in Europe, Asia and Africa.
3. Italy, Japan and Germany lost their territories.

Page 63 of 97
 4. German and its capital Berlin were divided into four zones among the Allies e.g. It was divided into
Eastern and Western Germany.
5. It led to the emergence of two super powers and these are USA and USSR.
6. Introduction of the cold war between the super powers; USA and her western capitalists versus Russia
(USSR) and her Eastern communists.
7. USA completely dropped her policy of isolationism and moved to the centre of world’s political, social
and economic affairs.
8. It led to decolonisation in Africa and Asia
9. Japan was occupied by USA and a democratic government was set up there.
10. The production of nuclear weapons intensified
11. It created economic problems in many countries due to war debts
12. It led to the creation of the new state of Israel in 1948 and the Jews were saved from their suffering.
13. It led to the formation of the UNO to replace the League of Nations which had failed in its operations.
14. It led to disruption of agriculture and industries due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human
resources.
15. External trade declined due to fear and insecurity.
16. It increased dependency of European nations on colonies for raw materials.
17. It led to displacement of people and created refugee problem e.g. Jews, Poles and Slavs.
18. It created bitter feelings and mistrust among countries.

TOPIC 5: DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. FORMATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

ORIGINS OF THE UNO

- It is an international organisation that was formed to replace the League of Nations.
- It was officially set up on 24 October, 1945.
- Its headquarters is on Manhattan Island in New York in USA.
- Its founding members include; USSR, USA, Britain and China.
- The leading individuals in its formation were Winston Churchill of Britain and Franklin Roosevelt of
USA.

STEPS TO THE FORMATION OF THE UNO

a. The Atlantic Charter (1941)
- Winston Churchill of Britain and Franklin Roosevelt of USA met off New Foundland in the Atlantic
Ocean.
- They met in an American cruiser (a large fast war ship) called Augusta.
- They came up with the Atlantic Charter, which was also called the Charter for Unity.
- It had the following terms;
 All people should have the right to self-determination.
 Nations should not expand by taking territories from other nations.
b. Washington Declaration (1942)
- In 1942, 26 nations met in Washington in USA in which they pledged to support the Atlantic Charter by
signing the United Nations Declaration.
- This was called the Washington Declaration.
c. Moscow Conference (1943)
- In October, 1943, leaders of Britain, China, Russia and USA met in Moscow in Russia.
- The aim of this conference was to draw up a plan for an international organisation to replace the League
of Nations.
Page 64 of 97
 d. Dumbarton Oaks (1944)
- In 1944, Russia, USA and China met at Dumbarton Oaks in USA in order to revisit the plans made at
Moscow Conference.
- It was the first blue-print of the UN as members agreed on the aims, structure and functioning of the
world organisation.
- It was stated that all states under Allies during the war were to be its members.
e. Yalta Conference (1945)
- Joseph Stalin of Russia, Winston Churchill of Britain and Franklin Roosevelt of USA met at Yalta in
February 1945.
- The aim was to discuss what to be done to Allies after the defeat of Germany.
- The leaders agreed to form the UNO as a replacement of the League of Nations.
f. San Francisco Conference (1945)
- In April 1945, 50 nations met at San Francisco in USA to draw up the UN Charter.
- The UNO aims, rules, financial and organisational structure were drafted.
- On 24 October 1945, the UNO was officially set up.

Aims of the UNO

a. To prevent future wars by preserving world peace.
b. To promote socio-economic development among states
c. To promote security through collective action.
d. To safeguard the rights of all individuals and nations.

ORGANISATION OF THE UNO

The Security Council

- It is the most powerful organ of the UN

- It has five permanent members which include; France, Britain, China, USA and USSR.
- Each permanent member has a right to veto a decision.
- It had six lesser powers and the number was increased to ten in 1965.
- These lesser powers hold office only for two years.
- The decision requires at least nine of the fifteen members to vote in favour including all the five
permanent members.
- However, on several occasions Russia made unnecessary vetoes.
- This made the General Assembly to pass the “Uniting for Peace Resolution” in 1950.
- This empowers the General Assembly to override a veto by a permanent member where necessary.
- In this case decision only require two-thirds majority.
Functions

 To deal with political crises

 This is done through negotiations (arbitration), economic sanctions and military sanctions against the
aggressor.

The Secretariat

- It is headed by a Secretary General who acts as its spokesperson.

- The Secretary General is not elected from any of the super powers to avoid biasness.
- The term of office is five years and has more powers than that of the League of Nations.
Functions

Page 65 of 97
 a. Acts as spokesperson of the UNO on international affairs.
b. To translate information in UN official languages e.g. English, French, Russian, Chinese, Spanish,
Arabic etc.
c. To do administrative tasks e.g. taking minutes during meetings, preparing agenda for meetings,
arranging for meetings, making payments etc.

- The UNO Secretary Generals include the following

1. Trygvie Lies from Norway (1946-52)
2. Dag Hammarskjöld from Sweden (1952-61)
3. U Thant from Burma (1961-71)
4. Kurt Waldheim from Austria (1971-81)
5. Perz de Cuellar from Peru (1981-91)
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali from Egypt (1991-96)
7. Koffi Annan from Ghana (1996-2006)
8. Ban Ki Moon from South Korea (2006 to date)

The General Assembly

- It acts as the head of the UNO.

- Each member state has to send up to five representatives but each nation has one vote.
- All member states have an equal vote.
- It meets once in a year usually from September to December.
- However, it also meets for special sessions during crises.
- Its decisions require a simple majority but two-thirds majority on very important issues.
- It is led by a president, elected among members states on a rotational basis.
Functions

a. Elect members of the Security Council and other UN organs.

b. Plan for the UN budget
c. To give resolutions on political problems
d. To supervise the work of UN agencies.
e. To admit, suspend or expel members.

The International Court of Justice

- Its headquarters is in Hague in Holland

- It has 15 judges from different nations elected on a term of 9 years.
- This is done to avoid favouritism when presiding over cases.
- It is elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council.
Functions

a. To give General Assembly legal advice on International issues.

b. To hear and judge cases between nations e.g. border dispute between Holland and Belgium

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

- It comprise 27 member states elected for a 3 year term.

- It deals with social and economic problems world-wide e.g. population, unemployment, human rights,
narcotic drugs etc.
Page 66 of 97
 - It co-ordinates the work of UN Commissions and specialised agencies e.g. WHO, UNHCR, ILO, IMF
etc.
- It fosters a regional economic development in Europe, Asia, Africa, the Far East and Latin America. For
example, SADC in Southern Africa.

The Trusteeship Council

- It replaced the Mandates Commission of the League of Nations.

- It looked after the mandated territories of the League of Nations.
- It also had to oversee preparations for independence of the mandated territories.
Functions of the UNO

a. To maintain security through collective action

b. To promote socio-economic development

SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF THE UNO

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Science and Cultural Organisation)

- It promotes literacy world-wide by setting up schools

- It co-ordinates the work of all scientists, scholars and artists world-wide.
- It safeguards some of the world’s outstanding cultural and natural heritage through the World Heritage
Convention.
- It believes that the best way to avoid war is to educate people.
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund) 1946

- It dealt with homeless children after the Second World War.

- It sometimes works with the World Health Organisation in dealing with world problems of children in
poor and warring countries.
Functions

a. To promote equal rights of both male and female children

b. To help homeless children during war times
c. To reduce HIV transmission and its impact on children, young people and families
d. To improve the health and living standards of children world-wide
e. To fight against gender inequality
f. To set up health centres and train the health workers
g. To immunise babies against diseases e.g. measles, polio, tetanus etc.
h. To encourage breast feeding by mothers as opposed to bottle feeding.
i. To provide the right to nutrition to malnourished children in poor countries
j. To fight against child abuse, violence and exploitation
k. To fight against disease pandemics e.g. malaria, polio and measles
IMF (International Monetary Fund) 1945

- It promotes trade among nations.

- It encourages economic development of nations
- It gives short terms loans to countries that have financial problems.
- However, these loans are only given to those countries whose economic policies meet IMF requirements.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation) 1945

- It provides food to people under emergencies due to drought, floods, civil wars etc.
Page 67 of 97
 - It assists farmers to improve agricultural production by teaching them new farming skills
- It increases food production among people by introducing new varieties of seeds e.g. maize and rice.
- It gives aid financial aid to newly established farm projects

UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees)

- It was formed on 14th December, 1950

- It functions include;

 To lead and coordinate international action in protecting refugees.

 To resolve refugee problems worldwide e.g. provision of food, shelter etc.
 To organise repatriation of refugees where necessary.
 It maintains database of refugees information
 It ensures that people exercise the right to asylum and safe refuge in another country.
 It safeguards the rights and well-being of refugees.

THE RED CROSS

- It is a humanitarian body that was formed to alleviate the problems of wounded soldiers, civilians and
prisons.

Functions

a. To promote humanitarian principles and values.

b. To provide relief services in time of disasters
c. To support local health care projects
d. To support national societies with youth related activities and disaster preparedness.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO

a. It has maintained world peace and security through peace keeping forces e.g. North Korea crisis, Congo
crisis (1960) etc.
b. It has managed to promote and protected human rights through the International Human Rights
Commission.
c. It has promoted social and economic development in poor countries through World Bank i.e. giving
loans and grants for various projects in health, agriculture, education etc.
d. It has managed to solve some of the conflicts world-wide e.g. Korean War 1953
e. It has promoted self-determination and independence of many countries in the world through its charter
e.g. Ghana, South Africa
f. It has provided humanitarian aid to refugees e.g. food, shelter, medical care, education through UNHCR
g. It promotes dialogue among nations as a key means of promoting world peace.
h. Its application of sanctions against terrorists and aggressors like Saddam Hussein and Muamar Gaddafi
acts a deterrent to many countries.
i. It has promoted global democracy e.g. encourage free and fair elections, provision of electoral advice,
monitoring of electoral results. This has been achieved in South Africa, Mozambique, Cambodia etc
j. It has promoted environmental protection. It has done this through its agencies like UNEP which signs
treaties on climate change and biodiversity.

Page 68 of 97
 k. It has promoted and strengthened the application of the international law through the International Court
of Justice e.g. settle international disputes, non-interference on internal state affairs and crimes against
humanity.
l. It has encouraged world disarmaments. This has minimised the threat of nuclear war
m. It has promoted free flow of information in the world through UNESCO
n. It has managed to control a number of diseases through WHO e.g. polio, tetanus, whooping cough, TB
etc.
o. It has attempted to reduce illiteracy and promote socio-cultural relations between nations through the
UNESCO.
p. It has helped in the provision of safe drinking water in both rural and urban areas
q. It has alleviated hunger and poverty in developing countries through FAO

CASE STUDIES OF ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO

1. The Korean Civil War (1950-53)

- Korea was a Japanese colony up to 1945.
- After the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, it was divided into two along the 38th parallel.
- There was North Korea with its capital at Pyong Young and South Korea with its capital at Seoul.
- USA controlled South Korea and established a capitalist government while Russia controlled North
Korea and established a Communist government.
- It became a crisis in 1949 when both Russian and American troops were withdrawn in 1949.

Causes of the Korean Civil War

a. A bitter reaction by both Koreans in dividing their state in two zones by outsiders i.e. USA and USSR.
b. Russia supplied arms to North Korea to strengthen her position in the Pacific.
c. The leaders of both Koreas wanted to rule the whole country.
- A civil war broke out in 1950 after troops from North Korea with support from Russia attacked South
Korea.
- USA supported South Korea for fear of spread of communism.
- It was the leadership of General Douglas Mac Arthur, the USA troops attacked North Korea and
Manchuria in China.
The Role of UNO

a. It condemned the aggression of North Korea.

b. It sent peace keeping forces from 14 different countries.
c. It held peace talks.
d. The North Koreans were driven back, boundaries were re-located and the war came to an end.
Results of the War.

a. China proved to be a world power after driving back the American led UN forces though were later
driven out of South Korea.
b. It promoted hatred between USA and USSR a thing that led to cold war
c. Destruction of lives and property e.g. about 4 million Korean soldiers and civilians were killed.

2. The Suez Canal Crisis (1956)

- This was caused when president of Egypt, Abdel Gamal Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal in 1956.
- Britain and France, who were shareholders, were angry with this decision.
- Nasser did this in order to raise money for the construction of the Aswan Dam

Page 69 of 97
 - He did this after American suspended its aid due to Egypt involvement in communism.
- He promised to compensate the shareholders but never did it.
- As a result, Britain and France planned to attack Egypt using Israel in order to get back the Suez Canal.
- Israel attacked Egypt in October, 1956 on pretext that the Egyptians were supporting the Palestinian
guerrilla fighters.
- On 31 October, Britain and France attacked Egypt with the following aims;
 To preserve their oil supplies
 To have freedom of navigation through the Suez canal
 To humiliate Nasser and possibly overthrow him
- Britain and France had vetoed the UN Security Council resolution condemning the use of force.
- However, the General Assembly passed the Uniting for Peace Resolution condemning the use of force by
Britain and France.
- Therefore, the UNO forced the British, French and Israel forces to withdraw from Egypt.
- They were replaced by UN forces to maintain a ceasefire.

Results of the Suez Canal Crisis

- Britain and France were humiliated

- Nasser emerged as a hero
- Israel managed to punish Egypt as she inflicted heavy losses on her.
- It encouraged Algeria to fight for independence from France
- UN got actively involved in the area by
 reversing the veto
 stopping the aggression
 policing the Sinai, the Gaza strip and the Israel-Egyptian boundaries.
 removing the obstructions and reopening of the Suez Canal.

WEAKNESSES/CHALLENGES OF THE UNO

a. The use of power of veto in the UN Security Council has undermined equality of nations i.e. the five
permanent members use veto to advance their interests and dominate the world.
b. There is usually voting by bloc and not by merit
c. It lacks permanent army to enforce its decisions
d. It lacks funds to perform its activities efficiently. It depends on the contributions from the member states
e. Embezzlement and misuse of UN funds by UNO committees. They waste millions of dollars in meetings
which no connections to UN objectives.
f. Ideological differences among member states. This is mainly USA and USSR on capitalism and
communism respectively. This causes mistrust and suspicions among members.
g. Communist and Arab countries see UN as biased towards capitalist countries led by USA.
h. The emergence of regional and international organisation like African Union, NATO, WARSAW, Arab
League, European Union etc. Countries put more trust in their regional bloc than UN.
i. Regional conflicts and civil wars have frustrated UN ambitions e.g. Israel-Arab wars, Kashmir border
dispute between India and Pakistan, Hungarian uprising, civil war in Sudan. The UN has failed to resolve
these political disputes.
j. Overpopulation. The UN is failing to meet the demands in health, education due to too much pressure.
k. Existence of sovereign states. The UN fails to intervene in internal matters of states because its charter
prohibits it to do so.

Page 70 of 97
 l. The arms race is still a threat as some countries are still manufacturing nuclear weapons or weapons of
mass destructions e.g. North Korea and Iran.
m. Diseases epidemics like HIV and AIDS. UN lacks adequate capacity to respond to these diseases.
n. Acts of terrorism have polarised world security and the UN lacks capacity to combat this crime e.g. the
bombing of New York in 1993 and 200. They are several terrorist attacks in Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania
and Nairobi in Kenya.

COMPARISON WITH THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Similarities

- Both bodies had similar aims e.g. to promote world peace by ending conflicts etc.
- Both were formed under the influence of American presidents e.g. Woodrow Wilson and Franklin
Roosevelt
- Both had no permanent army. They both relied on member states to volunteer military resources.
- Both have similar organisational structures e.g. General Assembly, Council and Secretariat among
others.
- Both bodies failed to solve disputes involving big powers e.g. those involving USA and USSR, UNO and
Italy, Germany and Japan, the League of Nations.
- Both bodies try to promote socio-economic development through agencies.
- In both organisations each country has one vote in the General Assembly.
- In both bodies permanent members have powers of veto.
- Both organisations lacked adequate funds for their operation.
- Both organisations aimed at drawing a world membership.
- Both were easily undermined by bodies formed outside them e.g. the Conference of Ambassadors
undermined the League while NATO and WARSAW the UNO.

Differences

- The UNO is committed to safeguarding individual human rights unlike the League of Nations.
- The UNO has wide membership and it is a genuine world body unlike the League of Nations.
- The League of Nations had a limited development agenda while the UNO had world-wide development
projects e.g. FAO, IMF, UNESCO, ILO etc. In other words, the UNO has more specialised agencies than
the League.
- In voting procedure in the Assembly and Council, the League arrived at its resolutions by unanimous
decision while the UNO uses simple or two-thirds majority.
- UNO has the uniting for peace resolution to override a veto while the League did not have.
- The Secretary General of UNO has more powers and prestige than that of League of Nations.
- The League of Nations was formed after the First World War while the UNO was formed after the
Second World War.
- The Security Council of the League of Nations did not meet regularly while that of UNO meets
frequently.
- The headquarters of the League of Nations was in Geneva in Switzerland while that of the UNO is in
New York in USA.
- USA did not join the League of Nations from the beginning while USA is a member and a co-founder of
the UNO.
- In terms of decision making, the League of Nations was dominated by Britain and France while the UNO
is dominated by USA.

Page 71 of 97
2. POST WAR ALLIANCES

POLITICAL ALLIANCES

a). North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

- It was formed in 1949

- It developed from the Brussels Defence Treaty which had Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and
Luxembourg.
- These countries guaranteed military collaboration in case of war.
- It became NATO when USA, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Italy, Ireland and Norway joined the
Brussels Defence Treaty.
- Other members include; Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Romania, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey

Reasons for the Formation of NATO

 To defend Western States from Russian aggression.

 To block the spread of communism in Western States
 To wage war on terrorism
 To maintain world peace
 USA used NATO to maintain her presence in Europe.
 During the cold war it prevented nuclear war
 To protect the security of its members

- The events that help its formation include;

 Communist Coup in Czechoslovakia
 Russia blockade of Berlin (1948-49)
- These events made Western Countries to be suspicious of Russian intentions.
- Its headquarters was called SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers in Europe) which was in
Paris (France) under General Eisenhower.
- It was later moved to Brussels when France withdrew.
- France withdrew because;
 She did not want to be ruled by USA.
 She felt USA favoured Britain in missile building program
- In 1952, Greece and Turkey joined while Germany joined in 1955.
Strengths of NATO

 It promoted unity among European nations

 It reduced rivalries and tension in Europe

Problems Faced by NATO

1. International conflicts that led to breakaways e.g. France.

2. Its formation increased rivalry between USA and the Soviet Union
3. It had a smaller military force than that of the Soviet bloc.
4. It over-depended on USA.
5. It was weakened by pulling out of other member states due to conflicts e.g. France and Greece.
6. Lack of funds because other members did not pay their subscription while others withdrew.

b). WARSAW PACT

Page 72 of 97
 - It was signed in 1955
- It was signed in Warsaw the capital city of Poland hence its name.
- It command and control headquarters was in Warsaw in Poland while its military headquarters was in
Moscow in USSR.
- It was a Soviet Union response to NATO and a direct reaction to the admission of West Germany into
NATO.
- It was a military alliance between Russia and her satellites.
- Its members include; USSR, Albania, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland and
Hungary.
- Yugoslavia refused to join because she hated communism

Reasons for its Formation

a. A mutual defence among its members against any Western aggression.

b. To affiliate all member states to USSR
c. To block the influence of Western States in Eastern Europe.
d. To maintain peace in Europe
e. To support the spread of communism in the world.

Main Agreements

 To set up a joint command of armed forces with headquarters in Moscow

 To abstain from acts of violence
 To co-operate in international actions so as to preserve peace and security.
 To consult each other in case of the threat of armed attack

ECONOMIC ALLIANCES

a. Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)

- It was formed in 1948

- Its aim was to restore the economy of Europe.
- It administered the Marshall aid.
- It was set up by 16 countries and the three zones of Germany.
- Its results include;
- Speeded up the economic recovery of Western Europe
- Helped in developing cooperation in Western Europe.

b. Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM)

- It was set up in 1947 by Russia.

Aims

 To propagate Russian style of communism in all satellite states e.g. nationalism and
collectivisation.
 To promote trade among all communist states
 To persuade all non-communist states to relate with communist states.
 To draw together various European communist parties

- Stalin aimed at tightening his grip on the satellite states.

- All the satellite states were members including communist parties in France and Italy.
Page 73 of 97
 - Eastern Europe was to be industrialised, collectivised and centralised on Russian style.
- Russia gave aid to the satellite states.
- Members were to trade with COMINFORM members only.

c. Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)

- It was formed in 1949.

- It was Russia’s response to the OEEC.
- Members include; USSR, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Albania and East
Germany.
Aims
 To control the shape and direction of the East European economies.
 To extend the influence of the Soviet in the region.
 To organised the communist block into a single integrated economy.
 To assist individual communist states plan their economies accordingly
- Russia gave out aid to the Communist satellite states in Eastern Europe and therefore become
dominant.

BACKGROUND TO THE FORMATION OF THE POST WAR ALLIANCES

1. The Spread Of Communism

- Since the Russian revolution of 1917, Russia wanted to spread communism to other countries.
- This was against the UNO charter which called for democratic elections and the agreement of Yalta
conference for free elections.
- Stalin disregarded these and installed satellite states as follows;
a. Hungary
- The communists led by Rakosi took over key posts in government with Russian support.
b. Poland
- The communists took over power by using;
 terrorism
 arrests of non-communists
 rigging of elections
c. Romania
- The Russians imposed a communist prime minister in 1945.
- Through dirty tricks, the communists won the majority of the elections of 1946.
d. Bulgaria
- The communists led by Dimitrov seized power, arrested or killed non-communists.
- They won a healthy majority in the elections of 1946.
e. Czechoslovakia
- At first, there was a coalition government between the communist and the non-communist.
- In 1948, the non-communists were forced to resign or were dismissed.
- The communist party took over power in a bloodless coup.
- In the elections that were held, the communist under Gottwald won by a big margin.
f. East Germany
- It was given to Russia at Yalta conference.
- Russia declared it as the German Democratic Republic in 1949 and spread communism there.
g. Yugoslavia
- She became a communist state under Marshall Tito.
- However, she had not been freed from German occupation by Russia.

Page 74 of 97
 - Due to this, Tito did not like Russian intervention.
- As a result in 1948, she was expelled from the COMECON and economic aid was stopped.
- She remained a communist state but never took orders from Russia.
Why Did Stalin Spread Communism or Install Satellite States in Europe?

a. He wanted to end future invasions from Germany by creating a buffer zone of communist countries
between Russia and the west.
b. He wanted to make up for the 20 million dead Russian soldiers and civilians and also other war
damages.
c. He disliked the criticism by Western governments of Russia for purges and ill treatment of people.
d. He had not forgotten the support the Western government gave to the whites during the Russian civil
war.
Why the Capitalist nations hated the Spread of Communism

a. Fear of losing private property as communism deprived ownership rights.

b. Communism did not respect individual people’s rights e.g. to vote, to form government of choice etc.
c. Communism promoted conflicts or violence.

2. The Policy of Containment

- The USA government came up with this policy.
- Its aim was to stop the spread of communism in Europe and other parts.
- The policy was achieved by USA through supply of arms and other supplies to defeat the communists
in countries that did not want communism e.g. Greece and Turkey

3. The Iron Curtain Speech

- It was made by the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1946 at Fulton in Missouri (USA)
- He said “from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across our
continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe,
Warsaw, Berlin, Prague ……”
- He meant that Europe had been divided such that the Western part was capitalist while the Eastern one
was communism.
- In fact, it was a response to the spread of communism in Eastern Europe.

4. The Truman Doctrine

- It was made by USA president Harry Truman when he was addressing the US congress in 1947.
- It was the policy to counter the spread of communism by supporting free people to form governments
of their choice.
- He said “It must be a policy of USA to defend and support free people who are resisting attempted
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure”
- With this, Truman indicated that USA would give economic and military aid to any country whose
independence was threatened by communist pressure or take-over
- This doctrine assisted countries such as Greece and Turkey from communist take-over.

5. The Marshall Plan

- It was announced in June 1947 by US Secretary of state, George Marshall.
- At first the USA congress was against it but approved it after USSR invaded Czechoslovakia.
- USA sent food, fuel and machinery to some countries in Europe.
- It produced the European Recovery plan which offered financial help to fight hunger, poverty,
desperation and chaos.
- About 13 million dollars was given to European countries.

Page 75 of 97
 Aims

 To promote the economic recovery of Europe thus ensuring market for USA exports.
 To stop the spread of communism in Western Europe.
 To turn European states into USA markets

- The first beneficiaries were Greece and Turkey.

- Other beneficiaries include; Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal,
Austria, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland and West Germany.
- Russia viewed the plan as a method of spreading American influence.
- It therefore refused the aid and also prevented her satellite states from taking part in the plan.
Results of Marshall Plan

- It enhanced economic recovery of Western Europe.

- It helped to develop the idea of Western European cooperation.
- It prevented spread of communism in some western states e.g. Greece and Turkey defied communism
- USSR introduced COMECON and COMINFORM to repel westernisation and spread communism.

6. The Molotov Plan 1949

- It was Russia’s response to the Marshall aid.
- It was named after Russia’s foreign minister, Molotov.
- It offered aid to the satellite states.
- It denounced the Marshall aid as “Dollar imperialism”
Aims

 To offer aid to communist countries so that they should reject Marshal Aid.
 To promote trade among communist countries
 To overpower USA in the cold war

IMPACT OF THE POST-WAR ALLIANCES

a. It divided Europe into two rival camps e.g. NATO versus WARSAW or Capitalist West versus
Communist East.
b. It increased tension between the two super powers Russia and USA which led to the cold war
c. Some European states benefitted from USA’s economic assistance e.g. Greece and Turkey
d. It led to the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was a neutral movement e.g.
Asian and African countries
e. The economic alliances like COMECON strengthened economic link between Russia and the
communist countries in Eastern Europe. This led to their economic recovery.
f. The new military alliances spread to the entire world as the influence of the two super powers continue
to grow e.g. SEATO
g. Failure of Europe to regain its status of being supreme in world affairs

THE COLD WAR

- It refers to the distrust, hostilities and tension after the Second World War between USA and her
capitalist allies and Russia with her communist allies.

Page 76 of 97
 - It is termed Cold war because there was no direct large scale fighting between USA and USSR but only
words, threats and propaganda. However, there were regional wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan
that involved the two sides.
Satellite States and their Super Powers during the Cold War

USA USSR
Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, South Korea, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
Netherlands, France, Britain, Greece, Italy, Poland, Romania, North Korea, Mozambique,
West Germany, Norway, Iceland, Canada, Angola, Egypt, China, Hungary
Turkey

Causes

1. Ideological difference in the system of government.

- USA and Western Countries followed capitalism while Russia and Eastern Countries followed
communism.
- Each one of them wanted to dominate the other. This was the main cause.
2. Economic rivalry

- USA introduced Marshal Aid to assist Western States while Russia formed the COMECON for
Eastern Europe. This has increased hostility between the two states.

3. The formation of military alliances like NATO and WARSAW has increased hostility between the two
countries.
4. USA Secrecy of atomic bombs
- USA never told Russia that she had developed an atomic bomb and when it was used in Japan,
Russia was shocked.
- Stalin therefore felt that USA had evil intentions and would one day use such a bomb on Russia.
5. Disagreement over disarmament and USA military advancement.

- The USA and Russia failed to agree on nuclear weapon disarmament and this led to nuclear arms
race.
- This nuclear arms race contributed the cold war in the following ways;
 It bred suspicion and hatred between USA and USSR.
 It led to the formation of rival blocs for defence e.g. NATO and Warsaw Pact
 It led to the creation of the iron curtain in Europe
 It forced the superpowers to try out how powerful their weapons were by meddling in
conflicts e.g. Angola, Korea, Mozambique etc.

6. Western countries support of the whites in the Russian civil war

- Stalin had never forgotten the support the western countries gave to the Whites during the Russian
Civil war and therefore never trusted them.
7. Violation of the UNO charter and Yalta conference agreements by Russia
- Stalin violated this by installing satellite states in Eastern Europe. Western Countries were
therefore strongly against this.
8. Use of Russian veto powers in the UN

- Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN proposals, which she felt was pro-USA. This increased
tension between the two nations.

9. Use of spy network

Page 77 of 97
 - Both use secret agents and organisations that leak out military secrets leading to suspicion,
jealousy and hatred between them. For instance, Russia uses KDG and COMINFORM while USA
uses CIA.

10. Space race

- The two countries, Russia and USA, have also competed in space technology e.g. setting up of
space stations for missile launching and moon landing. This has also brought hostilities.

11. Delay of support to Russia by the western countries during the Second World War.
- Stalin was bitter that western allies did not act in time to relieve German pressure on Russia in
1944.
- This delay made Russia to face Germany alone as result, Russia lost land and 20 million people
12. USA was determine to destroy the communist government in Poland that was set up by Russia
13. Stalin’s foreign policy of extension Russian influence over neighbouring in Eastern Europe brought
hatred e.g. Austria, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.
14. Hostilities of USA and Britain towards Russia as they wanted to destroy communism. They did this
through the following;

 Supporting the Atlantic Charter to let countries world-wide resist communism

 Giving financial aid and military support to the countries that resisted communism
 Stalin suspected Britain and USA deliberately delayed to liberate France during WWII from
Germany to keep pressure on Russia
 USA and Britain side-lined Russia when invading Japan in 1945
 Russia believed the use of atomic bombs on Japan was a show off to Stalin

15. Dislike of Russia’s desire to over punish Germany by the west.

- Winston Churchill of Britain and Franklin Roosevelt of USA were deeply hostile to Russia due to
her desire to over punish Germany and control Eastern Europe.

CASE STUDIES

A. The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-49)

- When the Second World War ended, Germany was divided into four zones.
- Berlin, its capital was equally divided into four zones. This was agreed at Yalta Conference.
- Western zones of Britain, France and USA improved their economy by building industries.
- Russia on the other hand, dismantled industries from her zone (East Germany) as compensation for war
damage.
- Russia hated holding free elections and other economic reforms because she wanted Germany to
remain weak.
- When the new currency was introduced in the Western zone to replace the worthless Mark (June 1948),
Russia blocked all rail, canal and road links between the Western zones and her zone in Berlin.
- Stalin did this to force the Western countries to leave their zones in Berlin.
- The Western countries alternatively airlifted their supplies into Berlin for one year at the cost of 100
million pounds.
- The Russians were defeated and they removed the blockade in May 1949.
Results

a. USA, Britain and France united their zones and held elections (August 1949) and created Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany) with its capital at Bonn.
b. Russia also created the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in October 1949.
Page 78 of 97
 c. It also worsened the relationship between the West and Russia. There was never trust between the
two sides.

B. The Korean War (1950-53)

- Korea had been a Japanese colony for some time.
- After the defeat of Japan in 1945, Korea was divided into two along the 38th parallel.
- North Korea was controlled by Russia while South Korea by USA.
- USA and Russia set up separate governments in their areas i.e. capitalism and communism
respectively.
- In 1950, North Korea with assistance from Russia and communist China attacked South Korea and
nearly defeated it.
- UNO condemned the aggression and intervened with strong backing from USA.
- The North Koreans were defeated.
- The whole operation was led by General Douglas Mc. Arthur of USA.
- After three years of fighting, the boundary was brought back the 38th parallel.
- Korea has remained divided with Communist North with its capital at Pyong Yong and Capitalist South
with its capital at Seoul.

C. THE CONGO CRISIS (1960)

Causes
a. The army mutiny or rebellion caused by anti-colonial struggle.
- The army did not like the presence of many foreign officers as they saw little opportunities
for advancement.
- They also did not like Lumumba’s decision to raise salaries for all government employees
except soldiers.
b. Regional and ethnic differences
- The main rival groups were the National Congolese Movement led by Patrice Lumumba
and ABAKO of Joseph Kasavumbu. There was also the CONAKAT led by Moise
Tshombe of Katanga. These were formed based on tribal groupings.
- Some rich provinces like Kasai and Katanga rebelled and declared themselves independent

How the Congo Crisis became a Cold War Incident

- Due to the rebellions, UN sent 20,000 peace keepers to restore order and protect European interest.
- Prime minister, Lumumba asked for help from USSR to deal with separate states.
- USSR through Nikita Khrushchev offered help in advanced weaponry and technical advisors.
- USA ordered the UN forces to block the shipment.
- USA was looked to replace Lumumba.
- Later when he clashed with Joseph Kasavubu, the president, USA ordered the president to dismiss
him.
- USA sent weapons and the CIA personnel to assist Kasavubu.
- However, due to disagreements between Patrice Lumumba and Joseph Kasavumbu, USA
supported Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko who took over government through military coup.

Results of the Congo Crisis

a. There was massive loss of lives e.g. about 100,000 people died e.g. Patrice Lumumba, the UN
Secretary General etc.
b. The conflicts ended and Mobutu emerged as a dictator.
c. The UN showed that it was effective in peace-keeping
Page 79 of 97
 d. It intensified the cold war between USA and USSR.

D. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

- In 1959, Fidel Castro defeated the dictator Fulgencio Batista in Cuba.
- Castro refused to be controlled by USA and there nationalised all American industries in Cuba.
- USA responded by
- cutting aid
- stopped buying sugar and other goods from Cuba.
- Organising rebels to attack the island.
- The USA attack on Cuban was called Bay of Pigs attack. It failed because the rebels were easily
captured. This became a big disgrace to the USA government under President John F. Kennedy.
- Fearing danger, Castro appealed to Russia for economic and military support.
- Consequently, Cuba became a communist state yet very close to USA.
- Secretly, the Russians started building intermediate range ballistic missiles on Cuba targeting all the
major cities of USA.
- When USA discovered this, it quarantined Cuba and threatened to blow up the whole island.
- Russian ships were already on their way to Cuba posed a threat of war although they were turned back.
- Eventually, the matter was settled through discussions involving John Kennedy and Nikita Khrushev
(President of Russia)
Results/Agreements

1. USA to leave Cuba and Castro alone.

2. Removal of all Soviet missiles in Cuba and also USA to remove its Jupiter missiles in Turkey
targeting Russia.
3. A hotline telephone link was created between Moscow and Washington
4. A nuclear test ban treaty was signed among Russia, USA and Britain.
- This was the worst crisis of Cold War and it nearly brought the world into nuclear war.
Why the Cold War Did not Lead to a Major War.

a. Up to 1949, USA was the only country with atomic bombs. She was reluctant to use them due to her
experience in Japan.
b. When Russia started making the atomic bombs in 1949, there was a balance of power.
c. Countries were tired of war after using a lot of resources in the Second World War. They were
therefore unprepared for another major war.
d. The intervention of the UNO also helped e.g. at the Korean War.
Factors that led to the end of the Cold War

a. The death of Stalin who was replaced by flexible leaders like Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail
Gorbachev
b. Holding of meeting between USA and USSR led to the end of the cold war e.g. Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT) and Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START)
c. Mikhail Gorbachev reforms brought many political, social and economic changes that led to the end of
the cold war.
d. The unification of Germany in 1990 led to the collapse of the cold war as it allowed interaction
between East and West Germany.
e. The collapse of Soviet Union which made some of its states to join NATO e.g. Ukraine and Poland.
f. The signing of arms reduction treaties between USA and USSR e.g. the Non-proliferation treaty
prevented the spread of nuclear weapons.

IMPACT OF THE COLD WAR

Page 80 of 97
 a. It has led to insecurity in the world as each superpower use unacceptable means to spread its ideologies.
b. It has led to competition for world dominance between the two super powers e.g. Russia and USA
c. It has led to developments in science and technology e.g. spacecraft and nuclear weapon production.
d. It has led to political crises e.g. Korea and Vietnam civil wars, the Suez canal crisis, Congo crisis etc.
e. It has led to the spread of capitalist and communist ideologies in the world.
f. It has led to destruction of economy due to destruction of infrastructure in the civil wars.
g. It has led to the nuclear arms race between Russia and USA.
h. It has led to advancement in space exploration e.g. setting up of space station to launch missiles and
destroy enemy missiles.
i. It has led to the formation of economic and military alliances like the NATO, WARSAW and the
European Economic Union.
j. It has led to the formation of the non-aligned movement by Asian and African countries.

IMPACT OF COLD WAR ON AFRICA

a. It has contributed to conflict and tension in African countries. This is so since each super power
supported rival groups with arms e.g. Liberia, Ethiopa, Sierra Leone, Mozambique, Angola and
Somalia
b. It has led to serious political issues and violence in Africa e.g. mass killing in Rwanda, Congo and
Liberia.
c. Both super powers helped to create and maintain some of the most undemocratic governments in
Africa.
d. The end of cold war led to removal of financial and military aid to some African countries.
e. It led to many coups in some African countries e.g. DRC
f. The end of the cold war has also led to the new world and political order. USA has become dominant
and many countries in Africa act according to the wishes of USA or their aid is frozen.
g. It led to the end of apartheid in South Africa especially the end of the cold war. The USA stopped
supporting the apartheid government which was anti-communist after the collapse of USSR which
supported the ANC.

TOPIC 6: DECOLONISATION

- It is means the withdrawal from its colonies of a colonial power.

DECOLONISATION IN INDIA

Location
- It is in the Southern part of Asia

Background
Page 81 of 97
Political

- It was colonised by the British between 1750 and 1850.

- The British regarded India as the brightest jewel due to;
 Its precious trade items e.g. silk, sugar and spices
 Its varied races, religion and strange ways of living.

- In order to administer it effectively, the British appointed a viceroy, a representative of the monarch.
- Besides, the British administered India through indirect rule.
- In this system, they used local traditional leaders to administer local affairs.
- They used this system in order to;
 Reduce administration costs by engaging few British officials.
 Avoid conflicts with traditional customs and values

Social and Economic Issues

- It had a population of about 300 million people.
- Due to this, land was scarce and agriculture was backward.
- Diseases and famine were also common with high death rates.
- The major religions include; Hinduism and Islam, while others were; Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and
Christianity.
- Islam was dominant in the North-west and in Bengal.
- In Hinduism people believed in land allocation among family.
- They also believed in caste system i.e. rigid division of society into classes. These include;
 Brahmins: the priests and the educated elite.
 Rajputs: the soldiers, rulers and administrators
 Vaishy or Bania: the merchants and farmers
 Shudras: the artisans
 Untouchables or Pariah: the outcast e.g. slaves especially of African descent.
- Restrictions existed among the castes especially in marriage and contact in general.
British Colonial Policies

A. Trade
- They established the British East Indian Company to control trade
- The following were some of the bad conditions in Indians;
 The company employed and ill-treated Indians
 The British controlled the salt and spice trade in India leaving the nation poor.
 Indians supplied raw materials such as cotton at low cost but were forced to buy expensive
manufactured products of the British.
 The British government banned the local salt making.
 It imposed surtax on the factories that produced salt.

- These made the Indians to be bitter as they had low standard of living.
- The British East India Company was able to successfully establish its control in India due to;
 Weak leadership. The mogul leaders were so weak to prevent their empire from invasion
from foreigners.
 Lack of unity among Indians. They had many states under princes (Rajahs) who did not
unite against foreigners.
 The caste system also socially divided the Indians and created hatred and conflicts among
them.
 The Hindu-Muslim religious conflicts divided the Indians.
Page 82 of 97
  Superiority of the British over other Europeans states like Netherlands, Portugal, France and
Denmark
 The British used a non-violent tactic to sign treaties with Indian states called the doctrine of
lapse

B. Education
- Over 90% of the population in India was illiterate.
- However, by 1900 few Indians had attained western education.
- British schools were established in India at the expense of the local schools
- In 1936, English was imposed as an official language which many Indians did not like.
- The Indians were unhappy as English divided them and also that the British curriculum
encouraged British culture at the expense of local culture.
- On the other hand, education had the following importance
 It produced an educated Indian class who became exposed to western liberal ideas and
revolts.
 The few educated Indians realised that the British were mainly in India for economic
benefits
 It made the Indians discover their history and therefore national pride grew
 English made the few educated Indians plan their work without barriers in communication.
C. Political affairs
- The British as new rulers of India did not interact freely with Indians and did the following
 They held key positions in government e.g. army, civil service and parliament
 The Indians were segregated by being given low paying jobs e.g. gardeners, office cleaners
and messengers
 They made laws that favoured the whites
 They abolished traditional laws e.g. the caste system, heredity rights of land by peasants etc.
 They introduced a rule of biting a new bullet before use by local soldiers (sepoys). There
was a rumour that the bullets were greased with pork or cow fat, which was against Islam
and Hinduism respectively.
- After 1900, Indians started clamouring for political freedom and independence.
D. Press Freedom
- The local media had no freedom of expression.
- News was meant to praise the colonial rule while opposition was regarded as a crime.
- The British controlled the press to make Indians ignorant about evils committed by the colonial
government.
- Later, the Viceroy gave freedom of press and public meetings to the Indians.
- This led to the formation of Indian National Congress in 1885.

FACTORS LEADING TO NATIONALISM IN INDIA.

a. British Colonial Policies

- The Indians began to react to British colonial policies on trade, education, politics and press
freedom.
- These policies made the Indians poor while they uplifted the living standards of the whites.
- They were also oppressive and side-lined the Indians in the running of their own affairs.
- Besides, deserving Indians were denied from occupying high posts which made them bitter.
b. Socio-religious relationship
- Most Indians were either Moslems or Hindus while the British were Christians.

Page 83 of 97
 - In addition, the British were spreading western influence e.g. British education and culture,
English language etc. while the Indians developed a pride in their past and cultural heritage.
- The British considered themselves superior to Indians which created bitterness among Indians
- These socio-religious differences urged the Indians to get rid of western influence and be patriotic
to their traditions.
c. Influence of Western Education
- The educated Indians were exposed to British schools were they learnt about British democracy,
constitution and revolutions e.g. Mahatma Ghandi.
- They were also aware of the UNO charter of self-determination.
- Some formed the nationalist movements to unify and mobilise the Indians for nationalism.
d. Effects of the First and Second World Wars
- The Japanese victory over the Europeans gave the Indians assurance of a possible victory.
- As a war contract, Britain promised India self-government if they fight on their side against
Germany.
- The World wars weakened the European countries politically and economically, which made them
likely to grant independence to their colonies.
- The Versailles Peace Settlement introduced the self-determination policy to end colonialism
- The Atlantic Charter made the Indians influence the British to grant immediate independence.
- The ex-servicemen influenced their fellow Indians to resist the British imperialism.
e. Improvement in Transport and Communication

- The establishment of railway lines promoted provincial unrest in some areas.

- They also brought a nationalist current of the whole India
- The establishment of modern postal system and Electric Telegraph assisted to unify the country

f. Effects of revolts in Punjab and Bengal (1905)

- These were Muslim predominant areas.

- The revolts were caused by inflation, agrarian grievances, Curzon’s university reforms and the
idea of partitioning of Bengal.
- They led to rioting and terrorism in Bengal and Punjab.
- They were important in the following ways;
 They made the British increase Indian representation in the legislative councils.
 They led to the formation of the Muslim League (1906) as Muslims saw the Congress as
favouring the Hindu

g. Role of Nationalist Movements

- The Indian National Congress and Moslem League provided masses with proper leadership to
fight for independence.
- They also unified to speak with one voice against the colonial rule.
- They guided the Indians to stage mass demonstrations and protests against colonial rule.
h. External Influence
- USA, USSR and the UN exerted some pressure on the colonialists to decolonise world-wide due to
the UN charter of self-determination.
- There were also certain contemporary events and movements taking place abroad which
encouraged nationalism in India e.g. unification of Germany, independence movements in
Romania, Greece and Ireland.

MAIN STAGES LEADING TO THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDIA

Page 84 of 97
Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)

- It was the Hindu political movement.

- Its leader was Jawaharlal Nehru
- It was dominated by educated Indians who wanted social reforms and representation in government.
Formation of Moslem League (1906)

- It was formed because Moslems feared domination by Hindus.

- It aimed at protecting Moslems by securing for them separate representation in the Legislative council.
- Its leader was Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Importance of Political Movements towards Independence of India

a. They provided real chance for nationalism to grow in India.

b. They provided platform for a unified effort against the British

The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

- These were introduced by John Morley, the secretary of state of India and Earl of Minto, the viceroy.
- These came due to the violence, tension and rioting after the partition of Bengal in 1905.
- The following were the reforms;
 It allowed election of Indians to various legislative councils
 It increased powers of the legislatures at both the central and provincial government.
 Muslims and Sikhs were given the right of separate electorate
The Government of India Act of 1919

- National Congress and Moslem League combined and asked for this Act.
- It introduced the system of diarchy of governing provinces in India (shared powers)
- It gave considerable autonomy to the provincial councils.
- However, certain decisions of the provisional council could be blocked by the viceroy.
- Besides, the British were still in charge of law and finance.
- As a result, demonstrations were held against this Act.
- This led to Amritsar massacre of 1919 in Punjab in which unarmed demonstrators were shot with 400
people dead and 1000 injured.
- The British government was condemned for this action.
Results of the Massacre/Importance of the Massacre to nationalism
 Leading nationalists including Mahatma Ghandi were arrested.
 It made the Indians have ill-feelings towards the British rule
 It unified the Indians to fight for self-rule (Swaraj)
 It led to the formation of the Simon Commission of inquiry
 It forced the colonial government to introduce a diarchy, a system of a shared government.
Ghandi and Civil Disobedience (1916-1922)
Background
- He was born in 1869 from a poor family.
- His real name was Mohandas Karamchand Ghandi
- Mahatma means “Great Soul” and he was a Hindu of viashy or Bania caste.
- He followed Hindu principles e.g. prayer, fasting and peace loving. Later in life, he wore loin cloth,
abstain from sex and become a vegetarian.
- He studied law in England and after that he went to South Africa where he led in the fight for Indian
rights and returned in 1915.
The Role of Mahatma Ghandi in Independence of India
- He developed a principle of Satyagraha or non-violence and civil disobedience.
Page 85 of 97
  This was a peaceful non-violent way of forcing the government to change its policies by
disobeying the laws.
 It included the following
- Making local salt
- Stopping paying taxes
- Boycotting foreign clothes and food
- Rejecting English schools, courts and honours
- Boycotting English banks
- Strikes and sit-downs or peaceful demonstrations
 He was arrested until 1924 after the Amritsar massacre in which the British government killed
several innocent Indians and wounded a thousand others.

- He also won support by campaigning for the rights of the untouchables.

- He acted as barrister. He defended the poor Indians from British discriminatory laws on trade, education,
politics and freedom of press.
- He promoted local Indian industry as seen by his simple dress of local Indian calico.
- He protested against British domination of salt trade by walking 60 miles to the sea to collect salt in
1930. He did this in order to;

 To end the British discriminatory laws

 To unite all Indians for independence
 To force the government to release all political prisoners
 To force the government to reduce the war funds and salaries for expatriates

- He acted as a unifier. He promoted unity by appealing to all Indian sects about a sense of nationhood.
- He provided strong leadership by uniting Nehru and Jinnah, the leaders of the Hindu and Muslims
respectively.
- He acted as a mouth piece for the Indians e.g.

 He wrote open letters to British through the viceroy

 He made public speeches that condemned the oppressive colonial policies
 He urged people to take non-violent action against the authorities

The Simon Commission (1922)

- It was appointed by the British government to make recommendations.
Aims

 To investigate causes of conflicts in India

 To review Indian colonial policies
 To give India self-government in provinces

Recommendations

 It urged the Colonial Government to change its oppressive policies to bring peace
 It proposed that India should attain self-government in provinces.
 Solving problems of the minorities

- It was rejected by Indians because Indians were not involved.

- It proposed a diarchy i.e. a system of central government by the British and Provincial government by
Indians.
- Indians rejected the diarchy because they wanted total independence.
Page 86 of 97
 - It also proposed round table conferences to be held in London

Round Table Conferences (1931-32)

- Ghandi played a leading role in these conferences which were held in London.

a. The First Round Table Conferences(1930 - 1931)

- It had the following terms
 To review the Simon Commission investigations
 To suppress conflicts caused by the civil disobedience
 To sustain colonisation in India
- It was attended by other leaders as the revolutionary leaders were still arrested
- Another conference between Gandhi and Irwin (the Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931), the viceroy and it had the
following terms
 To discourage Gandhi from doing his civil disobedience activities.
 To encourage him to attend the Second Round Table conference
 The British promised to;
- Remove the ban on salt making
- Release all non-violent prisoners
- Restore all the confiscated property
- Legalise the boycotting of foreign clothes
b. The Second Round Table Conference (1932)

- It was attended by Mahatma Gandhi and the leaders of Indian National Congress and Muslim League.
- However, some leading members of the British government refused to see Gandhi due to his dressing
- It contributed to independence in the following ways;
 It gave India a dominion status quo, which would make it attain independence
 It passed the Government of India Act, which gave the Indians control over provincial councils
and the right to vote

- However, the round table conferences failed to solve the problem of minorities

The Government of India Act of 1935

- This act emphasized on local and provincial powers to be given to Indians e.g. the elected assembly of
India was to have a say in everything except in defence and foreign affairs.
- It provided for elections to be held in December 1945 and January 1946 for the central and provincial
legislatures.
- It also announced that an executive council and a constitution making body would be formed after the
elections
- However, it failed because;
 It did not mention anything about dominion status
 It ignored the Hindu-Muslim religious rivalry

Elections (1937)
- The first general elections were held.
- The National Congress under Jawaharlal Nehru won the majority of seats.
- The Moslem League under Mohammed Ali Jinnah did not do well.
- The Moslems believed that in the democratic India, they had no say and that they may be ill-treated.
- This caused divisions and rivalry.

Reasons for Delaying Indian Independence after 1937 Elections

Page 87 of 97
 a. Britain wanted to develop India economically first before handing over power to the locals.
b. The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 disturbed the whole process
c. Britain wanted to end conflicts between Hindus and Moslems.

HINDU-MUSLIM RIVALRY

Causes

a. Religious differences
- The Muslims accused the Hindus of idol worship e.g. taking cows as sacred animals
- The Hindus accused Muslims of eroding Indian culture by adopting Arabic culture.
- This religious intolerance caused rivalry.
b. Social intolerance
- Intermarriages and interactions between the Hindu and Muslims were forbidden thereby intensifying
the rift between the two groups.
c. Ideological differences
- The Hindu under Congress wanted a strong central government while the Muslims wanted strong
provincial governments
d. Political divide or Power struggles
- Moslems feared Hindu domination after the elections of 1937 since the Hindu were many e.g. by 1914
they were 400 million people in India but Hindus were 300 million.
- The formation of separate political movements further divided the two groups e.g. Indian National
Congress for the Hindus and Muslim League for the Muslims.

Stages
- In fact, Muslims were getting concerned about their position in the united India.
- By 1939, it became clear that India cannot be united.
- Muslim leader, Mohammed Ali Jinnah said “Islam is in danger. Muslims can expect neither justice nor
fair play under congress government. Muslims are a nation and they must have their homeland, their
territory and their state”.
- Moslems were many in Punjab, Afkhan, Kashmir and Baluchistan.
- They therefore demanded for a state to be called Pakistan “Land of the pure.”
Impact

- It led to the partition of India into two; India for Hindus and Pakistan for Muslims.
- This also led to the following;
 It led to widespread violence and death of people.
 It led to displacement of people as refugees
 It encouraged regional and boundary conflicts e.g. Kashmir border dispute

Independence of India

- Independence of India became obvious in 1945 because;

a. Change of government in Britain with Clement Attlee of Labour party as the new prime
minister. The new government was more willing to grant independence.
b. Economic hardships of Second World War on Britain.
c. The violent clashes between Hindus and Moslems
- Due to these, Clement Attlee appointed Lord Earl Mount batten as the last viceroy to India.
- Mount batten called politicians to meetings so as to solve the problems.
- Finally, the lines of divisions were drawn on the map.

Page 88 of 97
 - In December 1945, the general elections were held in India.
- In August 1947 both India and Pakistan became independent.
- Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first prime minister while Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the first Governor
General of Pakistan.
- However, massacres followed leading to deaths of thousands of Hindus and Muslims as they tried to
cross borders to their respective new states.
- Statistics has it that about 400,000 people were killed and many became refugees.
- Mahatma Ghandi was shot by a Hindu fanatic in 1948 because he was calling for a peaceful settlement of
the problem.
Reasons India was partitioned soon after Independence

 The impact of the Hindu-Muslim rivalry as Muslims did not want to be ruled by Hindus.
 The British had fears that a serious civil war will break out between the Hindus and Muslims.
 Influence of the colonial government as it favoured Muslims to take Pakistan

Why the Independence of India Took Long Time to be Granted?

a. The British did not want to lose it as they regarded it as a brightest jewel.
b. The Indians believed that the British were invincible or unbeatable
c. Lack of unity among the Indians. This made it difficult for them to work together to fight for
independence especially the Hindu and Moslems.

A. KENYA
Location
- It is located in Eastern part of Africa (See political map of Africa)

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN KENYA

a. Land problems
- British settlers and Asians took fertile Kikuyu highlands while the Kenyans were forced to occupy low
and unfertile coastal areas.
- They introduced kipande, a new farming system which forced people to make ridges, apply fertilizer
and chemicals.
- They killed some herds of cattle in order to reduce overgrazing
- They forced Kenyans to work on their farms as labourers with very harsh conditions e.g. poor wages.

b. Racial segregation
- There was serious racial segregation in Kenya e.g.
 Africans were regarded as inferior to whites and Asians
 Blacks could not attend similar schools with the whites.
 Some shops were for the whites only
Page 89 of 97
  European earned more income than the blacks
 Government comprised whites only.
 Certain jobs were for the whites only
 Laws were made in favour of the whites
- The Whites also did not like the Asians in Kenya because of radical prejudice and fear of Asian
competition.

c. Unemployment
- Many Africans were unemployed.
- The few that were employed received very little wages e.g. UN survey (1953) showed that
Europeans earned £660, Asians £280 while Africans £27 per year.
- This also meant poor standards of living by these blacks.

d. Effects of the Second World War (1939-45)

- The war weakened the European countries economically and militarily as they found it difficult to
resist any revolution.
- It united the Kenyans to fight for independence under the influence of the ex-servicemen and the
Mau-Mau.
- Japanese victory over the whites during the war proved that they were not invincible. It therefore
gave the Kenyans hope and optimism that they could defeat them as well.
- The war contract made the Kenyans join the war on the side of the British in order to buy their
political independence.

e. Taxation policies

- The British introduced direct and indirect taxes to Africans to force them to provide labour.
- All married adult males and females paid hut tax.
- In 1906, the colonial government also introduced a 30 day ticket system of work to force Africans
to work for them.
- The tax could also be raised anytime which frustrated Africans
- The British were not willing to pay for the expensive social services but Africans who benefitted
less were forced to pay

f. Influence of External Pressure

- This was especially the UNO, USSR and USA.
- The UNO put pressure since its charter of 1941
 Forbids colonialism and encourage people to form their own government.
 Gave the Kenyans a backbone to resist any foreign rule.
- USSR and USA encouraged some of European colonies to gain independence with the hope of
winning some of them as the competed against each other.

FORMATION OF MASS POLITICAL PARTIES IN KENYA

- During 1940’s many Kenyan African leaders began opposing the colonial government.
- The main opposition came from the Kikuyu, people of central Kenya.
- They lived in the fertile highlands of Kenya.
- They were mainly agrarian and pastoralists
- Many of these people lived in severe poverty.
- They formed the Kikuyu Central Association, which sent Jomo Kenyatta to London to present their
land problems in 1929.

Page 90 of 97
 a. Kenyan African Union (KAU)

- It was formed in 1946 by the Kikuyu under the leadership of Harry Thuku.
- He was replaced by Jomo Kenyatta in 1947 because he was too moderate.
- Under Kenyatta, it grew in strength e.g. he demanded for more Africans to be in the Legislative and
Executive Councils.
- The colonial government responded by

 It appointed six Africans in the Legislative Council of the fifty four members.
 It also appointed one African to a twelve member Executive council.

Aims

 To end land problems by reclaiming fertile highlands

 To end racial segregation by influencing inclusion of Africans in Legislative Council.

b. Kenya African National Union (KANU)

- It was formed in 1960 by Oginga Odinga and Thom Mboya.

- It was led by Tom Mboya and James Gichuru while Kenyatta was in prison.
- By this time, the KAU was banned.
- It had support from major tribes e.g. Kikuyu and Luo.
- It was very radical in approach as it agitated for immediate self-government.
- Soon after his release from prison in 1961, Kenyatta became its president, Oginga Odinga its vice
president and Thom Mboya its Secretary General.
Aims of KANU

a. To end racial segregation

b. To fight for independence
c. To promote national unity

c. Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)

- It was formed in 1960 and was led by Ronald Ngala and Daniel Arap Moi as an opposition party of
KANU.
- It drew its support from the smaller tribes and urban dwellers rather than the rural masses.
- It actually feared the domination of the Kikuyu and Luo of the KANU party
- It was very mild in its approach to fight for independence.
Aims of KADU

a. To promote nationalism and patriotism among Kenyans

b. To act as watchdog of KANU policies
Role Played by Mass Political Parties to Kenyan Independence

a. They acted as mouthpiece for masses against the harsh colonial policies.
b. They provided masses with strong leadership to fight for independence e.g. Mzee Jomo Kenyatta,
Daniel Arap Moi etc.
c. They promoted nationalism among Africans
d. They sensitised the masses on social and political activities
Problems Faced by Mass Political Parties in Kenya

 Lack of funds e.g. KANU and KADU

 Lack of unity among members
Page 91 of 97
  Illiteracy among majority of members e.g. KADU
 Tribalism and fear of domination by some communities.

THE MAU MAU

- The words Mau Mau were made from re-arranged words “Uma Uma” which means “Get Out Get Out”
- They are an acronym in Swahili which stands for “Mzungu ayende ulaya, Mwafrika apate uhuru ”
- It was a secret movement which developed among the Kikuyu of KAU.
- It was formed in 1945 and it comprised ex-soldiers of the Second World War.
Aims/Goals

 To recover land that had been stolen by the Europeans.

 To attain independence of Kenya as soon as possible.
 To force the colonial government to change some of its oppressive policies e.g. racial segregation

Activities
- They also demanded new British policies designed to improve the lives of Africans.
- They usually met in the forests during mid-night and took oath of secrecy to conduct the following
violent activities;

 kill the Europeans and their African collaborators

 organising labour strikes
 setting fire to white farms and buildings
 maiming of livestock of the whites

- In 1952, the group became extremely violent and cause a lot of problems to the Europeans by raiding
their settlements.
- They also used herbal medicine to scare and drive away the whites from the fertile highlands.
- They organised the Lari Massacre in 1953 in which they hacked and burnt to death several villagers.
Contributions of Women in the Mau Mau Movement

- The Kikuyu women played important roles in the movement such as

 Providing food and other resources for their families
 They prepared food and secretly sent it to their men in the forests
 They acted as first class spies and informants
 Providing supplies, arms and ammunition to the Mau Mau freedom fighters
 Some offered their resources for the use by the Mau Mau e.g. cars
 They fought alongside men during the operations of the Mau Mau
 They composed songs one of which became Mau Mau anthem
 They served male leaders like cleaning guns, meeting their sexual needs etc.
 They sought for international support e.g. Mama Sarah Sarai

Colonial Government Response to Mau Mau Activities

- Governor, Sir Evelyn Baring was forced to take military action against the Mau Mau movement and
hence declared the state of emergency in 1951 and it was lifted in 1960.

Results of the State of Emergency

 Death of many people especially the Kikuyu. About 13,000 people died of whom only 100
were Europeans.
 Persecution of the Mau-Mau by the whites.
 Imprisonment of leading African leaders e.g. Mzee Jomo Kenyatta and other Kikuyu people.
Page 92 of 97
  Banning of all political parties.
How the State of Emergency Contributed to Independence of Kenya.

 By persecuting and killing Africans, the colonial government proved to be harsh towards Africans. This
therefore united the Kenyans to fight the white rule.
 The violence by the Kenyans made the British government to set up the East African Royal
Commission of inquiry (1953) to establish the causes of Mau-Mau terrorism.
 The Commission of inquiry recommended that the colonial government should change some of its
policies e.g. political parties were re-introduced in 1960.
 It also influenced the Colonial government to facilitate the constitutional talks to prepare Kenya for
Independence.

Contributions of the Mau Mau to Independence of Kenya

a. It encouraged constitutional changes which eventually led to independence.

b. It showed that white settlers were unable to control a major uprising without the backing of British
government.
c. It proved to the British government that Africans were prepared and united to fight for their country.
d. The British government was influenced to change some of its policies e.g. racial segregation was
abolished and the land was partially given to Africans.
Factors that Sustained the Long Resistance of the Mau Mau

 Oathing made them courageous

 Use of guerrilla military tactics
 Support from civilians like the spies
 Strong leadership
 Natural forests provided good hideouts

Problems the Mau Mau Faced

 Lack of transport and communication facilities

 Adverse weather conditions e.g. Mount Kenya is too cold
 Faced brutality by British forces when captured
 Inadequate weapons compared to the British
 Constant divisions and disagreements among fighters
 They were frequently attacked by wild animals

THE MAIN EVENTS THAT LED TO INDEPENDENCE OF KENYA

A. The Constitutional Talks
- These were official meetings between the British government and Kenyan party officials.
- The aim was to facilitate discussions on the proper steps for independence
- They started in 1960 as a reaction to the Mau-Mau, who reacted to the arrest of Kenyatta.
- The Mau-Mau did the following;
 Vandalised police stations
 Took over the some of the farms from the whites
 Killed any supporter of government
 Worked against all security men
The First Constitutional Talks (1961) – The Lancaster House Conference

- The talks were held in London in 1961.

Page 93 of 97
 - Despite opposition from the whites, a new constitution was agreed which had the following;
 Africans were given four positions on the council of ministers.
 Africans would probably control the Legislative Council
 Political parties were now allowed at national level.
 It provided for pre-independent elections (referendum) to find out if Africans wanted self-
rule.
The First General Elections (1961)
- KANU won 19 seats and KADU 11 while other seats were won by the New Kenya Party.
- However, KANU refused to form government to force the colonial government to release Jomo
Kenyatta.
- The colonial government however did not release him until August.
- KADU and New Kenya Party formed the government.
- Kenyatta was set free in 1961.
The London Conference (1962) – The Second Constitutional Talks

- It was agreed to divide Kenya into six regions based on the main tribal areas.
- Each one of them should have government with local powers.
- Kenyatta objected to this idea because it reduced central government authority.
- It also fixed a proper date for Kenya’s independence. This allowed General elections to be held in 1963
The Second General Elections (May, 1963)

- KANU won 83 seats while KADU 41 seats.

- On June 1963, Kenya was given self-government and Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister.
- On 12 December 1963, Kenya became independent with Jomo Kenyatta as the first president and
Oginga Odinga vice president.
- The presence of many tribes proved difficult for Kenyans to be united under the new government.
How Kenyatta United Kenya

 Selection of ministers on non-tribal grounds.

 Promoting the philosophy for unity of “Harambee” which means “let work together.”

TOPIC 7: POST-COLONIAL AFRICA UP TO 2000

EXPECTATIONS OF THE PEOPLE AT INDEPENDENCE

a. Economic Freedom
- Africans believed that they were underdeveloped because of the colonial masters.
- This was so because land and other economic activities were controlled by the colonialists.
- With independence, Africans expected to fully participate in the economic activities of their
nation.
b. Political Freedom
- Africans expected to have freedom to participate in the political activities of their nations. E.g. to
choose their own leaders.
c. National Unity
- Africans expected unity since the colonial policy of “divide and rule” was gone with the colonists.
- This meant that they would be united and serve with one common goal.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN AFRICA FROM INDEPENDENCE UP

TO 2000

a. Political stability
Page 94 of 97
 -Most African states adopted multi-party democracy.
-This led to free and fair elections
-This improved political situations in Africa
-Previous, there were a lot of coups and dictatorial regimes
b. Economic growth
- Most African countries were poor due European colonialism and exploitation of their resources by
Europeans.
- However, after gaining independence, their economy grew due to;
 Development of infrastructure
 Donor funds
 Better governance
 Economic cooperation among African states

c. Improved Agriculture
- Africans got back fertile land from Europeans, which improved their agriculture
- There was more funding from the governments towards agriculture
- The governments assisted farmers with inputs e.g. fertilizer
- This made many African states to be food secure.
d. Women empowerment
- After independence, women status started to improve.
- Some women were elected to important positions e.g. members of parliament, presidents etc.
- Women empowerment promoted gender equity and human rights development in Africa.
e. Multi-party politics
-Soon after independence, most of African states had dictatorship governments.
-However, due to external pressure, most of them started to become democratic states.
-This led to the introduction of multi-party politics.
-This has led to freedom of press, independent unions, opposition parties and more democratic
space.
- It has also created equal opportunities in socio-economic and political resources.
f. Smooth power transition
- Most leaders at independence were dictators and it was difficult to hand over power.
- However, with improved socio-economic and political structures, good leaders have replaced
dictators through peaceful transition of power e.g. in Senegal
- Many leaders have also handed over power peacefully by respecting the will of people through
free and fair elections.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA FROM INDEPENDENCE UP
TO 2000

1. Dependence on donor aid

- Most of African states are depending on donors from for development
- The donors include developed countries like Britain, USA etc. and multinational financial
institutions like International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
- This has created debt crisis for most of African countries
- The donors also came up programmes which negatively affect Africa e.g. structural adjustment
programmes, privatisation and liberalisation of economy.
- This makes African states to be dominated by outsiders e.g. banks, companies etc.

Steps taken by African States to deal with Donor Dependency

 Implementing zero deficit budgets. This involves the use of money from local tariffs to finance
the budget
 Import substitution. This promotes use of local resources and reduces imports
 Establishment of regional blocs to promote intra-trade e.g. SADC, COMESA etc.
Page 95 of 97
2. Overpopulation
- Africa’s population is increasing rapidly
- This is posing threat to Africa’s political, social and economic development.
3. Diseases
- These include Tuberculosis, HIV and AIDS which are killing many people in Africa
4. Military coups and dictatorships
- Military dictatorship is when the power is seized by soldiers from civilians through a coup.
Causes
 Grievances on political, economic and social injustices by the state e.g. high unemployment
 Greed of most African leaders as they exploit the countries resources for personal gains e.g.
Chad
 Impact of colonialism since most African countries were colonised by force. This planted the
spirit of use of force by Africans hence coups.
 Regionalisms leading to ethnic rivalries e.g. In Nigeria political parties were formed on
regional lines.
 Corruption and nepotism. Most African leaders tend to enrich themselves and favour regions
they come from in development.
 Discontent with elections results. The rigging of elections destroys credibility of civilian
governments and encourages military coups.
5. Environmental degradation
- It is caused by the following; pollution, improper sewage disposal, use of artificial fertilizers and
pesticides, use of military hardware during civil wars, overpopulation, industrialisation etc.
- African governments have made the following efforts to control environmental degradation
 Attending world conferences on environmental e.g. Kyoto Protocol
 Signing international agreements or conventions on climate change e.g. United Nations
Conference on Climate Change.
 Promoting civic education on environmental protection
6. Weak economy
Causes
 Fluctuation of prices of products at the international market e.g. Copper in Zambia
 Stiff competition at the world market with other countries that produce similar commodities
e.g. Zambia competed with other world copper producers like Chile, USA and Argentina
 Corruption by leaders led to unbalanced cash flows causing weak economies.
 Increased debts from IMF and World Bank with unfavourable conditions
 Landlocked countries depend on their neighbours for imports and exports which disturbs their
foreign trade.
 Overdependence on imports from European countries has resulted in negative balance of trade.
Effects of Weak Economy
 Inflation as the currency loses its value
in many people in some African states lack basic needs
 It has also led to underdevelopment of some African states
 Increased debts due to heavy donor dependence
 Closure of some industries due to liberalisation
 It has promoted growth of informal sector like sale of second-hand clothes from developed
countries.
7. Civil war
- Many countries in Africa have experienced civil wars after independence e.g. Rwanda, Burundi,
Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan and DRC.
Causes
a. Clash of ideas between communism and capitalism supported by USSR and USA respectively e.g.
In Mozambican civil war USSR supported FRELIMO while USA supported RENAMO.
b. Ethnic rivalry e.g. in Mozambique Maconde dominated the FRELIMO and also the Hutu and Tutsi
rivalry in Burundi and Rwanda.

Page 96 of 97
 c. Involvement of African countries in the affairs of neighbouring countries e.g.
 Namibia which was under South Africa was denied independence by the apartheid
government in South Africa.
Angola was harbouring and training SWAPO leaders of Namibia against South Africa.
South Africa supported the UNITA in Angolan Civil war because their government was
supporting the SWAPO
d. Discontent over election results due to rigging e.g. Angola
e. Involvement of foreign countries in African affairs has also promoted civil wars e.g. the crisis in
DRC is largely influenced by foreign countries due to its rich resources.
Impact of Civil Wars
 Death of many people
 Slow economic growth due to destruction of infrastructure.
 Creation of refugee problems in other countries
 Economic misery due to disruption of economic activities e.g. agriculture, industry and trade
 Lo+w delivery of social services as resources are diverted towards war.

IMPACT OF POST-COLONIAL CRISES AND CHALLENGES

1. Resurgence of multi-party democracy e.g. South Africa, Zambia and Malawi.

- This happened after the collapse of dictatorial regimes, which were oppressive.

2. They contributed to the worsening of economic conditions in Africa.

- Many African states were still dependent on the western countries (neo-colonialism), which created
high inflation and foreign debts.

3. There were increased cases of corruption and abuse of public offices by office bearers.
4. The development of technology in Africa to combat problems e.g. disease like TB and HIV/AIDS
5. They led to various attempts at regional grouping through regional integration.

- Most African states allied to form regional organisations like SADC, ECOWAS etc.
- These promoted unity, co-operation and common approach to the post-colonial problems.

Page 97 of 97