WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES It would be nice if we could say that

William Shakespeare wroteKing Lear when he himself was at an advanced age. We

couldpicture him becoming concerned with retirement and the disposalof his property
and goods. But the theory collapses when yourealize that Shakespeare was only 41
years old when the firstperformance of King Lear was recorded in an official
document. Besides, the plot line, involving two older men and theirrespective
family problems, is only a small part of the [Link] Lear is about much, much
more and undoubtedly reflectsdeeper concerns that Shakespeare had developed in his
alreadyconsiderable experience as a playwright. By the time he wrote King Lear,
this adventurous young man fromStratford had led a remarkable life, even for
Elizabethan times,which we tend to think of as more exciting than our own. During
the reign of Elizabeth I, England experienced a period ofrelative stability and,
more important, prosperity. All thearts flourished, but the growth of drama was
nothing short ofphenomenal. At the zenith of Elizabeth's power and influence,
William Shakespeare came to London and wrote the 37 plays thathave established him
as the greatest playwright in the Englishlanguage. How did it all begin? What
purpose drove him to produce thisincredible body of work? Where did his
inspiration come from? There are many theories about Shakespeare, but very little
thatis known for certain. He was born in 1564 and raised inStratford-on-Avon, some
100 miles from London. His father was asuccessful middle-class tradesman and had
even held publicoffice. Young Will attended local schools, which means hereceived
a good, substantial education. It gave him abackground in the classics as well as
proficiency in the three"Rs." At 18, William married Anne Hathaway, eight years his
[Link] subsequently bore a daughter, Susanna, and shortlyafterward, twins,
Hamnet and Judith. How the young husband provided for his family during the first
years of marriage is unknown. A strong tradition holds that hewas employed locally
as a schoolteacher, but there is noevidence to prove it. We do know that he left
Stratford sometime in his mid-20s andsettled in London. There he first came to
notice as a poet, thewriter of two long poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of
Lucrece. These poems were favorably received and launched hisreputation. About the
same time, he turned his attention to the theater. Hewrote one tragedy, Titus
Andronicus, but most of his earliestplays were comedies, including The Comedy of
Errors, TwoGentlemen of Verona, Love's Labor's Lost, and The Taming of theShrew.
Romantic comedy, satire, farce--all flowed from his penat the outset of his career.
They concerned relationships amonglovers, friends, families, but they didn't plumb
the depths. Overlapping the production of these comedies were his earliesthistory
plays. Toward the end of the 16th century Shakespeareproduced the series of four
great historical works that remainthe pinnacle of his achievement in that type of
theater--RichardII; Henry IV, Part I; Henry IV, Part II; and Henry V. As the years
wore on, Shakespeare turned from his interest inpolitics and the glorification of
England to more profoundcomedies. Two of the best known, Measure for Measure and
All'sWell that Ends Well, show an interest in darker humanbehavior. It's not
surprising, then, that the greatest of Shakespeare'stragedies were also written
during this period, the first decadeof the new century. Now the poet-playwright
was at the absoluteheight of his powers, and one brilliant drama followed thenext--
Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, all written andperformed within a few
short years. Shakespeare was still relatively young, but he had matured. Hewas a
playwright of some repute, and also an actor who performedboth in his own plays and
in plays by others. He could verywell afford to look around and question why
everything in lifewasn't perfect and rosy. King Lear examines a broad range of
philosophic ideas. There'sa somber tone and not much frivolity in the play. But
theplaywright in Shakespeare knew he couldn't simply stage a dulldiscussion of
abstract notions. And so he told a story in orderto hold the audience's attention
and to get his points [Link] play explores more profound themes than any of
Shakespeare'stragedies, but it also offers a central figure of such heroic
proportion that our attention is riveted to him and his [Link] you read the play
today, or see it performed, you can'thelp but be moved by the powerful speech
Shakespeare puts intothe mouths of his characters--speech so rich and poetic that
some readers refer to King Lear as Shakespeare's greatestpoem. Shakespeare
continued to write tragedies--Coriolanus, Macbeth,Antony and Cleopatra--but he
found the world of myth a bettersetting for his developing interests. A new type
of play, theromantic tragicomedy, began to appear--The Winter's Tale, TheTempest,
Cymbeline. Shakespeare's involvement with a theatrical company called theKing's
Men--both as actor and playwright--kept him active until1613, when the Globe
Theatre in which the company performedburned down. Perhaps he took it as an omen,
but Shakespearereturned at about that time to Stratford, where he spent hisfinal
years. He died on April 23, 1616, at the age of 52. William Shakespeare never
lived to be as old as Lear. Nor washe ever a king. But his rich imagination and
talent enabled himto create a world so true that we can enter it even today.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THE PLOT There are really two plots in King Lear, a main plot
and a fullydeveloped subplot. Each has its own set of characters. In the main
plot, there is the head of the family, the80-plus-year-old king of Britain, Lear.
He has three daughters,Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia. The Duke of Albany is married
tothe oldest, Goneril, and the Duke of Cornwall is married toRegan, the middle
daughter. Cordelia has two suitors, the Dukeof Burgundy and the King of France.
The court jester, the Fool,is by extension a member of the Lear family and part of
the mainplot, as is the Earl of Kent, Lear's loyal follower. The Earl of
Gloucester, also a member of Lear's court, is thehead of another family and the
focus of the subplot. He has twooffspring, an older, legitimate son named Edgar
and a younger,illegitimate or bastard son named Edmund. Various minor characters
appear from time to time. They areeasily identified by their connections with
whatever maincharacter they serve or speak of. As the play opens, Lear has decided
to retire and divide hiskingdom among his three daughters. Cordelia's husband will
bechosen for her immediately after Lear executes this "livingwill." Before he
allots the shares, Lear asks each daughter tomake a profession of her love for him
in order to receive herentitlement. Goneril and Regan waste no time professing
lovefor their father, but Cordelia is speechless. She loves herfather as any
daughter should, no more and no less. Lear isoutraged by what he sees as her lack
of devotion. He cutsCordelia out of her share and banishes her. Her share is
divided between Goneril and Regan. Lear gives them everythingbut keeps a retinue,
a following of 100 knights who willaccompany him as he alternates monthly visits
between his twodaughters. Cordelia's suitors are called in. Without a dowry,
Burgundy rejects her; but the King of France sees her true worthand leads Cordelia
off to marriage and his protection. At Gloucester's castle, Edmund reveals that he
will not let hisillegitimate birth and older brother prevent him from inheritinghis
father's estate. He devises a plan to convince Gloucesterthat Edgar is secretly
planning to kill his father to get hishands on the family property and enjoy it
while he's stillyoung. Edmund then tells Edgar that their father is after himfor
some mistaken notion of a reported crime. EventuallyGloucester is convinced of
Edgar's treachery and seeks to puthis older son to death. Edgar flees for his
life. Meanwhile, Lear discovers that living with his two daughters isno joy. He is
so outraged by their cruel behavior toward himthat he curses them and rushes out
into a violent storm. Duringhis exposure to the elements he is accompanied by
Kent, the Fool(his court jester), and eventually by Edgar, who has disguisedhimself
as a lunatic beggar named "poor Tom." Gloucester tries to help Lear and his
followers but is betrayedto Cornwall and Regan by Edmund. As punishment,
Gloucester isblinded and sent out into the storm, too. Edgar, stilldisguised,
discovers his blind father and leads him to Dover,where he joins Lear, who has gone
mad from exposure to theelements and the anguish he has suffered at the hands of
hisdaughters. The news of Lear's treatment had reached Cordelia, and the Kingof
France has sent an invading force to England to help restoreLear's rights to him.
In Dover, where they have landed,Cordelia finds Lear and helps to restore his
sanity by lovingcare. While preparing to fight the French invaders, Goneril and
Reganhave developed a passion for Edmund. But before they can doanything about it,
the battle is fought. The French lose, andLear and Cordelia are taken prisoners.
Edmund sends Lear and Cordelia to prison with orders for them tobe secretly killed.
When Albany enters, he accuses Edmund oftreason for plotting with Goneril against
him and the interestsof the state. Edmund is given the chance to defend his honor
ina duel. Edgar appears in a new disguise to take up thischallenge and mortally
wounds Edmund. Goneril sees thehandwriting on the wall and flees from the scene.
Edmundconfesses all his crimes as a servant enters and announces thatGoneril has
poisoned Regan and killed herself. Edmund thenreveals that he has ordered Lear's
and Cordelia's [Link] sends soldiers to prevent it, but he's too late. Lear
enters carrying the dead Cordelia in his arms. As he weeps forher, surrounded by
the bodies of Goneril and Regan, thesurvivors can only stare in respectful awe.
Albany, the victor of the battle, relinquishes rule of thecountry to Kent and
Edgar, but the worn-out Kent doesn't [Link] is left to restore order in
England as the bodies of thedead are carried away. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: SOURCES
There may well have been an ancient king of Britain named [Link] he may have had
daughters to whom he relinquished hiskingdom and his authority when he retired at
an early age. Butwe can only speculate about these people because there is no
historic record of such a ruler. Lear may be only a popularmyth. By the time
Shakespeare came to write about Lear, there wereseveral available versions of the
story. We know thatHolinshed's Chronicles, Shakespeare's source for several of his
histories, contained a Lear story. There was also another playperformed at that
time called The True Chronicle History of KingLeir. The author is unknown, but
there is a record of itsperformance in London in 1594, some 12 years before
Shakespeare's King Lear appeared. Edmund Spenser's great epicpoem The Faerie Queen
also includes the Lear story. Some fine points differ in these stories, but
Shakespeare'sversion is unique in one uncontestable aspect: the others hadhappy
endings. Some even had a sequel showing how the "happilyever after" turned out!
And none had the Gloucester [Link] took the outline of this story from
a contemporaryromance, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia. He changed names andadapted
its theme of filial ingratitude as a parallel toreinforce the tension and impact of
his main plot. Since he was concerned with tragedy, not history, Shakespearewas
free to take whatever liberties he chose in order to shapethe drama to his purpose.
And that was his story of KingLear. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: KING LEAR The title
character of this play is unquestionably its dominantfigure. Although the name
"Lear" comes from some ruler who maynever have actually lived, Shakespeare has
created aflesh-and-blood monarch whose actions and reactions determinethe main
course of events in the play. You must remember that Lear is first of all a king.
He is nowin his 80s and is accustomed to all the power, the authority,the
responsibilities, and the privileges of an absolute [Link] our age, when such
total rule is rare, we might not reallycomprehend what that means. But if you
think back to everystory of every king you've ever heard about, even fairy-tale
monarchs, you'll have some idea of how the Elizabethans feltabout a king. As a man,
Lear is the ruler of a family. To the Elizabethans,the family unit was just a
miniature version of the [Link] the power and authority of the father was
given the samerespect. In a world where the life expectancy was much lower than our
own, 80 was an exceptional age to attain. When King Lear wasfirst performed, Queen
Elizabeth I had only recently died at age70. So as a "geriatric," not much would
have been expected ofLear. Still, retirement was unknown. The tradition of the
daywas that you worked as long as you were able. From the moment Lear announces his
retirement, we have to keepan eye on him to detect any sign of weakness or
infirmity, tosee if the action is justified. The physical strength it tookto
survive the fierce storm would appear to contradict such aview. Even his final act
of carrying in the body of Cordelia isquite an achievement for an 80-year-old. But
what about his mind--the moodiness, the rash judgments, therage? Are these the
telltale signs of old age or senility? Youhave to decide for yourself when Lear is
in his right mind, whenhe is being manipulative, and when he is actually mad. Lear
is never entirely alone on the stage; he is attended bysomeone even in his most
contemplative moments. But Shakespearehas given him such an aura that the
spotlight is always on himand he is always in focus. We can examine his every word
andevery move microscopically. Observe the skill with which he tries to manipulate
hisdaughters. Notice how he rouses our sympathy with references tohimself as
"tired," "poor," and "old." You'll notice that Learreally only acts in the first
scene and that all the rest isreaction. But it is the most skillful reaction
imaginable sinceit never fails to hold our interest and attention. In the final
analysis, Lear himself must be judged on severalcounts. He undoubtedly triggered
the forces that broughtEngland to the brink of civil war. It took a foreign
invasionto restore authority and order. This makes Lear guilty ofsomething. But
is the suffering he endures, the extent of hispunishment and final loss, deserved?
As you watch his progressthrough the play, you alone must decide whether he is
indeed,"...a man / More sinn'd against than sinning" (III, ii,59-60). ^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR: CORDELIA The stubborn streak that Lear's youngest daughter exhibits in
the first scene is the one saving gesture that redeems Cordeliafrom being "too good
to be true." We don't know much about Cordelia except that she is herfather's
favorite. As a princess, she obviously has led aprivileged life, but it doesn't
appear to have spoiled her as ithas her older sisters. Cordelia is not stupid. She
may not be wise enough to avoidlosing her share of Lear's kingdom, but she can
speak up whenher honor as well as interest are at stake. She makes sure thatthe
King of France does not get the wrong idea about her errorof judgment and consider
it a crime. Although she disappears from the stage after the first scene anddoesn't
return until the last scene of the fourth act, her imageis kept before us and
periodically polished. This leads togreat expectations. Still, we're not
disappointed when she doesreturn to the stage. From that point on she is the soul
ofgentleness and goodness in her devotion to her aged father andhis welfare. By
endowing Cordelia with such powerful virtue, Shakespeareseems to be indulging us in
our eternal wish for the ultimatefairy-tale princess. We want her to make
everything come out anright. Because it doesn't, despite her noble efforts, her
lastmoments on the stage are all the more poignant. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: GONERIL
In terms of pure evil, it may be difficult to distinguish Lear'stwo older daughters
from each other. But these are notidentical twins. Goneril, whom we get to know
first, is thefirstborn and has an imperious manner not unlike Lear's. Highly
intelligent, she has long been aware of her father's moodiness,and she decides to
play it for all it's worth. Although sheconspires initially with her sister Regan
to protect theirmutual interests, greed gets the better of her. When itcombines
with lust, there's no stopping this powerful [Link] she is confronted with
evidence of her treachery by herhusband, she sneers, "Who can arraign me for't?"
(V, iii,160.) As one of the three principal villains in King Lear, Gonerildoes her
share to provide a broad picture of evil. And if youthink she is cruel only in her
behavior to her father, listen toher conversations with her husband and her
recommendation forGloucester's punishment. Finally, of course, who else wouldstoop
to poison as a means of getting what she wants? In her fancy clothes, Goneril
couldn't care less about degradingher father with haggling over the size of his
retinue. She isinterested only in "looking after number one." And when there isno
longer a way out, when she is utterly trapped in the web shehas spun, only she will
have the final say. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: REGAN The cruelty and the evil inherent
in Regan are harder to detectat first. We may be taken in as much as Lear is by
her sugarywords. This second daughter is extremely well spoken. She useswords as
a tool and a weapon more craftily than her oldersister. As the middle child, Regan
is less accustomed to initiating; sheusually follows her older sister's lead,
particularly if itserves her self-interest. When Lear turns to her after he has
been turned out by Goneril, we can see why Regan doesn't rush towelcome him. But
the force in her rejection of his request, herdenial of any comfort, and her
instant willingness to turn thisold man out into the violent storm remind us that
there is eviljust below her sweet exterior. Regan is more the stiletto to Goneril's
sword. Even thoughRegan schemes, she is faithful in her marriage. And she kills
only to try to save her husband's life. But she can be viciousand strong willed.
She is capable of terrifying venom when sheunleashes her fury. If her thirst for
power is her primary motivation, her powerfullust is her eventual undoing. All we
can do is speculate as towhether she wanted Edmund for his body or as a partner in
afuture struggle for rule over England. But because Regan isalways "number two,
she dies without knowing that her lovercould never have won the battle she would
have waged. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: GLOUCESTER Gloucester is a counterpoint to Lear.
There are as manyparallels as there are differences between them, though they arein
similar circumstances by the end of the play. Like Lear, Gloucester is elderly. He
is gullible and easilytaken in by his son Edmund. But Gloucester is no weak,
infirmgeriatric either. He braves the storm repeatedly to bringcreature comforts
to his king and master. And even after beingblinded,
he is capable of enduring the long trek to Dover. Unlike Lear, Gloucester is more
the "average man." He speaksplainly, with little indulgence in fancy rhetoric. He
doesn'treally concern himself with philosophic matters until he ispushed almost to
the limit of his endurance. Gloucester doesn'task a lot of questions. He has
faith in astrology much the sameway he trusts Fortune. He must have served Lear in
some senior court capacity for sometime, since he isn't easily disturbed by the ebb
and flow ofpolitics. But when forced to get involved, he isn't very goodat it, and
ultimately suffers for his lack of cunning. This good-natured man is also not
particularly perceptive abouthis children. From the very beginning, when he jokes
aboutEdmund's birth in front of his illegitimate son, Gloucester issingularly
lacking in vision. But Gloucester can be very brave. He is willing to risk hislife
for the king and the order and stability that Learrepresents for him. As the
protagonist of the subplot, Gloucester is its [Link] Goneril and Regan--Lear's
daughters who exudeevil--Gloucester's son Edmund is also evil. To what degree is
Gloucester responsible for this evil? And is his punishment indue proportion to
his "crime"? Answering these questions willgive you greater insight into the main
plot's similar situationand Lear's own final judgment. And that, of course, is one
ofthe great services the character of Gloucester performs in KingLear. That he can
arouse emotions and stimulate our interest inhis own predicament is a testimony to
the craftsmanship of theplaywright who created him. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: EDMUND
Edmund and Edgar are two sides of one coin. To say that one ofthese sons of the
Earl of Gloucester has a particular trait isto claim the opposite of the other.
Yet Shakespeare developseach character fully. Edmund's villainy is obvious as soon
as we see him alone onstage and listen to what he has to say. But during our very
first introduction at the start of the play, he looks like avictim twice over. Not
only is he the product of an illicitliaison, but duty makes him stand by while his
father cracksjokes about his birth. Is it any wonder that Edmund has turnedout the
way he has? Still, for all his carping about his illegitimacy, the troublehe causes
and his treacherous behavior seem well beyond thepoint of fair compensation.
Edmund's glib tongue works hard topersuade us that he's doing only what he must.
It reveals akeen intelligence within his warped mind. Combined with his
overpowering ambition, this intelligence makes Edmund capable ofseizing every
opportunity that comes his way. The passion of Lear's older daughters is something
this youngadventurer barely acknowledges. He allows Fate to decide whichone shall
have him. Is this a more mature Edmund giving a nodto higher powers? To observe
Edmund's villainy throughout King Lear is to see morethan a case study in evil. It
also reveals the twisted path ofa tortured soul. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: EDGAR We
probably see more facets of Gloucester's older son than ofany other character in
King Lear. He ranges from the insipiddupe we meet at the beginning of Act I, Scene
ii, to the heroicheir to the kingdom in the final scene. In between we discovera
lot about Edgar, primarily through his own speech and [Link] little is said to
him except the slanderous comments of thebastard, Edmund. Considering the source,
they are almostendearing. Throughout the play we see an Edgar who has faith in the
godsand their justice. Still, when troubles arise, he can think andact for
himself. As the madman beggar, an imaginative notion tobegin with, he acts the
part well enough to deceive his fatherand godfather. And, while running wildly
about in his fakemadness, he manages to comfort Lear and provide extraordinary
assistance for Gloucester. We may ridicule Edgar's stupidity for allowing Edmund to
drivehim from his home, but we have to admire his achievement ofstature at the end.
There are difficult journeys for manycharacters in King Lear, and Edgar's is not an
easy one. But itis ultimately and deservedly rewarding. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
ALBANY Another significant contrast in the play is Albany. He isalmost as unlike
his brother-in-law, Cornwall, as Gloucester'stwo sons are different. It is easy to
see why the alliance between the two poles ofAlbany and Cornwall would never last.
Not only are their namesopposites--Albany was the ancient name for Scotland, and
Cornwall is located in the southwestern-most part of England--soare their
temperaments. The hot and fiery Cornwall could neverbe compatible with the cool,
calm Albany. The foul-mouthed Goneril calls her husband Albany cowardly, buthe
doesn't display any lack of courage. He's enough of amilitary commander to win a
significant victory. And he's readyto meet Edmund in one-on-one combat. More than
courageous,Albany is decisive when something must be done. Altogether, Albany is an
admirable character and a fittingchampion for justice. The decency of his behavior
makes hiswife's crueller nature stand out in bold relief. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
CORNWALL As befits the role of son-in-law, especially to a king, Cornwallhasn't
much to say or do when we first see him. He is willingto stand by and get his fair
share as Lear parcels out thekingdom. When we first meet him on his own turf, as a
guest butnevertheless as Gloucester's "arch and patron," he is assertiveand
authoritative. In a matter of moments he has taken thingsover and is making all
the important decisions. Cornwall is evil, but certainly not a coward. It takes
him awhile, but he does own up to Lear that he had Kent put into thestocks. And
he's ready to defend that action. In his own mind, Cornwall is a fair judge.
Having decided fromEdmund's report that Gloucester is a traitor, he makes a pass at
giving the old man a chance to speak for himself. But gettingnowhere and not
discovering anything new, Cornwall doesn'thesitate to execute the sentence with
zest. For all the violence, tempest, rage, anger, and horror in theplay, only one
pair of hands in King Lear is really [Link] they are Cornwall's is a mark
and measure of his [Link] is, after all, a fitting partner for the cruel
Regan. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: KENT Kent is the ideal first mate to the commander of
the ship ofstate. From the moment we meet him and observe his tactfulresponse to
Gloucester's bawdy chatter, we know we can rely onthis good man. It doesn't take
long for us to become betteracquainted. When Lear banishes Cordelia, and Kent
speaks up in her behalf,he is bold but courteous. And he sticks to his guns, even
atthe risk of his own banishment. The measure of his devotion to his master, the
king, is shown byhis assumption of a disguise. This enables him to continue in
Lear's service. There are several additional facets of Kent's personality. Hecan
be hotheaded, as in the outburst that infuriates Lear in thevery first scene. And
his treatment of Oswald is hardly [Link] even shows a sense of humor in his
lengthy description ofGoneril's steward. Kent is not a great philosopher, but he
does acknowledge thatthere are greater forces determining our fates. He endures
disfavor and discomfort stoically. His devotion and faithfulness are always in our
minds. In themidst of the final turmoil, we still have compassion for Kentwhen he
tells us that he cannot fulfill the only formal requestmade of him. He cannot
share the responsibility for restoringorder to England because he is nearing his
own end. Who woulddeny him his final rest and reward? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THE
FOOL Although he is an oddity to us, the Fool was greeted by anElizabethan audience
with great familiarity. The monarch inShakespeare's time may not have had an
official court jester,but the position was a historic one. In conventional drama
ofthe day, as a holdover from morality plays of earlier days andthe traveling stock
companies that wandered the countryside, therole was classic. A Fool had
established characteristics andresponsibilities. Among them, the Fool had license
to roam the stage and approachthe audience family, often joking with them and
talking directlyto them. He acted as a bridge between the action on stage andthe
audience's own experience. We might think of this today as"low comedy," but it was
welcome in its day. The better theFool, the greater his popularity with the
"groundlings"--thosemembers of the audience who stood directly around the stage
(today's closest equivalent would be the fans seated in thebleachers of the
ballpark). Shakespeare exploits this aspect of the Fool to make him acharacter in
the play as well as a commentator on the action,much the way the chorus functioned
in Greek tragedy. The notion of the Fool providing comic relief is difficult tosee
in the darkness of King Lear, but such relief does [Link] is not the thigh-
slapping humor we might expect, but ismore colorful relief in the very presence of
the Fool as well ashis bits of light verse, songs, riddles, etc. The role demands
an actor physically nimble, adept at tongue-twisting speech,quick at comebacks, and
intelligent enough to let the Fool'sperformance speak for itself. Tradition has it
that the Fool in Elizabethan tragedy is theinstructor of the wise man. Speaking in
riddles, the Foolrepeatedly reminds Lear of his folly, which we know to be the
truth. As such, the Fool is our champion, giving vent to ourthoughts and emotions.
No wonder audiences can't help lovingthe Fool. It is probably just as well that we
don't see theFool give up the ghost. Though it can be dramaticallyjustified,
we still miss the Fool during the latter half of theplay. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
OSWALD The role of Goneril's steward is another holdover from earlierforms of
drama. Shakespeare has, however, adapted this stockcharacter to his own purpose in
King Lear. Oswald is not completely the traditional two-dimensional buffoonand
cowardly servant. He is brave enough, or firm enough, toresist Regan's attempt to
pry information from him. Is thisloyalty to Goneril? Or is it the blind following
ofinstructions? Even when he is slain, he is true to his mission,asking his
executioner to forward the messages he carries. But Oswald is all too ready to
conspire with Goneril and shareher villainy. He is delighted to carry out her
order to snubLear and his retinue. In fact, it was his complaint thatstarted the
trouble between Goneril and Lear. Of course, Oswald is really nothing compared to
the archvillains of this play. Edgar has the ultimate say after he hasdisposed of
his father's would-be killer: I know thee well: a serviceable villain; As duteous
to the vices of thy mistress As badness would desire. (Act IV, Scene vi, lines 248-
50) That sums up Oswald. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: SETTING King Lear takes place in
mythological, prehistoric England. Itbegins in Lear's palace but never returns to
that spot. Oncethe action starts to move, it doesn't stop until the last noteof
the recessional is sounded. Geography isn't really important, although it does
figure in theplay. We know we are somewhere to the north at Albany's castlewhen
Lear first quarrels with Goneril. Later we move toGloucester's castle, within and
outside the walls. We can't miss knowing when we are outside in a storm, and it's
obvious when we move inside to some form of shelter. The lackof changeable scenery
made it necessary to be nonspecific, butthe Elizabethan platform stage with its
recess in the rearallowed for certain suggestions of movement and place.
Eventually, the action moves to the southeast of England. Edgarguides the blind
Gloucester toward Dover, where the king's partyhas already been sent. Eventually
the two meet. The French have obviously landed in that area, and Cordeliacatches up
with Lear and has him brought to her camp to [Link] is not far from there that the
final battle is fought and theaction of the play is resolved. The rapid flow of
events in King Lear makes what is happeninginfinitely more interesting than where
it takes place. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THEMES There is a wide range of themes
running through King [Link] they are straightforward, but just as frequently
they areburied or seemingly contradictory. It's important to rememberthat
Shakespeare makes many points by parallel or contrastingwords and actions. If
something is significant in the mainplot, it will probably turn up in some fashion
in the subplot,and vice versa. Some of the important themes are: ^^^^^^^^^^KING
LEAR: THE FOLLY OF OLD AGE--THE INGRATITUDE OFYOUTH Lear's division of his
kingdom, his "early retirement,"unleashes the forces that lead ultimately to the
catastrophicending of the play. Gloucester is no less responsible for hiscalamity,
for being rash in his judgment of his older son andblindly trusting his younger.
Are these men senile? How muchof the suffering that they endure do they deserve?
And considering how they are abused by their fathers, don'tEdgar and Goneril
deserve some sympathy, some satisfaction?Regan, too--should she have to put up with
her father's rowdyentourage? Or are these, indeed, thankless children? Do theytry
to grab more than is rightfully theirs? There are several references to how
"golden-agers" should belooked after by their children. What do you think of those
making the comments, as well as those they're discussing? Howyou feel, how your
sympathies shift, will affect your attitudetoward the ending of King Lear.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: GOOD AND EVIL With the exception of momentary lapses, the
good characters inthis play are all very good, and the bad characters are quite
evil. Other than the heads of the two families, Lear andGloucester, there is
little growth or development. But thosecharacters undergo such profound
experiences that there isenough internal activity to keep the play moving forward.
Other characters talk about benign or malevolent forces, butLear wrestles with them
head-on. His plunge into insanity ismarked by his ever-increasing awareness of the
presence of goodand evil in areas he had never before considered. And even the
generally placid Gloucester exhibits new awareness as heproceeds toward his final
moment. Since the play ends with the death of all those we have come tolove, except
those who must carry on, it has been called a studyin pessimism. Do you accept
that judgment? Or do you seeredeeming aspects? Is the play only about a struggle
betweengood and evil or is there a broader interpretation? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
NATURE Shakespeare's concept of nature in King Lear is a kaleidoscopicpicture of
the prevailing Elizabethan attitude. It is notalways the picture we expect, but
all the pieces are there. The Elizabethans viewed nature as order. It consisted of
auniverse in which there was an established hierarchy; everythinghad its own
relative position. Heaven, the Divine Being, andthe stars and planets were all
above. On earth, the king was atthe head of the class structure, with the nobles
next, and ondown to the peasantry, and beneath them were the lowliesthumans:
beggars, lunatics, and so on. Below that came theanimals. When this order was
disturbed, things were considered unnaturalor "monstrous." Chaos ruled the
unnatural, and malevolent forceswere involved. There are constant references to
nature and unnatural things andforces throughout the play. Shakespeare was deeply
concernedwith this concept and stretched it to the limit in King [Link] he
finally believe that such a system existed and operatedin the determination of
man's fate? Your interpretation of theplay should provide you with the answer to
this question. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: VISION AND BLINDNESS There are more overt
references to vision and blindness thanalmost any other theme. There are subtle
variations woventhrough the drama, too. Obviously, when someone is behaving
intelligently, he has vision. Conversely, he acts blindly whenhe does something
foolish. You may notice what seem to be contradictions. For example,madness is
folly and should produce blindness. But in the midstof Lear's madness, he comes up
with some provocative [Link] does this tell us? Don't come to a hasty
conclusion about the theme of vision andblindness. Evaluate the obvious references
in the text, andconsider the theme as it applies to the characters' actions
throughout the play. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: STYLE A new student of Shakespeare will
find King Lear quite differentfrom any contemporary play. Elizabethan drama had
its own setof rules, and Shakespeare was guided, if not bound, by most ofthem. Most
noticeable is the somewhat formal speech in verse. You mayhave heard about
Shakespeare's iambic pentameter, which isnothing more than a description of a
poetic form--a five-beatline with a stress on every second syllable. It's used
frequently, though not exclusively, in King Lear. This wassimply Shakespeare's way
of approximating the sound ofupperclass speech or the way it was believed serious
mattersshould sound when discussed. In addition, there is his use ofverse. Poetry
gave him the opportunity to say a lot in a fewwords. Don't read the dialogue in a
singsong pattern. Just read itstraight through and let the punctuation guide you
to the restsand stopping points. After a while it will become as natural asreading
prose. Shakespeare breaks the monotony of the verse with prose speechwhen
appropriate. How certain forms are used at certain timescan be very revealing.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH All languages change. Differences in
pronunciation and wordchoice are apparent even between parents and their children.
Iflanguage differences can appear in one generation, it is only tobe expected that
the English used by Shakespeare four hundredyears ago will diverge markedly from
the English that is usedtoday. The following information on Shakespeare's language
willhelp a modern reader to a fuller understanding of King Lear. ^^^^^^^^^^KING
LEAR: MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES Adjectives, nouns, and verbs were less rigidly
confined toparticular classes in Shakespeare's day. Nouns were often usedas verbs.
In Act I, Scene i, the King of France uses monstersin a context where modern usage
would require "makes it appearmonstrous." Sure her offense Must be of such
unnatural degree That monsters it.... (lines 217-19) Adjectives could be used as
adverbs. In Act I, Scene iv, line230 Lear says: "I should be false persuaded"
whereas the modernequivalent would require falsely. They could also be used as
verbs, as in Act II, Scene ii, line 118, where worthy becomes averb meaning "win
honor for" in: "That worthied him." ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: CHANGES IN WORD MEANING
The meanings of words undergo changes, a process that can beillustrated by the fact
that chip extended its meaning from asmall piece of wood to a small piece of
silicon. Many of thewords in Shakespeare still exist today but their meanings have
changed. The change may be small, as in the case ofcomfortable, which meant
"comforting, ready to give comfort," asin: "I have another daughter, / Who, I am
sure, is kind andcomfortable." (I, iv, 304-5) Or the change in meaning is more
fundamental, as when character meant "handwriting" (I, i, 260),curious
meant "elaborate" (I, iii, 32), fond meant "foolish" (I,iv, 299), presently meant
"immediately" (I, ii, 98), preventedmeant "came before, forestalled" (I, i, 44),
and teem meant"have children": "If she must teem, / Create her child ofspleen...."
(I, iv, 279-80). ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: VOCABULARY LOSS Words not only change their
meanings, but are frequentlydiscarded from the language. In the past, leman meant
"sweetheart" and sooth meant "truth." The following words usedin King Lear are no
longer current in English, but theirmeanings can usually be gauged from the
contexts in which theyoccur: BRAZED (I, i, 10): hardened KNAVE (I, i, 20): fellow
CHAMPAINS (I, i, 68): grassy plains SECTARY ASTRONOMICAL (I, ii, 147): student
of, believer inastrology CLOTPOLL (I, iv, 46): blockhead EPICURISM (I, iv, 241):
gluttony KIBES (I, v, 9): chilblains GASTED (II, i, 54): frightened BEWRAY (II,
i, 106): discover, reveal FINICAL (II, ii, 17): fastidiousness CULLIONLY (II, ii,
31): rascally FRONT (II, ii, 105): forehead MEINY (II, iv, 34): servants FETCHES
(II, iv, 86): tricks BEMADDING (III, i, 38): maddening CAITIFF (III, ii, 55):
wretch OUT-PARAMOURED (III, iv, 89): had more mistresses than CORKY (III, vii,
29): withered SOT (IV, ii, 8): fool SIMPLES (IV, iv, 14): medicinal herbs
WHELKED (IV, vi, 71): twisted FITCHEW (IV, vi, 121): polecat, prostitute LIST (V,
iii, 62): wish ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: VERBS Shakespearean verb forms differed from
modern usage in threemain ways: 1. Questions and negatives could be formed without
using do/didas when Edmund asks: Why brand they us With base? (I, ii, 9-10) whereas
today we would say: "Why do they brand us as base, lowborn?" Another example
occurs when Gloucester states: "I knownot"; modern usage demands: "I do not
know." Review the liststhat follow. Shakespeare had the option of forms a and b,
whereas contemporary usage permits only form a. a b How do you look? How look you?
How did he look? How looked he? You do not look well. You look not well. You did
not look well. You looked not well. You did not look well. You looked not well.
2. A number of past participles and past tense verb forms areused that would be
ungrammatical today. Among these arestrucken for "struck": "I'll not be strucken,
my Lord" (I, iv,83); writ for "written": "...I have writ my sister" (I, iv,338),
forbid for "forbidden": "This courtesy forbid thee shallthe Duke / Instantly
know...." (III, iii, 21); holp for"helped": "...he holp the heavens to rain."
(III, vii, 60); andspoke for "spoken": "Ere you had spoke so far." (V, iii, 64).
3. Archaic verb forms sometimes occur with thou andhe/she/it. Follow me; thou
shalt serve me. (I, iv, 40) Thou wast a pretty fellow when thou hadst no need to
care. (I, iv, 188) What he hath uttered.# (I, iv, 330) ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
PRONOUNS Shakespeare and his contemporaries had one extra pronoun, thou,which could
be used in addressing a person who was one's equalor social inferior. You was
obligatory if more than one personwas addressed: "Tell me, my daughters / ...Which
of you..." (I,i, 47ff). But you could also be used to indicate respect, aswhen
Goneril told her father: "Sir, I love you more than wordscan wield the matter..."
(I, i, 54). Frequently, a person in power used thou to a subordinate but was
addressed you in return, as when Edmund and Curan speak. Edmund: Save thee, Curan.
Curan: And you, sir. I have been with your father. (II, i, 1ff) But if thou was
used inappropriately, it might be [Link] Fool uses thou when speaking to
Lear to underline the factthat Lear has given away his power along with his lands.
O nuncle, court holy water in a dry house is better than this rain-water out
o'door. Good nuncle, in; ask thy daughters' blessing: here's a night pities
neither wise men nor fools. (III, ii, 10ff) One further pronominal reference
warrants a comment. Lear usesthe royal plural we when he has or thinks he has
power. Right noble Burgundy, When she was dear to us, we did hold her so; (I, i,
194ff) But he changes to I as he begins to appreciate his weakness: Howl, howl,
howl, howl!--O, you are men of stones: Had I your tongues and eyes, I'd use them so
That heaven's vault should crack. (V, iii, 256ff) ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
PREPOSITIONS Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English thanthey
are today, and so we find several uses in King Lear thatwould have to be modified
in contemporary speech. Among theseare on for "by," as in: "...as if we were
villains onnecessity..." (I, ii, 118); with for "by" in: "He is attendedwith a
desperate train..." (II, iv, 303); of for "by" in:"Unwhipped of justice..." (III,
ii, 53); and in for "into" in: There is a cliff whose high and bending head Looks
fearfully in the confined deep. (IV, i, 73) ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: MULTIPLE NEGATION
Contemporary English requires only one negative per statementand regards such
utterances as "I haven't none" as [Link] often used two or more
negatives for emphasis: Gloucester: He cannot be such a monster. Edmund: Nor is
not, sure. (I, ii, 91ff) And Lear says: "No eyes in your head, nor no money in
yourpurse?" (IV, vi, 142ff) ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: FORM AND STRUCTURE Elizabethan
plays were written to be performed in circumstancespeculiar to their time. A
wooden platform thrust out into theaudience could serve as a stage. Although even
the poorestperforming troupe indulged in the most elaborate costumes theycould
afford, there was no scenery and no special lighting. A private performance might
be held indoors, but most wereoutside. Theaters of the time were modeled after inn
courtyardswith tiered galleries running around the perimeter. Thecheapest
admission was for the ground area where there were noseats, so the audience stood
or roamed about. Actors--there were no actresses; men performed all theroles--
entered from the back of the stage area left and right,and exited the same way.
Sometimes there was a recessed area inthe back across which a curtain might be
drawn whenappropriate. There was no signal--no curtain coming down, no lowering of
thelights--to indicate a change of scene or act. Action at aparticular place ended
when all the characters involved left thestage. The best available records or
scripts of Shakespeare'splays therefore don't contain the act and scene divisions
wecommonly use today. King Lear was written to be performed underthese
circumstances. These conditions dictated its form andstructure, which should
actually be viewed as one uninterruptedpiece. One way Shakespeare maintains pace
and interest is to alternatescenes between the main plot and the subplot. As the
story lineunfolds, he interweaves other scenes--Albany's castle,Cordelia's tent--
but the focus shifts back and forth betweenLear's story and Gloucester's.
Shakespeare also balances these changing scenes with a range ofdynamics. The
howling intensity of the storm scenes, forexample, is interrupted before the high
pitch loses its [Link] time we return to Lear and the thunder and lightning,
weexpect a little more; we are wound up and ready rather thanexhausted by the
tumult. The parallel and contrasting aspects of the two plots alsocreate an
undercurrent of interest. They combine to give theplay stimulus as well as
dramatic texture. Within the limitations of what we consider "primitive"theatrical
technology, Shakespeare applied his special skills inKing Lear to produce an
experience of profound theatricaltragedy, a riveting drama. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
ACT I, SCENE I Just mention the words King Lear and an image springs tomind--the
famous division of the kingdom among his [Link]'s one of the most memorable
scenes in all of Shakespeare'sworks. It's also one of the longest opening scenes,
loaded withimportant details that set up all the following events. The play begins
in a sort of "no-man's-land," but it soonbecomes King Lear's court, when he enters
and quicklyestablishes himself as the reigning monarch. This opening scene
introduces all the major characters of themain plot and even gives a quick preview
of the subplot. Thereis nothing wishy-washy about these characters. What they say
and what they do reveal a great deal about them, at least enoughto start your
impressions building. NOTE: On stage, the characters seem to fall into vivid
groupings. Throughout the play there will be many times whensides are drawn; it
will be interesting to see which side hasthe greater weight. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 1-6 The play begins with a casual conversation between two membersof the
court, the Earl of Kent and the Earl of Gloucester. Theyobserve that the king has
treated his two sons-in-law, Albanyand Cornwall, inconsistently. Remember, nothing
said by anycharacter is ever a "throwaway." Even these first few lines havesome
bearing on what will occur later. Right at the start, theybegin to paint a picture
of an unpredictable monarch. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 7-33 With no more said
about that, they turn to a thirdcharacter--Edmund, the Earl of Gloucester's bastard
son. Listento the way his father speaks about his origin, right in front ofhim.
Put yourself in Edmund's position and think how you wouldfeel if your father spoke
that way about yourless-than-respectable birth. Gloucester is good-natured, but
oblivious to a son's [Link] at the rude contrast he makes when he says: here
was good sport at his making, and the whoreson must be acknowledged. Do you know
this noble gentleman, Edmund? (lines 21-24) NOTE: The
actor playing Edmund wouldn't have to make a spokencomment about his feelings on
this subject. He would have tohave a physical response that the audience could
see. Thisearly in the play, a brief moment like this should serve noticefor us to
watch carefully for reactions. Sometimes it will beeasy to tell, such as a spoken
"aside." Sometimes it will besilence. Sometimes it will be a violent physical
[Link] offer clues to what is happening inside the character'smind. This
introductory dialogue ends with Edmund, the "whoreson," andKent, the "noble
gentleman," making polite acquaintance. Thesound of an offstage trumpet suddenly
announces the arrival ofthe royal party. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 34-120 The
whole tone of the play now changes. We have been listeningto characters speak in
prose, loose and informal. Now versetakes over as the king enters in all his
majesty, followed inprecise order of rank by his court. NOTE: THE NATURAL ORDER
This strict placement--the positioningof king at the head, dukes and duchesses
next, earls, then othernobles, and so on down the line--was important in
ElizabethanEngland. This was the way things were supposed to be. Itconfirmed that
all was well. It was "natural," the way natureintended things to be. An upset of
this would be considered"monstrous," and we will soon see what happens when that
occurs. The first breach comes when Lear announces that he intends toretire and
will divide his kingdom equally among his threedaughters--Goneril, Regan, and
Cordelia. Making thisannouncement, he's firm and authoritative. Nothing suggests
weakness or senility. Only his white hair reminds us that heis, after all, an aged
man and king. Before allotting their particular territories, Lear asks eachdaughter
to make a profession of her love and devotion to [Link] he will decide who gets a
larger and more advantageousshare. Talk about sibling rivalry! Is this capricious?
Or has everything been already decided? IsLear telling just a little fib? Maybe,
but Shakespearean "fibs"have a way of growing and taking on a much bigger
importance. Besides playing with his daughters' affections, he's indulginghimself,
too, by putting on a show of his power. It's all agame, he seems to say. Goneril
and Regan know the rules. They can tell fibs, [Link] polished speeches
certainly don't sound very sincere. Howmuch truth is there in their vast
professions of love anddevotion? As they lay it on, one thicker than the next,
Lear'syoungest daughter, Cordelia, warns us in asides that there istrouble ahead.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 69-76 Now it's Cordelia's turn, and the warning bears
fruit. What canshe say to gain a larger share than her sisters? Lear: Speak Cor:
Nothing, my lord. Lear: Nothing? Cor: Nothing. Lear: Nothing will come of
nothing. Speak again. (lines 87-91) Lear has been judging his daughters on
quantity, not [Link] whole idea of value appears to be bound up in this idea
of"How much do you love me?" Cordelia's blunt inability to offersomething,
anything, is an affront to him. Father and daughterspeak in short, staccato
dialogue, underscoring the tenseemotion of the confrontation. But what really is
Cordelia's problem? She could be completelyhonest when she says that she simply
speaks the truth andperforms her duty. Some might feel this is a stubborn streak
coming out. Others might feel she's being a little [Link] she's gambling,
taking a chance that her perverse honestywill trick Lear into giving her a larger
portion. We haven'tseen enough of Cordelia to form an impression of absolute
goodness personified. Lear, meanwhile, is not at all satisfied with her answer. A
dramatic moment is building. Lear stalls. Has he really heardsuch an "unnatural"
reply? Lear: So young, and so untender? Cor: So young, my lord, and true. (lines
107-8) A standoff. Neither side will compromise. It is all ornothing. That is
unacceptable to Lear. Listen to hispronouncement of judgment. Rage and violence
seem to pour forthway out of proportion as he exercises his absolute rights as a
father and a king. He calls on the gods above to witness his withdrawal of
Cordelia's share. And then he goes further: he disowns her, hebanishes her from
his sight. NOTE: The scales of justice have now tipped. This is our first
demonstration of judgment, of crime and punishment. It willrecur in many different
forms as the play unfolds. There's still a chance for reconsideration, but time is
runningon. And both sides are stubborn. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 121-187 To
provide a case for the defendant, Kent, the loyal attendant,steps forward. Drawing
on his long and faithful service toLear, he speaks thoughts that may well run
through theaudience's mind. He begs Lear to retract the sentence. No, the king has
spoken. Authority must be preserved eventhough he is giving it away in almost the
next breath. Only we shall retain The name, and all th' addition to a king. The
sway, Revenue, execution of the rest, Beloved sons, be yours; which to confirm,
This coronet part between you. (lines 135-39) For himself, Lear will keep a retinue
of one hundred knights whowill accompany him on monthly visits to Goneril and Regan
inturn. But all the rest he thrusts away with the parting gestureof the coronet,
the symbol of rule. NOTE: If there is any question of an inversion of the natural
order, that settles it. He would no longer be king, on top, norfather, on top. It
must lead to problems of real magnitude. Itmust lead to some form of "chaos."
Meanwhile, Kent persists. Again citing his past service as hissupport, he makes
the first reference to Lear's madness inexecuting such a rash judgment. Moreover,
he questions Lear'svision, the ability to see his own folly. But Lear rejects his
plea. Out of my sight! (line 157) In a last-ditch effort, Kent begs: See better,
Lear, and let me still remain The true blank of thine eye. (lines 158-59) Lear will
have none of this. Again, judgment and sentence areswift: Kent, too, is banished.
The king is still in command. In his parting words, Kent asks the gods to provide
shelter forCordelia, who has been, from his viewpoint, just in herbehavior.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 188-266 Gloucester, who left the stage with Edmund
right after the royalparty arrived, now brings in Cordelia's suitors, the Duke of
Burgundy and the King of France. When he is offered Cordelia'shand without a
dowry, Burgundy rejects it flatly. He's notinterested in the maid without the
money, so to speak. Did Cordelia suspect this? Is this why she deliberately
alienated Lear, so that she wouldn't be forced to marry theblunt Burgundy? When the
King of France is given the same offer, he questionsthe sudden change in Lear's
affections. What could be thereason? Sure her offense Must be of such unnatural
degree That monsters it... (lines 217-19) Is Cordelia afraid that he will believe
her guilty of someviolent crime, and that she will lose him? Is there asuggestion
of preference when she interjects a plea that Learconfirm her only sin to be a lack
of "that glib and oily art /To speak and purpose not...." (lines 224-25)? She
reminds Learand all those on stage, as well as in the audience, that herdisfavor
stems from no criminal act. France is not easily dissuaded. He sees the paradox of
Cordelia's "richness" shining through her newly poverishedsituation. He loves her
for her virtues, not her dowry. Heaccepts her despite her banishment. What a
contrast to Lear's quick judgment. Which of the twokings on stage, which of the
two sides, do you think now has theaudience's sympathy? With nothing further to
say, with no further consideration, nofurther reason applied, Lear turns his eyes
away from his formerfavorite child and leaves the stage, followed in procession by
his entourage. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 267-283 Goneril and Regan have lingered
behind. With her new protectorat her side, Cordelia bids farewell to them. She
states clearlythat she knows what they are really like, but asks them totranscend
their faults and take care of their father after shehas gone. In terse replies
that could have come straight out ofany version of Cinderella, they tell her to
mind her ownbusiness, to take care of her own prince, who has accepted herdespite
her poor fortune. NOTE: The image of fortune--sometimes Fortune, and sometimes
fortune's wheel--will appear throughout the play. To theElizabethan audience it
always suggested change: what is on topnow will inevitably fall to the bottom
later--and vice [Link] and her wheel are never static. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 284-306 After Cordelia and France have left, the tone changes [Link],
poetry, and rhetoric are left behind as the two sistersspeak plainly to one
another. Looking back at Lear's rash andhasty behavior, they're obviously
concerned. Who wouldn't be?They attribute his banishment of Cordelia and Kent to
theweakness of old age, which they claim is not new in [Link]'s strength in
unity, and they agree to consult and takejoint action when the situation warrants.
As the stage clears, you have to start making up your own mindabout these outspoken
characters. Is Lear the intolerabletyrant he appears to be? Is Cordelia as sweet
and good as sheseems? And what of the two older sisters? What have they donebut
confirm a parent's image of his own goodness? Everyone hasheard a mother or
father, if not their own, ask a child, "Howmuch do you love me?" But at Lear's
obvious age, and in hisposition, the question comes a little late. And
dangerously. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT
I, SCENE II NOTE: No curtain fell, no lights were lowered, but theElizabethan
audience knew the scene had changed when the stagecleared and a character or group
entered. Perhaps a slightchange of costume or a portable prop would help define
the newplace or circumstances. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-22 Since Edmund had
left the stage early in the previous scene, hehad an opportunity to make some
slight change in his attire tosuggest that he was now "at home" in Gloucester's
castle as heenters the stage alone. Within moments he has revealed that he was not
a dispassionatebystander to his father's naive insults. He calls on nature,whom he
swears to serve. But what nature does he mean?Certainly not the nature of law and
order. No, for Edmund, whois himself unnatural by birth, his nature is the law of
might,of wit and cunning--the law of the jungle. His illegitimacy is indeed a sore
point as is his status asyounger son. But why should he be subject to that order
whichwould deprive him of his inheritance? Why should his brother,by the mere
accident of his preceding birth, get it all? Bydesign, Edmund wishes to overturn
the other, the truly naturalorder, and through his cleverness take all. He
cheerfully andboldly calls on his gods to witness his resolution and supporthim in
his endeavors. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 23-114 Gloucester walks in and Edmund
immediately resumes the pose ofthe sweet and modest young man we saw in the first
[Link] rather obviously to hide a letter in his hand, hestimulates his
father's curiosity. When asked what he isreading, Edmund replies: "Nothing, my
lord" (line 31). Where have we heard that before? But when another parentreceived
that same reply, it stayed there, rooted. to its"nothingness." Here, it leads to
"something." This father, atleast, tries to demonstrate that he has some vision.
Let's see. Come, if it be nothing, I shall not need spectacles. (lines 34-35)
Let's see, let's see! (line 42) NOTE: The recurring theme of vision and blindness
grows heavierand heavier at this early stage. Remember, the Elizabethansconsidered
the eyes the entrance to the mind, the intelligenceand reason. If a person had
vision, he could behave [Link] it, passion ruled and folly usually
followed. But while Gloucester's intentions are proper and true, theobject is
false. Edmund hands him a forged letter from hisbrother Edgar, which starts out
with a condemnation of theaccepted order, the tradition that makes a young man wait
forthe death of an old parent to come into his inheritance. Itgoes on to scorn
this policy and suggests that the two brotherstake action to rectify the situation
and thus share theirfather's property while they are young. Gloucester, good-
natured, affable soul that he is, questions theletter's authenticity. Again and
again he asks questions,delaying a response as long as possible. When Edmund
"reluctantly" swears that the handwriting is Edgar's, that hehas even heard his
brother make some suggestions that sonsshould replace fathers at a certain age,
only then doesGloucester cry out that Edgar is a villain. How easily is Gloucester
gulled? The simple ruse of a forgedletter is not much by intellectual standards,
but dramaticallyit was a pretty well-established convention and the audiencewould
not have been too harsh on him. Still, it represents aturning point in this
subplot parallel to the main plot. But rather than attribute it immediately to pure
villainy on hisson's part, Gloucester recalls that there have been outside
influences at work. The signs have been the strange aberrationsof "nature," which
are omens of what has now happened. This villain of mine comes under the
prediction, there's son against father; the King falls from bias of nature; there's
father against child. (lines 107-9) Gloucester does not pronounce sentence. He
reserves finaljudgment as Edmund is ordered to provide further evidence. ^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR: LINES 115-29 Alone again, Edmund sneers at the old man's references to
thecelestial origins of earthly problems. So much for [Link] can you
dismiss it so easily? After all, look who isturning up his nose at the influence
of "other powers." Nevertheless, under any circumstances, Edmund makes the claim
that will echo throughout literature and the performing arts forages: I am what I
am. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 130-77 Edmund is in a lighthearted mood as Edgar
enters, setting theplot against the unsuspecting older brother into motion. He
sighs "like Tom o' Bedlam" (line 132) and continues to mock hisabsent father. The
double-dealing scoundrel soon convinces Edgar that he hasaroused Gloucester's
violent displeasure and has reason to fearhis father's wrath. The trusting Edgar
suspects nothing; heaccepts Edmund's lies ever so easily. Edgar sends him to his
chambers to await further news of the case against him and warnshim not to go about
unarmed. With "A credulous father, and a brother noble" (line 172),Edmund is riding
high on Fortune's wheel. He repeats his vow togain by wit what he cannot have by
birth. Does it seem too simple? Does the execution of Edmund'svillainy happen too
easily? But haven't we all been "suckered"into some practical joke through
something we saw as obviousonly afterward? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT I, SCENE III
The major characters have now all made their appearance andyou've had a chance to
form an opinion of each. The principalconflicts that set off the action of the
main plot and thesubplot have been introduced, too. It's time to enlarge uponour
greater interest--the story of Lear and his daughters--andmove the action forward.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-26 The scene shifts to a new grouping on the stage,
and within amatter of moments we know that we are in the Duke of Albany'scastle,
where his wife Goneril is speaking to her steward. NOTE: The fawning servant was a
stock character in Elizabethandrama, just as we have stock characters today--the
"bestfriend," the butler, and so on. The audience would expectGoneril's steward to
be a groveling lackey, but Shakespearemakes special use of him. We see him now
complaining that he was struck for merelyscolding the king's jester, the Fool.
Goneril seizes on this togeneralize on the abuse she and her household have
suffered fromLear's knights and her father's rude behavior. She willretaliate by
frosty behavior of her own and she encourages thesteward, Oswald, to do likewise.
For starters, Goneril will notbe there when the king returns from hunting.
Obviously, he ishale and healthy enough to enjoy that royal pastime. Gonerilleaves
to write to Regan, encouraging her to do likewise whenLear goes to her for his
monthly visit. People are forever making judgments in King Lear, usually hasty
judgments at that. Goneril takes the word of a servant withouthearing the other
side. Is it because this suits her frame ofmind? But what if the report is
accurate? Can she be blamedfor becoming angry at Lear's and his knights' raucous,
abusivebehavior? So we really don't know yet whether she is at faultfor making a
snap judgment that Lear's entourage is behavingbadly. It's too soon to say who is
the victim and who is thevillain. One slight clue is given, however. In the first
scene Learinitiated the action, he set the wheels in motion. As he isspoken of in
this scene, and as we shall see hereafter, he nowresponds to the actions of others.
And his reactions, as wehave seen, are usually passionate, to say the least.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT I, SCENE IV Appearance and reality are not only thematic
undertones; theyactually surface purposefully in King Lear. We've already seenthe
appearance of geriatric humility and the reality ofautocratic wrath, the two-faced
behavior of the scoundrelEdmund, the false letter. Now we see actual disguise as
Kententers and announces that he has altered his appearance andtaken on the
trappings of a humble peasant in order to get closeto Lear, to continue to serve
his master. Clothing obviously defines the wearer, and no aspect, from asingle
thread to a fully naked body, should be ignored. Is thatany different from today?
Don't we still judge people by whatthey wear? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 7-40 For
the second time in the play, Lear makes an entrance. Thistime he is in his
"retirement" and is obviously enjoying it asmuch as any golden-ager who might have
just returned from thegolf course. As he meets up with Kent, he interrogates him
asan executive might interview a job applicant. Kent comes upwith the right
answers, citing Lear's look of "authority" as thereason he wishes to serve him, and
is accepted on a trial [Link] snap judgments here. Lear is a model of rational
behavior ifa little given to the enjoyment of flattery. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES
41-89 Still the spoiled autocrat, Lear claps his hands and demands hisdinner and
his Fool. And where is his daughter, who should bethere to greet him? Oswald's
brief dash across the stageprovides no answers. Furthermore, a knight comes back
with theinformation that not only is Goneril not well enough to do herduty, but he
had received a curt reply from Oswald. His reportof rudeness and poor treatment by
the household staff promptsLear to recall that he had observed similar behavior of
late--"amost faint neglect" (line 65). Notice how mild this judgmentis. Still, he
is irritable because his fool is nowhere to beseen. This absence is attributed by
the knight to the greaterabsence of another--Cordelia. Since my young lady's going
into France, sir, the Fool hath much pined away. (lines 70-71) Cordelia's image is
kept
before us through obvious referencessuch as this, and even slighter, brief
mentions. In absence,the picture of her and her goodness grows. But first,
Oswald's rudeness is dealt with. For his insolence,Lear goes to slap him and Kent
trips him, earning his master'sthanks and a tip as the Fool makes his entrance.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 90-190 With wit, verve, and dash the Fool interrupts
the mountingtension while making his own points and actually adding fuel tothe
fire. Haven't you thought it pretty foolish of Lear, who is obviouslyphysically
capable of executing his duties as king, to disposeof his kingdom--his job, his
authority, his possessions--sounwisely? Well, here is the Fool to put your point
of viewacross. Were it not for his special position, he couldn't getaway with the
barbs he levels at Lear. In short order, he tellsthe monarch that he became a fool
himself when he gave away hiscrown. Lear himself reversed the natural order when
he droppedhis pants and handed his daughters the rod to beat him with. Infact, to
certify that he has become a fool, the lowest level ofthe natural order, Lear gave
away his title and stripped himselfsymbolically naked. Why does Lear tolerate these
cutting reproaches? Why should he,the ruler, put up with the Fool, the servant?
Has the referenceto the Fool's beloved mistress in France triggered a sense of
repentance for his injustice in banishing her for a slightoffense? Or has the
mixture of nonsense spread a cover over thecutting edge of these barbs? Harping on
the substantive, the quantitative, the Fool asksLear, "Can you make no use of
nothing, Nuncle?" (lines 123-24),and Lear replies that "Nothing can be made out of
nothing." No,Lear has not learned that lesson. The Fool is threatened with a
whipping as Goneril enters. Butthe Fool has a final word to say about "something"
and"nothing": "I am a fool," he tells Lear, "thou art nothing"(lines 184-185) as
he turns his attention and his taunts toGoneril. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 191-
280 She accuses Lear's knights of insolence and complain that hedoes nothing about
it when she informs him of their abuse of herhospitality. What is Lear's reaction?
He mocks her with sarcasm. He posesrhetorical questions. Who is this person to
whom she wouldspeak so? He plays the fool, a fool so blind that when he asksagain
if anyone can tell him who he is, the Fool replies,"Lear's shadow" (line 221). But
Goneril will not put up with this. She tells him straightout to stop his pranks.
"As you are old and reverend, should bewise" (line 230). She tells him that his
knights treat her homeas though it were a tavern or a brothel. Does Lear pay
attention to what she is saying? Hardly. Does heconsider that her complaints may
have some basis in fact? Notfor a minute. Instead he uses high-flown rhetoric to
shout herdown, barely noticing Albany's arrival. He curses her in nouncertain
terms: "Degenerate bastard," "detested kite." Theinvectives pour forth from his
lips with the same fury heunleashed against Cordelia earlier. Albany's attempts as
peacemaker fail and Lear summons up hisfinal curse. He now calls on nature, his
goddess of righteousindignation, to take his part and make Goneril sterile so that
she will never know the honor of a child. If she does bear, letthe child turn
against her so that she may know: How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is To have
a thankless child. (lines 279-80) The question must be asked--Does Goneril deserve
such a curse,the concentrated force of such hideous wishes? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 281-301 Albany is bewildered by the scene he has witnessed, but Goneril
remains calm. She can handle it. Lear returns with amysterious reference to half
his retinue, which we laterdiscover Goneril has given orders to leave within two
weeks. His anger is almost uncontrollable, but he will contain [Link] his
final curses on her, he vows to put out his own eyesif ever they weep as a result
of Goneril's treatment. He tellsher that he has another, kinder daughter, Regan,
who will surelyavenge him savagely when she hears what has [Link],
she will discover that he has not abandoned all theprerogatives of the monarchy.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 302-39 Albany tries to insert a voice of reason, but
Goneril has beentoo incited by Lear's curses. It's dangerous, she claims, tolet
him keep a hundred knights about him so that he may arm themagainst any imagined
enemy. She summons Oswald and sends him toRegan with her side of the story,
telling him to embellish it asmuch as he needs to produce the right effect. As for
Albany,well, she can only overlook his mild manner and ignore hiswarnings. Any
doubts about Goneril's ability to take a firm stand areprobably gone by now.
Still, what has she really done? We havenot seen the cause of their conflict, but
have only the reportsto consider, as well as their responses. The case for either
side is still open. We are beginning to have some feeling, some reaction to Albany.
It should be interesting to see how the other son-in-law comesacross compared to
this one, who has not lined up that closelyon his wife's side. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
ACT I, SCENE V Lear returns to the stage, still dressed as before, still verymuch
the picture of a king, but without fanfare, with no royaltrappings, with only Kent
and the Fool at his side. Heimmediately sends Kent off with a letter to Regan.
He, however,in striking contrast to the instructions Goneril gave to hermessenger,
tells Kent to stick strictly to the facts in theletter. When Kent has departed,
Lear is left alone with the Fool, whoimmediately tries to amuse Lear, but the
turmoil is growinginside the old man. He is obviously not paying attention andhis
thoughts drift. When he comes out with comments such as "Idid her wrong" (line
21), is he thinking of Goneril orCordelia? Prompted by the Fool's admonition that
he had grown old beforehe had acquired wisdom, Lear cracks a little under the
strain ofholding his wits together and implores heaven not to let him bemad.
Already he suspects and probably knows that this would bethe worst fate of all.
This brief scene probably isn't enough to turn around yourattitude if you feel that
he has behaved badly up till now andreally doesn't deserve much sympathy. But as
Lear's defensesbegin to weaken, you may start to react more favorably towardhim
after seeing this brief display of his humanity. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT II,
SCENE I If the last scene was essentially quiet and contemplative,despite the
Fool's attempts at merriment, this scene will be amarked contrast. We are back at
Gloucester's castle whereCuran, a servant, is giving Edmund the latest news.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-19 Curan reports that Gloucester has just been
informed thatCornwall and Regan are en route and expected that evening. Hepasses
along the gossip that there is already a growing unrestbetween the Albany and
Cornwall factions. Edmund decides on thespot that this unexpected arrival will
distract the old Earl andpresents a great opportunity to cement his case against
hisbrother. He calls the hidden Edgar to the stage. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES
20-32 As Edgar appears, Edmund is all urgency and warnings. The olderbrother is
told that Gloucester has posted guards and has themsearching for him. Moreover, is
it possible that Edgar hasspoken against Cornwall, who is heading for the castle
rightnow? Or against Albany? Claiming that Gloucester's arrival, which he has just
heard,signals doom for Edgar if he doesn't make a convincingdeparture, Edmund
prompts his brother to engage in a fake duelwith him and flee. Edgar is convinced,
does as he is told, andhurries away. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 32-85 The sly
Edmund then wounds himself and continues the fraud asGloucester enters with
servants carrying torches. Edmund is really into his act now as Gloucester asks him
threetimes where Edgar is. Stalling so that Edgar can get beyondreach and not
contradict his story right away, he finally sendsoff the searching party. We can
only guess that he pointed inthe wrong direction. He then sets about convincing
Gloucester of his brother'svillainy--shaping his own treacherous thoughts to fit
hisbrother's profile--claiming he was asked to join but was opposedto Edgar's
"unnatural purpose" (line 50). His refusal was thecause of the duel that just took
place, he says. Gloucester needs no further proof. He will search far and wide,but
Edgar will be captured and punished. He is so taken byEdmund's fidelity and
loyalty that he announces that this sonwill be "legitimized" and thus become the
heir. Edmund'sconniving has served him well, more quickly than he undoubtedly
expected. But before he has a chance to exult, Cornwall andRegan make their
entrance. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 86-129 NOTE: With their attendants in tow,
note the growing importancethe Duke and Duchess have taken on. The very manner of
theirentrance should give an idea of how grand they have become. They dispense with
the ceremony of formal greeting. They havereceived a report of Edgar's supposed
villainy and ask for morenews. Regan finds a contact point with the main story of
Learand his growing problems when she asks: What, did my father's godson seek your
life? He whom my father named, your Edgar? (lines 91-92) She suggests that he had
been keeping bad company, carousingwith Lear's retinue, and Edmund quickly confirms
this. He isremarkable in his ability to determine opportunities and takeadvantage
of them. Regan herself is no stranger to opportunity. She uses thismeeting to
express her complaints
against Lear and his knightsthat reflect the news she has received from Goneril.
In fact,this is one reason why she has left home. If Lear arrivesthere, he will
find no welcome and no comfort. As for Cornwall, why is he impressed with Edmund's
"virtue"? Hewelcomes Edmund to his own company, commending his "Natures ofsuch
deep trust..." (line 115). Regan then seeks to enlist Gloucester to their cause.
She hasheard from both her father and her sister and claims that sheseeks his
counsel in deciding a course of action for herresponse. Is she credible? Hasn't
she already announced that she has been"well informed" by Goneril and has closed
the doors of herhouse? Despite the sweet talk and dripping expression of old
friendship, can you see Regan's true colors peeking through? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 1-39 Outside Gloucester's castle the two messengers meet. During thefew
moments they are alone on stage, we get a better and broaderpicture of each. Hear
what they say and watch what they [Link] exhibits the courage, loyalty, and daring
we've come toexpect, and he also shows a command of rhetoric all his [Link] is
just as true to type. As he runs from Kent's attack,you can probably picture the
actor you would have playing thiscowardly, sniveling role. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 40-169 Oswald's cries bring the party from within the castle. Edmunddraws
his sword to stop Kent's onslaught, but it is Cornwall whoassumes charge of the
situation. As for Gloucester, he standsmute and defers to Cornwall. Kent is
identified as Lear's messenger, but Cornwall persists intrying to discover the
cause of the quarrel with Oswald. Kent'sreplies produce nothing but a word picture
of thislower-than-low creature. He defines Oswald as something made bya tailor,
nothing in himself. Think of that: take away hisclothes and what do you have?
What is Kent trying to do? Perhaps he thinks he can discreditOswald's reliability
as a messenger, knowing what Goneril surelywould have sent to her sister. The
attempt, at any rate, fails, and Cornwall makes a decision,a judgment: Kent is to
be put in the stocks for histransgression. Despite protests that he is the king's
messengerand such a gesture would be disrespectful, the sentence will beexecuted.
Regan's vindictive disposition is heard when she echoes and addsto the sentence.
Even Gloucester's plea, as he finally speaksup for mercy for the king's messenger,
is put down by Cornwall,who states that he'll take that responsibility. Regan's
concernis what Goneril will do when she hears that her messenger wasabused. When
the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall, Edmund, and allattendants have left, Gloucester
is alone with the now "stock'd"Kent, whom he does not, of course, recognize in
disguise. Howfar they have come from the opening of the play when they werealso
alone on the stage. Gloucester shows compassion for this stranger who has been
harshly judged and treated, and he would go back and again askfor leniency. But
Kent is stoic and claims he needs the rest!What's more, he recognizes the turns of
Fortune's wheel. Kent uses his moment of tranquility to add to our knowledge ofwhat
is taking place in the larger world. He reveals a letterfrom Cordelia that tells
him that she is aware of the situation.(See how the image of that good creature is
kept in our minds bysuch references. We actually haven't laid eyes on her since
thevery first scene.) With a final sigh of resignation, Kent asks Fortune to smile
onhim and turn her wheel once more. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT II, SCENE III NOTE:
Obviously, Kent cannot walk offstage bound up in thestocks. But as he dozes,
Shakespeare pulls our attention awayfrom him by leading it to another commanding
presence enteringfrom an opposite side. Edgar enters and, much like his brother
before, confides in us,reveals to us his inner thoughts. Up until now he has been
apretty weak character, so easily duped that when his brotherlast deceived him, he
could only mutter a few weak words, noteven questioning what he heard. Now he shows
that he is not unimaginative and [Link] heard that he is being
hunted, his picture sent aboutmuch like a "Wanted" poster today, he will do the
clever thingand change his appearance, transform himself completely, atleast until
the heat is off. Right before our very eyes he begins to change as he describesthe
lowly disguise he will assume. If Kent has turned into apeasant, Edgar goes one
step further and turns into a vagrantlunatic, equivalent to the meanest hobo or
"bag lady" found onthe streets. They are searching for someone who is "something,"
but he will be "poor Tom" the beggar. He who was Edgar is now"nothing" (line 21).
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT II, SCENE IV As Edgar drifts away, outside the social
order, on the verybottom of the pile, he who should be on top enters. Stilldressed
in royal garments, Lear arrives outside Gloucester'scastle, accompanied by a member
of his entourage and the Fool. In his very first words, Lear lets us know that
there has beenan abortive journey to Regan's castle. He has traveled throughthe
night and must show the signs of such a strain. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-59
Seeing Kent in the stocks, he asks who has done this to hismessenger. When told
that it was Cornwall and Regan, he showsthe old fire, the old hasty judgment and
rage, calling such adeed "worse than murder" (line 22). NOTE: In a previous scene
we heard Oswald tell his version ofthe encounter. Now we hear Kent's. It's almost
like readingtwo different newspaper reports of something we've seenourselves.
Watch carefully and you will discover repeatedcontrasts, not only between the main
plot and the subplot, butin details, incidents, and characters. We expect a
passionate response from this easily provoked king,but now we hear reference to the
inner part of his being that istouched by such an outrage. He will seek the
source, andexits. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 60-83 Lear's absence allows the Fool
to sally with Kent, who wants toknow why Lear's entourage has been reduced. But
the Foolanswers in riddles, giving a vague warning when he talks aboutthe rain and
the storm of what is to come. He reinforces oursuspicion that it's not always easy
to tell who is the wise manand who is the fool. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 84-114
Lear returns with Gloucester, grumbling that he has had nosuccess producing Regan
and Cornwall. Gloucester's timidresponses may be tactful, but they are just the
thing to inciteLear's further rage. And that's exactly what happens. He spews
forth curse after curse, and then--what's this?--he pauses for amoment and gives
them the benefit of the doubt. For the firsttime we hear Lear consider an
alternative. Perhaps they areill, an acceptable excuse for not showing up when
summoned. But, wait. The old choler triumphs, and he is back fuming thathe will
not accept such a ruse. He will break down their doorif they do not show up
immediately. And he sends Gloucester offwith that message. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 115-304 With just enough of a pause for Lear to share the anguish of his
heart, and the Fool to relieve the mounting tension with pointednonsense,
Gloucester leads the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall ontothe stage, followed by their
attendants. NOTE: As the stage begins to fill now, it is important to keepin mind
a picture of how the sides are being drawn and which hasthe greater weight.
Remember, Lear entered this scene with oneattendant and the Fool. When Kent is
freed, he naturally goesto Lear's side, too. Watch the opposition build. The
greetings are formal and brief. Lear gets right to theheart of the matter and
pours forth his tale of Goneril'smistreatment. But he gets little sympathy from
Regan, whose polite wordsbarely conceal the frost underneath. She takes the party
lineestablished by Goneril and indicates that she has accepted thereports of
"riots" by his entourage. Lear is old, she tellshim, and should defer to wiser
minds. She tells him to returnto Goneril and apologize. He mocks the suggestion by
kneeling and asking sarcasticforgiveness of an imaginary daughter. Regan virtually
orders him to stop his nonsense and return toher sister, but his anger is mounting.
He complains that theolder sister has cut his following in half, abused him
verbally,and behaved like a snake. His litany of curses on Goneril isinterrupted
by Regan. He will, she claims, say the same of herwhen he is being rash. Lear
denies that; he butters her up lavishly. A trumpet isheard offstage announcing an
arrival. Oswald's entrance reminds Lear that he has not received ananswer to his
question of who put Kent into the stocks. ButGoneril's entrance delays an answer.
She quickly aligns herselfwith Regan despite Lear's obvious displeasure. Finally,
Cornwall admits that he pronounced the sentence onKent. No time is given for a
real reaction from Lear, but hemust guess which way the wind is blowing. Regan
pours it on bysuggesting again that he return to Goneril, but he will havenone of
it. In his fiery reply he gives us a preview of comingevents. I abjure all roofs,
and choose To wage against the enmity o' th' air (lines 203-4) He will do anything
but return to this wicked daughter who hasalready reduced his retinue by half. He
bids Goneril anultimate farewell, reflecting that she is nevertheless his ownchild,
even though she has become corrupted. But he can dowithout her because he at least
has Regan. Does he? She argues that she is not ready for him, that shecan't find
provisions for his full entourage. Besides, whatdoes he need with so many
attendants?
Why, in fact, does heneed any, ask Regan and Goneril in turn. The quantitative
biasis turned against him, but Lear has a broader view. He is atthe lowest point
of his fortunes as a monarch, defending himselfto his own daughters, and he can see
things clearer. What does anyone need anything for? Why are they so richlydressed?
he reminds them. Clothing defines them. NOTE: Keep in mind this attitude toward
attire. Costumes onstage could be very elaborate. They could also serve as
"armor"against any form of opposition. And, conversely, the lack ofgarments meant
exposure to any enemy or destructive force. In a plea for sympathy, he points out
his condition--"a poor oldman, / As full of grief as age" (lines 267-68). Will the
godsallow him to sit quietly and tolerate their mistreatment? No,he will find a
way to have his way. The sound of the storm offstage punctuates the answer to his
ownquestion. Despite his grievances, he vows in the future not toshow his
weakness. But with a final cry as he exits, Learshares his fear of a mental
breakdown from the anguish he hasexperienced. Having seen the ease with which he
has mocked Goneril and playedthe beggar of forgiveness in front of Regan, can you
totallybelieve Lear's appeals for sympathy here? Is it perhapsoverindulgence in
self-pity? Or is it the real thing? The stiff-lipped daughters show how determined
they are afterLear has left. Gloucester tells them that a fierce storm isbrewing
outside, but they don't care. Let him stay out thereand learn his lesson. He's
brought it all on himself, theyagree, as they order Gloucester to leave Lear
outside, andCornwall gives the order to bar the door. Even if you grant that there
is some truth in what they havesaid, how much can you sympathize with Goneril and
Regan whenyou hear their version of the facts? The lines that draw theirportraits
grow heavier as their evil natures gradually emerge. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III,
SCENE I On the other hand, Kent's character is firmly fixed and will notvary.
(Note that he is useful in many ways to the [Link] Shakespeare exploits
his function as "news bulletin"reporter to clear the stage and prepare for the
passion of thescene to come.) It is too soon to appreciate the change in Learas he
contends "with the fretful elements" (line 4), but areport of this behavior sets us
up for what is to come. The political situation is reviewed, too. We learn that
thereis underground activity between Cornwall and Albany, each ofwhom would like to
run the whole show. But the unrest hasproduced a response from France that shows
that interest stillactive. Indeed, French forces are reported to have landed in
England and Kent would have them made aware of the king'scurrent situation. He
sends the king's courtier off to bearthat message and adds a few words of his own
for Cordelia. Shewill recognize him by the ring he sends. Again Cordelia is
recalled and reinforced as "goodness" strivingagainst opposing forces. She has
been absent from the stage,but have you forgotten what she represents? Is there a
need tothink any more about her pride? Her stubbornness? Just look athow she is
absolved in absentia. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III, SCENE II NOTE: Here is the
first great storm scene of King Lear. To getfull value, to make its dramatic
effect profound on audiencesthen and now, it took more than the sound of thunder
[Link] would take the powerful effects of speech and movement. Therhetoric
thunder in Lear's words is undoubtedly greater and moremoving than the artificial,
but the combination must have beenstunning. Properly acted, in these scenes the
storm and Learbecome united in force and fury. As the storm rages, Lear enters with
the Fool. What adifference from any of his previous entrances! Gone are the
stately procession, the court attendants, the regal [Link] the Fool, the
loyal court jester, is with him to mitigatethe tremendous agony of Lear's burden.
Joining the voice of thestorm with his own voice of protest, Lear calls on the
celestialpowers to bring down the full force of the tempest against histwo
ungrateful daughters. Let them be the messengers of hisrevenge. In another voice,
calm yet impassioned, he asks the gods towitness his woeful condition. When Kent
arrives on the scene, he joins the Fool in a plea tobring Lear in to some kind of
shelter. But Lear is still fullof his inner turmoil and will not be moved. He
continues torant against the tyrannies of his enemies. Lear acknowledgeshimself as
somewhat responsible, but he is "More sinned againstthan sinning." (line 60).
Kent's entreaties finally make their point and Lear, recognizingthat he has been
carried away by the storm and his own anger,suddenly notices the cold and the rain.
Taking pity on theFool, who has suffered from the elements along with him, heenters
the hovel Kent has found. The Fool shares with theaudience a paradoxical prophecy
of the greater storm to come: Then shall the realm of Albion Come to great
confusion. (lines 91-92) NOTE: Albion (another name for England) will also suffer
theturn of Fortune's wheel and feel the trauma created by theinversion, the power
struggle, and all the chaos unleashed bythe "unnatural acts" we are witnessing.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III, SCENE III It's scoundrel time once again. The
Gloucester/Edmund/Edgarsubplot begins to accelerate. As Gloucester and Edmund
appear on stage, the father confessesto his illegitimate son that he does not like
the "unnatural"behavior of Cornwall and Regan; an upsetting of order hasresulted
from their assumption of authority in his house, withthe guests ruling the host.
Hypocritical Edmund is quick toagree that it is indeed "savage and unnatural." But
wasn't thisthe very thing he expressed a desire to do in the forgedletter--if we
assume that it represented his own wishes? Gloucester makes the mistake of
confiding that he has received aletter that presumably comes from sympathizers with
the Frenchinvaders who are already mounting their forces somewhere in theland. The
old earl plans to disobey Cornwall's orders and go tothe king with such relief and
comforts as he can [Link] asks Edmund to cover for him by saying that
he isunwell and has retired for the evening. He'll take the riskunder penalty of
death for the sake of the master he has servedfaithfully. Once Gloucester leaves,
the treacherous Edmund reveals that hewill betray this confidence to advance his
own cause. In this short scene, two character studies are engraved a littledeeper
as the tension builds. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III, SCENE IV The scene shifts
back to the storm. You may wonder why itdidn't just continue uninterrupted, since
there doesn't seem tobe a time change. Some modern productions attempt to run the
storm scenes all together and they generally run into theproblem Shakespeare
avoided by separating them. The intensity is so great and the passions are so
tremendousthat it is impossible to rise higher, or even to sustain thepitch. It
takes all the playwright's skill to combine prose andpoetry, song snatches, rhymes,
even nonsense, to maintain thetexture of these scenes and create the dynamics.
Don't miss thesound of the words as you pay attention to their meaning; youare
hearing an exquisite symphony of emotion and excitement,filled with crescendos as
well as peaceful interludes. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-27 At the doorway to
shelter, Kent begs Lear to enter. But the oldking gives a calm analysis of why he
is not bothered by the windand the rain. How can it compare with the turmoil
within hismind and body? He knows that he has been mistreated by hisdaughters, who
have turned him out in such a night; he knows howfierce the weather is. He sends
the Fool inside; he will followin a moment. First he wishes to pray. ^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR: LINES 28-36 In a supreme moment of introspection and exposure of his
deepestunderstanding, Lear reflects on the earthly condition of hisfellow suffering
human beings. The other "poor naked wretches"(line 28) who have no shelter arouse
a compassion we haven'tseen before in him, and it inspires--compels--our sympathy.
Ashe reveals an ability to care for others under such devastatingcircumstances as
the storm and his own exile, we begin to carefor him. Lear even shows an
understanding of how clothing determines thesocial order and shields us from a true
vision of man'scondition. When he says, "Take physic, pomp" (line 33), we knowthat
he is reminding himself of his own past errors. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 37-107
The breakdown that has been threatening now occurs when Edgar,disguised as poor Tom
o' Bedlam, comes out and opens an escapehatch from Lear's world of sorrows to the
safer world ofmadness. Edgar plays the part of lunatic wanderer to the hilt and
quicklybecomes Lear's sounding board and counterfoil to repeatedcomplaints of his
daughters' ingratitude. Positioning themadman as a learned philosopher, Lear
thrusts at him withquestions the play itself is asking: Is man no more than this?
(lines 97-98) What is the cause of thunder? (line 146) We can see that Lear has now
embarked on a voyage of discoverythrough the darkness in which his mind is
wandering. In streaksof light and insight, he indicates new awareness. When he
seesEdgar's wretched rags, he begins to take off his own clothes toidentify with
this creature of the lowest social order. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 108-175 Even
Gloucester's arrival cannot stop the progress Lear ismaking. And Gloucester's own
blindness, his failure torecognize his own son--even granting that he isdisguised--
underscores
the contrast of Lear's growing vision. NOTE: Things are not what they seem. The
more Lear appearsmad, the more he is perceived so by Gloucester and Kent. Butthe
more he is learning within his suffering heart and mind. Gloucester, the prosaic,
patient, well-meaning soul, rises a bitin our estimation by his attempt to be of
assistance. Butthere's irony in his acknowledgment of Lear's driven condition
provoked by his daughters, and his comparison of his ownbetrayal by his legitimate
son. How ironic is his cry, "Thegrief hath crazed my wits" (line 161), in view of
Lear's madnessand sorrow. As the storm rages outside, the group moves inward to
shelterand momentary relief. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III, SCENE V Here is another
break from the compelling passion of Lear'sgrowing madness and the dark shadows
surrounding him. We aregiven a close-up view of the utmost villainy at work. It
is notenough for us to know that Edmund will betray his father; we getto witness it
in this "meanwhile, back at the castle"interlude. Having heard the news of
Gloucester's "disloyalty," Cornwallacknowledges that Edgar might have been
justified in wishing tohave his father put away. As Edmund sighs and beats his
breastat the pain he suffers in turning in his father, Cornwall giveshim the happy
news that a reward is at hand. As far as this"worthy arch and patron" (Act II,
Scene i, line 59) isconcerned, Edmund is now the Earl of Gloucester. Just listen
tothe hypocrisy that abounds in this scene as Edmund and Cornwallglibly toss off
references to "loyalty" and "trust" and "love."If you didn't know better by now,
wouldn't this sound like themost sincere conversation you could imagine? Since you
have thefacts behind it in your mind, how powerful is its "villainy"manifest?
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT III, SCENE VI As Lear stumbles down the road to darkest
despair and madness,there are telltale moments of lucidity and passion. Having
touched us with sublime humility and fiery anguish, we nowwitness the debasement of
the monarch--the highest court ofappeal at one time--as he indulges in a grotesque
parody of thecourt of law. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 6-83 Gloucester and Kent
have managed to gather the three unbridledspirits and have brought Lear, Edgar, and
the Fool into ashelter, perhaps a cottage. NOTE: Picture the three of them
prancing about the [Link] is spouting gibberish to maintain his disguise as
"poorTom"; the Fool is trying to entertain his master, to alleviatethe pain of his
suffering with riddles; and Lear is mainly inthe darkness of his tortured mind, but
emerges now and then togive telling replies to the Fool's riddles. With Gloucester
gone to seek further comforts, Lear decides tohold a "trial" to judge his
daughters' evil behavior. Heappoints the "mad" Edgar as judge, the Fool as a
member of thejury, and he will prosecute. With a stool standing in for theaccused,
he declares Goneril guilty of kicking "the poor Kingher father" (lines 47-48). Did
we see this happen? Or can weaccept it as an accurate metaphor for his treatment
at herhands? Regan is similarly accused, but the trial breaks down as Lear'smind
turns to self-pity. He sees light long enough to tellthose assembled that Regan's
heart should be examined to see ifthere is any "natural" cause for the evil it
contains. But the madness is growing in him even as he grows calmer. Fora moment
he thinks that Edgar is one of his hundred knights,though strangely costumed.
Isn't this an ironic fulfillment ofRegan's earlier accusation? At last he is
persuaded to retire for the evening and goes tolie down. Perhaps thinking he is
back in his own castle, hegives orders for the curtains to be drawn and supper, the
evening meal, to be served in the morning. To that the Fool replies: "And I'll go
to bed at noon" (line83). These are the Fool's last spoken words; after this scene
he disappears. Why Shakespeare did this is one of the greatquestions, a subject of
much critical speculation. You haveseen the Fool in action. You have seen the
function he [Link] you must decide how much of a loss he really is. Do you
believe he could continue to provide any comfort for his masterwhose madness, if
not his anger, has been relatively calm up tothis point? NOTE: It has been
suggested that the Fool's line can beinterpreted to mean that he will die now, at
the zenith of hislife. Do you believe this? If not, what other explanation canyou
offer for this, his final statement? ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 90-113 The trusted
Kent, who has witnessed all this, assures thereturned Gloucester that Lear's "wits
are gone." But Gloucesterhas even worse news to report. He has overheard a plot to
killthe king. They must clear out and take Lear to Dover, where hewill be safe.
(There, in the southeast of England, the Frenchforces have landed.) Kent bemoans
the fact that the rest Learneeded so desperately to help cure him of his madness is
obviously not at hand. The faithful Gloucester, Kent, and the Fool literally carry
Learaway, much as he virtually departs from the mainstream of theaction now. The
wheels set in motion by his initial act and byGloucester's misplacement of trust
are now spinning furiouslyand will carry matters forward. Edgar lingers for a
moment to call the audience's attention tothe pathetic nature of the scene they
have witnessed, and toremind us that "Who alone suffers suffers most i' the mind"
(line 102). It is a sad omen of what we are yet to see. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT
III, SCENE VII NOTE: The widely discussed violence of today's television andmovies
has nothing on the brutality of this scene, which isperformed live before the
audience. However, it is notgratuitous. It belongs, it is integral, and we are
ready forit. Shakespeare needed an act of compelling intensity toprepare us for
the greater catastrophe that Lear willexperience: this physical act of violence
serves that [Link] what else could compare to the towering ferocity of the
storm, the tumult of Lear's madness, and the manic insanity ofthe disguised Edgar?
Would a mild reproach, a slap on thewrist, be enough? Kent was put into the stocks
for simplydrawing his sword on a servant; Gloucester's punishment must fithis
crime, and it must be witnessed. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-25 As soon as
Cornwall has sent Goneril off to bring Albany up todate on the French invasion, he
orders a search for "the traitorGloucester" (line 3). Like two harpies, the sisters
call for punishment. Regansuggests hanging, but Goneril, who once told Lear that
she lovedhim "Dearer than eyesight" (Act I, Scene i, line 56), cries:"Pluck out his
eyes" (line 5). In this case, it is hissister-in-law's counsel that Cornwall will
follow. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 27-107 But before such sentence can be
executed, justice will be mockedagain. Gloucester is brought in and a hurried
inquisition isheld. He must suffer the indignation and torture of hisaccusers'
abuse. As Regan plucks the old man's beard, we hearher echo a former accusation:
"So white, and such a traitor!"(line 35). Regan and Cornwall are determined to
discover what they canbefore punishing Gloucester. They can hardly believe--or
perhaps don't want to believe--the news that the king has beensent off to Dover.
Why would Gloucester point him in thatdirection? In an ironic and sad preview of
his fate, he tellsthem, Because I would not see thy cruel nails Pluck out his poor
old eyes;... (lines 56-57) With that preparation, it is not surprising to see
Cornwallexecute the punishment, to see him physically put outGloucester's eyes.
Still, the horror is there, and tounderscore it one servant tries to stop Cornwall.
He engagesthe duke in a duel, but Regan rises to the challenge and runs asword
through the servant's back. Cornwall crawls toward thecompletion of Gloucester's
punishment and puts out his secondeye. The blinded earl now begs for the comfort of
his son Edmund andreceives another form of punishment when Regan tells him that it
was Edmund who betrayed him. In his agony, Gloucester recognizes his former
metaphoricblindness, which led him to cast Edgar out into the cold. In the ultimate
revelation of her savage disposition, Reganpunctuates the cruelty we've just
witnessed by ordering aservant to throw the bleeding Gloucester out "and let him
smell/ His way to Dover" (lines 92-93). When he is gone, Regan discovers that
Cornwall has been injuredin his duel with the servant, and leads him offstage. The
extent of the wickedness is not lost on the observers onstage or on those in the
audience. The remaining servants shareour sympathy and compassion for Gloucester.
They agree to givehim medicines to ease his physical suffering but, as they
indicate, only heaven can really help him now. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV, SCENE
I There is only brief relief from the horror just witnessed. Inthis scene
Gloucester returns to the stage; his rolebecomes--like Lear's--essentially passive
from now on. But atthe same time, the emotional appeals that Shakespeare will
direct through both these old men will also grow morepowerful. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 1-9 Edgar, still disguised, enters and reminds us that his lot inlife is the
lowest. He is, he says, at his very worst. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 10-79
Gloucester stumbles in, aided by an old family retainer. Whenthe blind earl tries
to dismiss his servant, he is reminded thathe cannot see his way. What does
Gloucester reply? I have no way, and therefore want no eyes; I stumbled when I
saw:... (lines 18-19) Discovering his father in this condition and hearing his
pathetic revelation,
his plea to find his lost son, Edgar is inagony. Now Edgar realizes that there is
no such thing as"worst." There is always more. NOTE: Why doesn't Edgar just own up
to who he really is? Itwouldn't serve the play's development, but how can such an
opportunity go by? Watch what happens and see if you can detecta reason to
continue his disguise. Gloucester recognizes the voice of the beggar he had met the
night before, and mentions that ironically he was reminded ofhis son. Just another
trick of fate, he comments, as he makesthe most pessimistic observation of the
play: As flies to wanton boys, are we to th' gods, They kill us for their sport.
(lines 36-37) Is that the ultimate "message" of the play? Is that the answerto
everything that has happened and will happen? Or is manhimself the determining
factor for both good and evil? There isno cut-and-dried answer, but there are, as
always, clues. NOTE: The Wheel of Fortune has come around for Gloucester, muchas
it did for Edgar moments ago. It's natural for the old manto bemoan his fate.
Recognition is important, but remember, thewheel is never stationary. It continues
to move, and Gloucesterhas other discoveries yet to make. The nonrecognition scene
continues: it serves the drama forEdgar to remain unknown to his father. To make
that acceptable,Shakespeare contrives a purpose. The old servant is let go and
Gloucester now comes to depend on the beggar. Aware of hiswretched condition, the
earl wishes to provide him with clothes,to make him more "respectable" as relief
from his suffering. Inan obvious gesture of Christian charity Gloucester gives
awayhis purse. He asks the beggar if he is familiar with the Dover coast andthe
cliffs found there. NOTE: One of the best-known features of the English landscape,
this would strike a familiar note with the audience. It wouldalso suggest what
Gloucester has in mind. Imagine a characterin a play today saying, "Take me to the
Brooklyn Bridge." Itwouldn't be too difficult to figure out what he was planning.
Edgar answers affirmatively. Gloucester asks to be led thereand brought to the
edge where "...from that place / I shall noleading need" (lines 77-78). Why wait
for the gods? He willcreate his own destiny. Edgar takes his arm, and they
depart. This new twist of the subplot, leading it toward the main plot,serves
another purpose. Have you noticed how Edgar has begun togain importance? He has
not yet initiated action, but his roleas participant--and as gradual hero--
constantly grows from hereon. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV, SCENE II A fresh
complication of the main plot takes place, too, as newintrigue begins. The web
being spun by the wicked daughters andthe equally evil Edmund is developing knots.
The pregnantsuggestion of a rift between the forces of Albany and Cornwallis only
one of the problems. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-28 The first breach occurs as
Goneril arrives home with Edmund ather side. She hears from Oswald, the faithful,
fawning steward,that Albany has heard of the French landing in England, but ithas
not aroused him. Told of Gloucester's supposed treacheryand Edmund's supposed
loyalty, he was even less pleased. Recognizing a problem in the making, Goneril
sends Edmund off torejoin Cornwall's forces as she professes her great passion for
this earl-presumptive, sealing it with a kiss. Edmund hidesbehind a chivalrous
farewell that tells us nothing of his truefeelings for her. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR:
LINES 29-68 Albany enters and we quickly see how he feels about Goneril andher
recent actions. He recognizes her and her sister as"Tigers, not daughters," whose
gross treatment of their fatherwill not go unpunished. He, too, observes that the
gods willnot allow such offenses to continue--otherwise, chaos wouldresult.
Goneril, not unlike Lear in his earlier rash state, lashes outat him and calls him
a coward. He sees her as nothing but abeast. NOTE: Remember where animals stood
then in the "natural order."Not only were they at the bottom, they had their own
ranking:at the very lowest are "monsters," the embodiment of evil. ^^^^^^^^^^KING
LEAR: LINES 69-98 A messenger interrupts this verbal battle to inform them of the
death of the Duke of Cornwall from his recent wound. At thesame time, Albany hears
of Gloucester's blinding by hisbrother-in-law and the servant's attempt to
intercede. In thefinal result, Albany sees justice served by the vengeful gods;
Cornwall was punished swiftly for his heinous act. Goneril is given a letter from
her sister, who she realizes isnow a widow and possible contender for Edmund. As
she goes todraft a suitable reply, Albany learns that Edmund had come tothe palace
with Goneril and turned right around. Moreover,Edmund's betrayal of his father had
led to the vilepunishment. In a final impassioned statement, Albany vows revenge,
to finishhimself what the gods have apparently only partially done. The softer
shades are disappearing from the palette as the evilcharacters grow blacker and the
good ones lighter. Is there anyroom for doubt about Goneril now? And what about
Albany? Fromhere on we know what to expect of them. Still we have to ask, why
doesn't Albany join up with the forcesagainst Regan and Edmund and even Goneril?
Why doesn't he goover to the "good guys"? Could it be that he is reluctant to
become involved in a civil war? Or does patriotism make himfeel he must defend the
country against foreigners? Albany isin a difficult position. It will be
interesting to see howShakespeare deals with the problem. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT
IV, SCENE III It's time for another news bulletin, a report by Kent and ananonymous
gentleman. We learn that although the French have landed, the King ofFrance has
returned home to deal with an urgent problem [Link] easy removal of a problem
here may strike you as a bitclumsy, but look what it sets up. With France gone, we
identify Cordelia as the virtual head ofthe invasion. That's not as bad as the
possibility offoreigners beating the English in battle. We can root forCordelia
and her army, Lear, and the "good guys." Kent is toldof Cordelia's reaction to the
news of her father's [Link] grows even more virtuous in our eyes.
(Remember, we havenot seen Cordelia since the very first scene.) Like just about
everyone else, Kent looks to the heavens todiscover the rulers of man's fate. How
could three suchdifferent daughters be produced by the same parent? Kent tells us
that Lear is now in Dover. In lucid moments, themad king remembers his harsh
judgment of Cordelia and is now tooashamed to go to her. Kent will lead the
gentleman to Lear todo the job of persuasion, while he attends to other matters.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV, SCENE IV When we last saw Cordelia, she was leaving
in disgrace. Now, asQueen of France, she enters with drums, fanfare, attendants,
andall the splendor of her position. What a sight, and what areward for our
patience. NOTE: This is the first we see, too, of those French forceswe've been
hearing about. If we are to believe that there is abattle brewing, we need some
demonstration of a worthy foe. Thegrand entrance to this scene does just that. We
have high hopes for Cordelia, and we are not [Link] very first words show
compassion and concern for her [Link] describes the report she has received of
his appearance,dressed with roadside weeds as he wanders about madly singingaway.
Cordelia asks a doctor if there is any hope. Is Lear too fargone? Can he be
cured? The doctor's answer is brief. Rest andthe healing power of "nature" are
the only things that might beeffective. Cordelia vows to find Lear and provide
thatrelief. Told that the British forces are getting closer, she resumes herrole as
leader of the French but joins her cause to herfather's. In a firm statement she
lets us know that the onlypurpose of this invasion is the restoration of Lear's
throne tohim. This is important--it gives us even greater justificationfor
cheering on her side. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV, SCENE V The nonmilitary
conflict is heating up, too. Regan has receivedGoneril's messenger, Oswald, and is
told that Albany ispreparing his troops, even though Goneril "is the bettersoldier"
(line 3). But Regan is more concerned about Edmund. She tries to find outwhat is
going on between him and her sister. Oswald, however,is uncooperative: he will
not show her Goneril's letter toEdmund that he is carrying. Regan goes so far as to
tell Oswald that she is better suited,being a widow, to marry Edmund. There is no
question of thiswoman's lust and passion for that evil man. She gives Oswald a sign
of her devotion to pass along to Edmundwhen he meets him. Moreover, should Oswald
come acrossGloucester, the vindictive Regan offers a reward for killingthat
traitor. Oswald accepts the commission, and departs. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV,
SCENE VI After the interplay of two villains, each outdoing the other in
hypocritical protest of sincere intention, the scene shifts toEdgar's gentle
treatment of Gloucester. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-80 Edgar convinces his
father by word pictures that they havearrived at their destination. He leads him
to the supposed edgeof the cliff and stands aside while the old man prepares to
makehis final peace. Gloucester gives away his last earthly goods, and consigns his
fate to the higher powers. He could not go on without losingfaith in the gods.
With a final blessing on his lost son, hethrows himself forward and faints. NOTE:
For all its pathos, the moment is also funny. Thetwo-foot fall and the subsequent
dialogue are lighter
thananything we've had since the Fool departed. It's not broadcomedy, but it does
provide some relief from the heaviness ofthe tragedy that is building steadily.
Simply because you'reobserving a grand tragedy, don't reject the value of comic
elements. A little laughter will clear the air and pave the wayfor the tears
later. At the same time, it's worth comparing Gloucester's route withLear's
"journey" of despair. Gloucester has chosen suicide;Lear goes mad. Is one worse
than the other? Edgar convinces Gloucester that he is alive and that a miraclehas
occurred. Ironically, a man-made miracle has: the blindearl has regained hope and
faith. He doesn't know that all thishas been his son's doing, and Edgar
perpetuates the deception byassuring him that "...the clearest gods... have
preserved thee"(lines 73-74). That's good enough for Gloucester. He vows tosuffer
his affliction without complaint until he comes to anatural end. ^^^^^^^^^^KING
LEAR: LINES 80-199 We have not seen Lear for some time, although we have had a
recent description of his condition. Now he enters and fits thedescription to the
letter. He is covered with weeds, a"natural" king. There are traces of his former
bearing andauthority, but there is even greater humility. Lear tells us that he
knows he was surrounded by poor adviserswhen he was the absolute monarch. Then his
clothing and royaltrappings kept him from seeing true conditions. Now he has
learned, he has gained vision and can suffer pain. Gloucester recognizes the voice.
It is the king. "Ay, every inch a king" (line 106), replies Lear, who thenbegins a
mad discourse in which he links lust and adultery tothe violence that has taken
place. Hidden in his mad prattlingare tremendous insights, but also anger and
resignation. The pathetic scene of the madman, Lear, and the blind man,Gloucester,
continues with the earl showing his continueddevotion to his master. Lear offers a
topsy-turvy commentary onhis condition, which lands right side up every now and
then. Heknows the difference between his former condition as "something"and his
present state as "nothing." He knows the differencebetween fancy clothes that hide
villains, and nakedness thatsometimes shows true worth. He does not want to seem
to be whathe isn't and he starts to undress. Lear recognizes Gloucester, and he
offers his own eyes to theblind earl. In his philosophical outlook, Lear can see
that wecreate our own misfortunes. This is a bleak outlook. Whyshouldn't "...we
cry that we are come / To this great stage offools" (lines 179-80), he asks before
he is overcome by hismadness and turns to thoughts of revenge. He knows his enemy,
including his sons-in-law, whom he would kill, kill, kill, kill,kill!" (line 184).
Lear sees himself as "The natural fool of fortune" (line 188).He compares his
bodily pain to his mental anguish as madnessagain seizes him. With attendants in
pursuit, this sad,tortured creature runs off, babbling. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES
200-281 One of Cordelia's men tells Edgar that the battle will soon takeplace, but
the queen, Cordelia, will stay right there until herfather is brought to her.
Gloucester repeats his vow to stay alive. For now, Edgar willfind some shelter for
him. But first Oswald comes upon them. His immediate thought is forhis "fortune,"
the reward Regan offered. Not only that, butOswald believes he will rise in
everyone's opinion if he slaysthis enemy. But Oswald has not reckoned with the real
Edgar behind thebeggar's rags, who mocks the steward in a peasant's voice. Heeven
uses a peasant's weapon, some sort of cudgel, to mortallywound the pretentious
steward. In a single gesture of decency before he dies, Oswald asks hisopponent to
deliver the letters he carries to "Edmund Earl ofGloucester." The impact of that
declaration must have shakenboth Edgar and his father. Just as important is the
precedentset by this villain's dying act of goodness. We can expect tofind it
repeated in this play with its constant parallels. Edgar reads the letter. He
learns that Goneril has pledgedherself to Edmund and hopes that the battle will
take care ofthe problem of her present husband. If not, Edmund will have torescue
her in the only way possible. But Edgar has developed his own sense of cunning, and
he savesthe letter for use as ammunition later. When the time comes,he'll take
care of Goneril and serve his own interests. As drums signal the battle
approaching, Edgar leads thesorrowing Gloucester away as the old man laments the
king'smadness and his own grief. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT IV, SCENE VII At long
last, we see Cordelia reunited with her father. It iscertainly an emotional scene,
but it's more than a play forsympathy. As it unfolds, notice how carefully each
step istaken, a striking contrast from the opening, banishment scene. ^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR: LINES 1-43 Cordelia's gentle nature and essential goodness are on
displayas she discusses with both Kent and the doctor Lear's [Link] is told
that the king has slept long enough to risk wakinghim. Try to remember her posture
in the opening [Link] of stubbornness, conniving, and the like melt away
asshe proceeds toward the moment of reunion. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 44-97 To
the accompaniment of gentle music and Cordelia's kiss, Learawakens. At first he
thinks he has died and gone to heaven orpurgatory. Is this another miracle, like
Gloucester's? Hethinks that Cordelia is a spirit and, to the audience, she must
indeed appear so. Gradually he comes to his senses and he knows that he is in the
presence of the daughter he has wronged. He kneels before herin a penitent
gesture, but she asks him to rise and give her hisbenediction. Lear's return to
sanity is evident as he acknowledges that he is"a very foolish fond old man" (line
60). He knows that he isnot completely out of the woods, but he can identify
Cordelia. Riveting the audience by the concentration of kindness takingplace on the
stage, Lear admits that he has wronged Cordelia,but she rebuffs the suggestion.
Total reconciliation is athand. Lear is so humbled that all he can do is repeat
that he is oldand foolish, as the shining heroine, whom he always loved most,leads
him off to further rest. Moved by the scene he has witnessed, Kent prepares to join
thefighting forces. He is told, meanwhile, that Cornwall is deadand that Edmund
has taken his place at the head of Cornwall'stroops. It is rumored that Edgar has
vanished and was seen withthe Earl of Kent in Germany! We might welcome this touch
ofirony as a bit of relief after the heavy sentiment justexperienced on the stage.
Wearied from his struggles to support Lear and act as the neededgo-between, Kent
departs to face whatever the battle willdecide. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT V, SCENE
I The long-awaited battle is about to take place. During thefinal moments of
preparation for the British forces, Edmundstrides forward, very much the master of
the situation. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-17 Edmund sends an officer to see
what's happening with Albany'stroops. Regan is more concerned with another
situation: shetries to get Edmund to assure her of his faithfulness to her andhis
disinterest in Goneril. Her jealousy and desperation areapparent. Edmund gives
her his pledge as Albany and Gonerilenter with their troops. NOTE: The two sides
are again lined up on the stage, withEdmund somewhere between or perhaps traveling
back and [Link] more the arrangement of characters on the stage tells partof
the story. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 18-37 The depth of Goneril's lust for Edmund
is revealed in an asideas they enter. She would rather lose the battle than lose
herlover to her sister. Albany uses this opportunity to clarify his position. He
tellsus that he fights to repel the French invaders, not to opposethe king. The
three villains--Edmund, Regan, and Goneril--canhardly agree with him fast enough.
As they are dispersing to take care of final arrangements, Reganmanipulates Goneril
into coming with her to her tent, despitethe older sister's awareness of the
discussion that awaits herthere. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 38-68 As Albany
lingers for a moment, Edgar, still disguised as abeggar, enters and asks for a
word. Now is the time to turnover Goneril's treacherous letter to Edmund. He does
so, butbefore Albany is allowed to open it, Edgar extracts a [Link] asks to be
allowed to produce a champion to prove the truthof the letter. NOTE: The rules of
chivalry come into play here. Apparently,an accusation such as the one against
Edmund could be challengedand decided by a duel with someone of equivalent rank.
Eventhough he is unknown to Albany, Edgar has obviously piqued hisinterest enough
to obtain his promise. Edgar and Albany leave; Edmund appears alone on the stage.
Welearn that he has been, as we might expect, two-faced in hisrelationships with
Goneril and Regan: he has sworn faithfulnessto each. He'll let the battle decide
if Goneril will become awidow and then he'll choose between them. As for Lear and
Cordelia, if they are captured, he has nointention of letting them live. In these
last moments before the battle, our questions about anyof the characters in the
drama should have been answered. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT V, SCENE II In terms of
spoken words, this is the shortest scene in theplay. What takes place, however, is
a strong thrust toFortune's wheel. With the sound of battle music playing in the
distance, drumsand colors accompany Cordelia, arm in arm with Lear, followed byher
troops, as they cross through and depart for the battle. A moment later,
Edgar takes his father by the arm. He isleading Gloucester to peace, in contrast
to Cordelia's unhappymission. Securing a quiet place by a tree, he departs for the
action on the field. From offstage we hear the sounds of military horns sounding
thecharge, sounds of battle and, finally, retreat. NOTE: From the brief period of
time devoted to it, we can tellthat the actual military conflict offstage is not as
importantas the events that led up to it on stage. We will see theresults shortly.
Edgar returns to tell Gloucester that the French forces havelost. Lear and
Cordelia have been taken prisoner. Theythemselves must flee to avoid capture.
Gloucester's courage appears to desert him, but Edgar remindshim that the wheel can
still spin in any direction. He stillbelieves that it is the gods who decide these
things and hetrusts to fate. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ACT V, SCENE III A work of the
magnitude of King Lear demands a truly grandfinale. Shakespeare has tantalized us
by leaving all the looseends dangling. And, except for Cornwall's premature death
andthe subvillain Oswald's dispatch to the netherworld, all thecharacters are still
on hand. The good ones are capable ofheroic acts; the villains await their just
desserts. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 1-25 A procession of grand proportions, equal
to or greater even thanLear's first entrance, takes place as Edmund marches onto
thestage, followed by his troops and the captive Lear andCordelia. His first act is
to order the captives taken away to detentionuntil their fate is decided. But
before they leave, Cordeliaconfesses that she is saddened at this turn of Fortune's
wheel,not so much for herself as for her father. But Lear does notshare her view.
He offers her a picture of prison as a welcomeretreat from the cares they have
recently shared. That they mayface death doesn't enter into the picture of the
happy life hepaints for her. He is calm and perhaps still a little mad whenhe
tells her that they will have nothing to do but watch therise and fall of the
"great ones" (line 18). ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 26-39 The minute they are gone,
Edmund calls one of his officers intohis confidence. A commission is given. It is
the order to doaway with the prisoners before they are formally judged and
condemned. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 40-106 As the officer leaves, a trumpet
announces the entrance ofAlbany, Goneril, Regan, and more troops. Albany has
apparently read Goneril's love letter to Edmund,which he received from the
disguised Edgar. But before he dealswith that, he calls for the captives. When
Edmund tells himthat they are in custody, Albany rebukes him for his presumptionin
making that decision. Now Regan steps forward and informs everyone that Edmund is
acting on her authority. When that authority is challenged, thetwo sisters snarl
at each other. They begin to fight overEdmund, although Regan confesses that she
is feeling ill. It doesn't matter, Albany tells them. In fact, he accusesEdmund of
treason and names Goneril as his accessory. Unawarethat Edmund's title is not
really merited or secure, Albanyextends to him the courtesy of a chivalrous defense
and ordersthe trumpets to announce the call for a champion to challengeEdmund.
NOTE: The complicated rules of chivalry demand that the rank ofthe challenger be
no lower than that of the defendant. In otherwords, you don't prove anything if
you beat someone less"worthy." Is that really any different from today? Modern
weapons are more sophisticated, but the value system hasendured. Regan cries out
that she is indeed sick, and Goneril in an asidelets us know that she has
administered the cause. As Edmundputs on a show of bravado, Regan is led offstage
to Albany'stent. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 107-151 A herald enters and reads the
challenge. The trumpet is soundedthree times and Edgar, armed and disguised,
enters to presenthis qualifications. Without identifying himself, he claims
nobility equal to his opponent. He accuses Edmund of crimesagainst the gods,
against his father and his brother, againstAlbany; he calls Edmund a traitor from
head to toe and vows toprove it in combat with him. Edmund is so confident of
himself that he accepts the challengeof his anonymous opponent. They fight.
Edmund loses and isfatally wounded, but he does not die instantly. ^^^^^^^^^^KING
LEAR: LINES 152-222 Goneril rages at this trick that has cost her her lover.
Albanysilences her by flaunting her "love note" at her [Link] at him
and his charges, she rushes offstage. Seeingher desperation, Albany sends one of
his officers to keep an eyeon her. As Edmund lies dying, he asks the identity of
his opponent andacknowledges that the accusations were indeed true. Edgar,rapidly
growing in heroic stature, identifies himself and offerssome philosophic views on
this outcome. He doesn't accept thegods as fickle--they are just. Something of a
prig, he doessound a bit tactless when he attributes Gloucester's punishmentto the
adulterous act that produced Edmund. But Edmund hasn't the strength for debate as
he lies dying. Heagrees, noting that "The wheel is come full circle" (line175).
Albany welcomes Edgar, who tells him his recent history--how hecame upon Gloucester
and cared for him and never revealedhimself until recently. Has this been some
sort of penance?Some "mortification of the flesh" to ennoble Edgar further inour
minds? Edgar's final act of revelation came just as Gloucester came tohis own end,
dying between the contrasting emotions of joy andgrief. Edgar also reveals that he
had come across Kent during thebattle and discovered the service he had performed
for Lear. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 223-257 An attendant bursts in, shouting and
clutching a bloody knife inhis hand. Goneril has confessed to poisoning her
sister, andhas killed herself. The irony of the death of his two fianceesand his
own doom is not lost on Edmund. Another voice of impending death is heard as Kent
enters "To bidmy king and master aye good night" (line 235). This remindsAlbany of
Cordelia and Lear. Where has Edmund sent them? As the bodies of Goneril and Regan
are brought out, Edmund isprompted to do a good deed. He reveals that he has given
awritten order for the death of Lear and Cordelia but he haschanged his mind. As
an officer hurries off toward theprisoners, Edmund describes the commission he had
given withGoneril's agreement: Cordelia was to be hanged and blamed as asuicide.
The dying Edmund is then carried off. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: LINES 238-327 Why has
Edmund delayed revealing his plot against the captives?Did it take the sight of the
dead Goneril and Regan to prompthim to act "Despite of [his] own nature"? Any
credit he mightreceive in heaven fades in an instant as Lear now enters withthe
dead Cordelia in his arms. The heartrending scene of reconciliation between father
andestranged daughter was only a preview of the sorrow we nowwitness. Lear is
powerful and yet pitiful in his anguish as hecroons over Cordelia's body. Grasping
at the tiniest hope, hecalls for a mirror to see if he can detect the faintest
[Link] a feather. If it stirs, there is a chance. But she isgone and Lear
can claim only the joy of having avenged her deathby killing her murderer. Kent is
acknowledged, but no attempt is made to separate Learfrom the body of Cordelia,
still cradled in his arms. A messenger enters and announces that Edmund is dead,
but toAlbany this is a trifle. The duke declares that he may have wonthe battle,
but he restores absolute power to the rightfulmonarch, Lear. But there is not much
time left for Lear. His final words areon his tongue as he looks to Cordelia's
lips for an indicationof life. Who can forget how earlier he looked to her lips
foran indication of her love? The very simplicity, the short, one-syllable words of
this lastspeech show how weak he has become. But he is hopeful to thelast. Do you
see this? Look on her. Look, her lips, Look there, look there. (lines 311-12)
Lear dies. NOTE: What does he see? Critics have argued this pointendlessly.
There is really no valid answer but your own. Ifyou view the play as pessimistic,
you will see a dark visionthrough Lear's dying gaze. But if you find optimism in
itsconclusion, you will see a happier sight. Maybe the truth liessomewhere between
and, like Gloucester, Lear has died betweenthe two extremes of joy and grief.
Crying that perhaps Lear has only fainted, Edgar rushes to hisside, but Kent stops
him. Do not disturb his final rest. Learhas suffered enough. With Lear gone,
Albany relinquishes the responsibility forruling England to Kent and Edgar, but
Kent refuses. He hasborne the weight of too much sorrow and will indeed soon
followhis master. Edgar acknowledges in somber tones that we have all learned from
the tragedy we have witnessed. Now we can only take up theburden of future
survival. Lear and his daughters all lie dead on the stage, surrounded byhis nobles
and the army that was really always his. Gloucesterand Edmund have died offstage.
A death march is sounded as the bodies are taken up and thestage is cleared in a
sad recession. ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: GLOSSARY There are many unfamiliar terms,
words, and phrases in KingLear, most of which can be understood from the context in
whichthey appear. Some recur frequently and seem strange onlybecause of usage.
Here are a few that have slightly differentmeanings from our present usage.
WHORESON, BASTARD, BASE These were not necessarily curses. Theywere commonly used
to describe the origins of birth. Sometimesthe reference to low birth
carried a sting, too. FORTUNE A holdover from the Middle Ages, the image of the
Wheelof Fortune was a strong one. It was seen to be the barometer ofman's fate
that turned constantly, moving the bottom to the topand vice versa. VILLAIN,
VILLAINY Our present-day equivalent would probably becriminal and crime. There
were varying degrees, from anaffectionate use to actual accusation of wrongdoing.
Again,reading the word in context will provide a clue to the vehemenceintended.
TREACHERY, TRAITOR Any form of betrayal was treachery and theperpetrator was a
traitor. From the common tattletale to thecommission of major crime of betrayal,
the words were commonlyapplied. MONSTER Another relic of the Middle Ages that
Shakespeare andhis contemporaries commonly incorporated into their routine
philosophy. The personification of disorder was the [Link] upset or inversion
of the ordered world, the benign forces,was the monstrous, the chaotic. Grotesque
images werefrequently used to represent this manifestation of evil anddisorder. WIT
Wit was more than cleverness. Wit represented the humanintelligence, the ability
to reason. When someone lost hisreason, his sanity, he lost his wits. At times it
alsoindicated cunning and the ability to exploit words to a greaterpurpose.
^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THE MESSAGE OF KING LEAR he theme of King Lear may be stated
in psychological as well asbiological terms. So put, it is the destructive, the
ultimatelysuicidal character of unregulated passion, its power to carryhuman nature
back to chaos.... The predestined end of unmastered passion is the suicide of the
species. That is the gospel according to King Lear. The playis in no small
measure an actual representation of that [Link] murder-suicide of Regan-
Goneril is an example. But it ismore than a picture of chaos and impending doom.
What is theremedy for chaos? it asks. What can avert the doom? Thecharacters who
have mastered their passions give us a glimpse ofthe answer to those questions. -
Harold C. Goddard, The Meaning of Shakespeare, 1951 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ON LEAR
The initial act of the hero is his only act; the remainder ispassion. An old and
weary king, hungry for rest, banishes theone daughter who would give it to him and
plunges at once intothe long, loud night of his catastrophe. An early recognition
of his error does not save him. The poet does not wish to savehim, for his
instinct is to develop a catastrophe as none hasbeen developed before or since. -
Mark Van Doren, Shakespeare, 1939 Lear's progress--dramatic and spiritual--lies
through adissipation of egoism; submission to the cruelty of anindifferent Nature,
less cruel to him than are his own kin; toultimate loss of himself in madness. -
Harley Granville-Barker, Preface to Shakespeare, 1946 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THE
SECONDARY PLOT The secondary plot fills out a story which would by itself havebeen
somewhat thin, and it provides a most effective contrastbetween its personages and
those of the main plot, the tragicstrength and stature being heightened by
comparison with theslighter build of the former. -A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean
Tragedy, 1983 he subplot simplifies the central action, translating itsconcerns
into familiar (and therefore easily apprehensible)verbal and visual patterns. The
subplot is easier to graspbecause its characters tend to account for their
sufferings intraditional moral language; it also pictorializes the mainaction,
supplying interpreted visual emblems for some of theplay's important themes. -
Bridget Gellert Lyons, "The subplot simplification in King Lear," from Some Facets
of King Lear, Essays in Prismatic Criticism, edited by Rosalie L. Colie and F. T.
Flahiff, 1974 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: THE STORM The third act of King Lear, which
covers the storm and itscounterpart in human behavior, is a marvellous example of
poeticelaboration for dramatic ends. At the center of it, at once themain
protagonist and symbol of the spiritual state of a humanityexposed to fundamental
disorder, wrenched out of its "fixedplace" in the "frame of nature," stands the
figure of an agedking. The intimate dovetailing of personal conflict withexternal
convulsions has often been noted, and is indeed anessential part of the conception.
The storm which has brokenout in Lear's mind, the result of his treatment at the
hands ofhis children, is admirably fused with the description of thewarring
elements mainly entrusted to his lips; the externalstorm, while exercising upon his
aged physique the intolerablestrain under which it finally breaks, is itself a
projection ofhis inner state, being fused with it as a single poeticreality. -D.
A. Traversi, An Approach to Shakespeare, 1969 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ON RELIGIOUS
VALUES The play is not, as some of our grandfathers believed,pessimistic and pagan:
it is rather an attempt to provide ananswer to the undermining of traditional ideas
by the newphilosophy that called all in doubt. Shakespeare goes back to apre-
Christian world and builds up from the nature of manhimself, and not from revealed
religion, those same moral andreligious ideals that were being undermined. In a
world oflust, cruelty and greed, with extremes of wealth and poverty,man reduced to
his essentials needs not wealth, nor power, noreven physical freedom, but rather
patience, stoical fortitude,and love; needs perhaps, above all, mutual forgiveness,
theexchange of charity, and those sacrifices on which the gods, ifthere are any
gods, throw incense.... -Kenneth Muir, 1972 To me, the clairvoyance of King Lear is
hardly distinguishablefrom religious insight. It is not only our profoundest
tragedy;it is also our profoundest expression of an essentiallyChristian comment on
man's world and his society, using theterms and benefitting by the formulations of
Christiantradition. -John Danby, Shakespeare's Doctrine of Nature, A Study of King
Lear, 1964 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ON WOMEN Men's behavior matters. But women's
behavior is of the [Link] "redeems nature from the general curse/which
'twain'have brought her to" (my italics ['twain']). The twain are, ofcourse,
Goneril and Regan. Cordelia redeems nature; Goneril andRegan are responsible for
its "curse." In the rhetoric of theplay, no male is condemned as Goneril is
condemned. A woman whorefuses to uphold the inlaw [benevolent] feminine principle
completely topples the natural order and plunges the world intochaos. -Marilyn
French, Shakespeare's Division of Experience, 1983 ^^^^^^^^^^KING LEAR: ON
LANGUAGE There is, indeed, in King Lear, a kind of irony which is not, toany
important extent, to be found in any other play: the ironywhich lies in the
contradiction between the rightness of what issaid and the wrongness of its being
said by that particularcharacter, or in that particular situation, or in that
particular manner. -Arthur Small, "Character and Society in Lear," from
Shakespeare: The Tragedies, edited by Alfred Harbage, 1964
THE END