SCIENCE 3 NOTES (BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES) NOTES

GENETICS AND EVOLUTION

 Traits
o Variations of character
o Alleles
 Alternative forms of a gene, and represents a trait
 Genome
o Entirety of an organism’s hereditary information
 Mendel
o Laws of Heredity
o Unit Determiners or Genes (contain hereditary info and come
in pairs)
 Genotype (genetic representation of a character)
 Phenotype (observed physical manifestation of the
genotype)
 Homozygous (identical alleles)
 Heterozygous (two different alleles)
o Law of Dominance (if two alleles differ, dominant allele is
fully expressed in appearance)
o Law of Segregation (two alleles for each character segregate
during gamete production)
o Law of Independent Assortment (inheritance of one allele will
not affect that of another)
 Incomplete Dominance
o Blending of traits
 Codominance
o Both alleles contribute to the appearance
 Multiple Alleles
o Genes having more than 2 possible traits
o Ex. ABO blood typing
 Polygenic Inheritance
o Collection of two or more genes that exert their effects on a
single phenotypic character
 Sex (XX = Female, XY = Male)
o Sex-linked traits
 Genes responsible for the trait found in the sex
chromosomes (X and Y)
o Sex-influenced traits
 Not governed by genes in sex chromosomes but
expression on dominance depends on the sex of the
individual
o Sex-limited traits
 Manifested only in one sex because of physiology or
anatomy
 Mutations
o Changes in the genetic material of the cell
o Naturally or may be induced by chemicals, radiation, UV
light or heat
 o Important agents in introducing variation to organisms
 Charles Darwin
o Natural Selection theory
o Overproduction (geometric increase of populations,
arithmetic increase of resources)
o Struggle for life (competition)
o Variation (genetic recombination, mutation)
o Survival of the fittest (adaptive characteristics that enable
individuals to survive)
o Heredity (passing of adaptive characteristics to their
offspring by the survivors)
 Cyanobacteria (first to utilize sunlight and photosynthesis for
energy)
o By-product was oxygen
 Evolution of heterotrophs
 Endosymbiotic Theory
o Present day organelles such as mitochondria and
chloroplast were separate cells
 Engulfed by primitive cells earlier in time
 Have their own DNA

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY

 Levels of Ecology
o Organism (single living individual)
o Population (group with the same species of organisms living
the same area)
o Community (all populations of various species in a given
area)
o Ecosystem (biotic + abiotic factors)
o Biome (ecosystems are determined by its climate)
o Biosphere (totality of all life)
 Biological Interactions (+ = benefited, - = harmed, 0 = unaffected)
o Mutualism (+,+)
o Commensalism (+,0)
o Amensalism (-,0)
o Competition (-,-)
o Parasitism (-,+)
o Predation (-,+)
 Land Biomes
o Tundra
 Polar regions
 Low sunlight, frozen water and ground
o Taiga
 High latitudes and altitudes
 Low sunlight, low temperatures
o Deciduous Forests
 Temperate regions
 Four seasons
 o Rainforests
 Tropical regions
 High precipitation, high sunlight
 Highest biodiversity
o Grasslands/Savannah
 Moderate precipitation, high sunlight
o Deserts
 Low precipitation, high sunlight
 Aquatic Biomes
o Freshwater Biomes
 Little to no salinity in water
o Saltwater Biomes
 High salinity
o Estuaries
 Saltwater + freshwater
 Aristotle
o Classified living organisms as animals and plants
 Carl Von Linne
o Binomial Nomenclature System
o Genus and species for the scientific name
 Taxonomic Ranks (King Phillip Came Over For Great Soup)
o Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
 5 Kingdoms
o Monera (prokaryotic, unicellular, asexual reproduction)
 Archaebacteria (can tolerate harsh environments,
also known as extremophiles)
 Eubacteria (true bacteria)
o Protista (eukaryotic, unicellular/simple multicellular)
 Algae (photosynthetic protists)
 Protozoans (unicellular and heterotrophic)
 Slime molds and water molds (fungus-like protists)
o Fungi (eukaryotic, heterotrophic, reproduce by spores,
saphrophytic)
o Plantae (multicellular, autotrophic, sexual reproduction)
o Animalia (multicellular, heterotrophic, motile)

PLANTS
 Non-vascular Plants
o lack true roots, stems and leaves
 Vascular Plants
o Have vascular tissue for transporting water and food
o Seedless vascular plants
 Produce spores for reproduction
o Seeded vascular plants
 Gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants)
 Angiosperms (flower-bearing plants)
 Monocots (single seed cotyledon, ex. Banana)
 Dicots (double seed cotyledon, ex. Mango)
  Types of Tissue
o Dermal Tissue (to cover the plant and for protection)
o Vascular Tissue (transport of materials)
 Xylem (carries water from the soil)
 Phloem (carries food from the leaves)
o Ground Tissue (photosynthesis, storage, support)
 Parenchyma (metabolic functions)
 Collenchyma (unevenly thickened cell walls for
flexibility and tensile strength)
 Sclerenchyma (very thick cell walls for structure and
support)
 Vegetative Organs
o Providing nutrition to the plant
o Roots
 Anchor the plant in the soil
 Absorb minerals and water, conduct water and
nutrients, store food
o Stems
 Supports the plant and contains the vessels that
transport materials
o Leaves
 Blade and petiole
 Reproductive Organs
o Structures of plants used for procreation
o Seedless plants (produce spores)
o Gymnosperms (cones that carry the seeds)
o Angiosperms (flowers that become pollinated and become
fruits which produce seeds)
 Parts of a Flower
o Stamen (male part of the flower)
 Pollen grains (contains the sperm cells)
 Anthers (produce, hold, and release the pollen grains)
 Filament (stalk that holds the anther)
o Carpel (female part of the flower)
 Stigma (sticky part where pollen can attach and enter
the carpel)
 Style (tube that connects the stigma to the ovary)
 Ovary (where egg cells are produced)
o Petals (colourful to attract pollinators)
 Collectively known as corolla
o Sepals (leaf-like structures that protect the flower bud)
 Collectively known as calyx
 Fertilization
o Sperm from pollen  Ovary  Fruit  Ovule becomes the
seed

NUTRITION, PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

 Food Chain
 o last consumer gets the least energy obtained by the
producer
 Chloroplast
o Where photosynthesis occurs
o Membranes
 Surround and protect the stroma
o Stroma
 Dense fluid within the chloroplast
o Thylakoids
 Contains chlorophyll
 Green pigment that absorbs light energy
 Granum
 Stack of thylakoid membranes
 Photosynthesis
o Light Reaction (in the Thylakoid)
 Reactants: H2O, sunlight, NADP+, ADP
 Products: O2, ATP, NADPH (goes to calvin cycle)
o Calvin Cycle (in the stroma)
 Reactants: CO2
 Products: ADP, NADP+ (goes to light reaction), Glucose
 Cellular Respiration
o Anaerobic Respiration/Fermentation (occurs in the absence of
O2)
 Alcohol Fermentation
 Pyruvate is converted to ethanol
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Pyruvate is reduced to lactate
o Aerobic Respiration (occurs in the presence of O2)
 Glucose is broken down to CO2, H2O, ATP
 Glycolysis (in the Cytosol)
 Products: Pyruvate, H2O, NADH, H+, 2 ATP
 Glucose  2 molecules of Pyruvate
 Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix)
 Products: CO2, FADH2, NADH, 2 ATP
 Pyruvate  Acetyl CoA (releases CO2)
 Acetyl CoA reactions FADH2 and NADH (electron
carriers)
 Electron Transport Chain (inner membrane of
mitochondria)
 Products: H2O, H+ to drive ATP synthesis (34)
 NADH, FADH2 electron transfer to Oxygen
 Oxygen 2 Hydrogen atoms + electrons Water
 ETC generates a proton for ATP synthesis
 1 Glucose molecule = max of 38 ATP in aerobic respiration
ANIMALS
 4 Major Types of Animal Tissue
o Epithelial Tissue
 Consists of cells, fibers and extracellular matrix
 Provide support for various body parts and organs
 o Nervous Tissue
 Perceive internal and external stimuli and transmit
these to produce reactions
 Basic unit is called a neuron
o Muscle Tissue
 Functions to produce bodily motion
 Consists of actin and myosin filaments
 Smooth Muscle (involuntary, internal organs)
 Skeletal Muscle (voluntary, bound to skeleton, multiple
nuclei)
 Cardiac Muscle (make up the heart, strong and always
working)
THE HUMAN BODY
 Respiratory System
o Responsible for breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon
dioxide
o Diaphragm Contraction: air goes in
o Diaphragm Expansion: release of carbon dioxide
 Circulatory System
o Pumping and channeling of blood to and from the body and
lungs
o Arteries: carries blood away from the heart
o Veins: carries blood back into the heart
o Capillaries: very small vessels
o Blood is produced in the bone marrow
 Digestive System
o Mechanical and chemical food processing and digestion
o Amylase: digests starch into simple sugars
o Bolus: lump of food that goes down the esophagus by means
of peristalsis
o Stomach: gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and
proteases to break down proteins
o Liver: produces bile for breaking down fat globules while
the gall bladder stores and releases to the small intestines
o Pancreas: secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes
o Small Intestines: continue digestion of the food and then
absorbs it through its villi into the bloodstream
o Large Intestines: compacts the waste as feces and
reabsorbs water, forced out by the rectum and through the
anus
 Excretory System
o Removes metabolic and liquid toxic wastes as well as excess
water from the body
o Kidneys: contain nephrons which are units that filter the
blood
o Urine  Ureter  Urinary Bladder  Urethra
 Nervous System
 o Collecting, transferring, and processing information in the
form of electrical signals
o Central Nervous System (brain, spinal cord)
o Peripheral Nervous System (sense organs, cranial nerves,
motor nerves)
 Reproductive System
o Purpose of procreation
o Seminiferous tubules: produces sperm cells in the testis
o Epididymis: storage and “incubator” of sperm cells
o Sperm cells in the epididymis  Sperm duct
o Seminal Vesicles: provide fructose-rich fluid that give
energy to the sperm
o Prostate Gland: produces seminal fluid that mixes with the
sperm
o Bulbourethral Gland: produces fluid that lubricate and
neutralize acidity in the urethra
o Ovaries: monthly produces egg cells
o Ovum  Oviduct  Uterus
 Endocrine System
o Chemicals communications within the body with hormones to
maintain homeostasis
o Pituitary Gland: release many hormones that affect the
functions of other glands (brain)
o Pineal Gland: produces melatonin that regulates sleep
(brain)
o Hypothalamus: controls many functions such as hunger,
thirst, body temperate and parental attachment (brain)
o Thyroid Glands: hormones that controls growth (neck)
o Adrenal Glands: produce adrenalin which is associated for
providing energy for fight-or-flight purposes (on top of each
kidney)
 Immune System
o Works for the detection and prevention of diseases
o Lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus, spleen, white
blood cells
 Integumentary System
o Protects the body from various kinds of damage such as water
loss and abrasion
o Skin
 Muscular System
o Movement of the body and maintains posture
o Includes skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscles
 Skeletal System
o Structural support and protection
o Includes bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments