Living World:

Ecosystems
Unit 1
Unit 1

Pamela Seals – The Webb School

 Environmental Science
Environment- The sum of all the conditions
surrounding us that influence life.
Environmentalism – A social movement that seeks to
protect the environment through lobbying, activism,
and education.
Ecosystem – A particular location on Earth with
interacting biotic and abiotic components.
Introduction to Environmental Science
 Ecosystems Have Living and
Nonliving Components
Abiotic
Water
Air
Nutrients
Rocks
Heat
Solar energy

Biotic
Living and once living
Major Biotic and Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem

Fig. 3-6,
Species Interact in Five Major Ways
Intraspecific Competition - two or more members of
the same species compete for a resource, ex. males for a
female
Interspecific Competition - two or more species
compete for the same resource, ex. birds for nesting sites
Predation – a member of one species uses another
species as food
Parasitism – a relationship in which one species benefits
at the expense of another
Mutualism – a relationship in which both species benefit
from the relationship
Commensalism – a relationship in which one species
benefits but the other species is neither harmed nor aided
Community Ecology Video II
In Some Interactions, Both Species
Benefit
Mutualism – both species benefit
Nutrition and protection relationship
Gut inhabitant mutualism
Not cooperation: it’s mutual exploitation
 In Some Interactions, One Species
Benefits and the Other Is Not Harmed
Commensalism – one species benefits and the
other is not helped or harmed
Epiphytes
Birds nesting in trees
Whales and barnacles
 Some Species Feed off Other
Species by Living on or in Them
Parasitism – one species benefits and the other
is harmed by the relationship
Parasite is usually much smaller than the host
Parasite rarely kills the host
Parasite-host interaction may lead to coevolution
 Predator – Prey Relationships

Predators and prey have evolved many elaborate ways

to capture or avoid being captured over the years.
Ex. Predators can use pursuit and ambush, camouflage,
and chemical warfare
Ex. Prey can use escape, camouflage, and chemical
warfare too
Community Ecology video
Some Species Evolve Ways to Share
Resources
Type of resource partitioning
Using only parts of resource –
spatial differences create
different niches
Using at different times –
temporal differences use it at
different times of day
Using in different ways – do to
morphological differences in the
organisms, ex. beak shapes
 Climate Helps Determine Where
Organisms Can Live
Major biomes: large land regions with certain types
of climate and dominant plant life
Not uniform
Mosaic of patches
Three major things
determine the biome.

Latitude and elevation

Annual precipitation
Temperature
The distribution of biomes is dynamic. It can change
location based on global climate changes.
The Earth’s Major Biomes

Fig. 7-7,
Natural Capital: Average Precipitation and Average
Temperature as Limiting Factors

Fig. 7-9,
Whittaker Biome Diagram
 Deserts
Characterized by:
areas where evaporations
regularly exceeds
precipitation
Temperature: can vary
greatly within a 24 hour
period, as well as yearly
[based on location]
Precipitation:
<25 cm [12 in]/ year
 Deserts
Adaptations: Plant-
thick cuticle, spread out root
system, taproot;
Animal- small body size,
nocturnal, thin fur, thick
skin, long legs
Human Impacts: water
diversion, human
development
 Deserts- Other Features
- soil is relatively thin; slow to regenerate
- takes a long time to recover from any impact
- desert plants are able to survive with a higher
percentage water loss than most other plants
 Savanna [Tropical Grassland]

Locations: generally
found between tropical
deserts and rainforests
Characterized by:
rain concentrated into
rainy seasons; this allows
trees to have a growing
season; scattered trees
found throughout biome
 Savanna
Temperature: relatively
stable year round with very
little variation
Precipitation: seasons
regulated by precipitation
(wet/dry season)
[76-150 cm/yr]
 Savanna
Adaptations: animals
utilize vertical feeding
pattern; camouflage; large
herding animals;
plants like grasses dry
and can burn easily and
trees can handle long
droughts
Human Impacts:
poaching of many savanna
animals for parts/ trophies
 Savanna- Other Features
Rain in the savanna is concentrated into rainy seasons, which
means that enough rain falls quickly enough to support the
growing season for the scattered trees that grow.
If that rain were evenly distributed throughout the year, it
would not be enough at any one time to support the trees.

- Fires are common within the savanna

due to the largely dry conditions; the
fires help fertilize the soil for the next
growing season.
 Temperate Grassland
Locations: interiors of
continents; temperate climate
zones
Characterized by:
enough rainfall to support
annual and perennial grasses
but not enough to support
tree growth
Names: Steppes (Eurasia),
Prairies (N. America), and
Pampas (S. America)
 Temperate Grasslands
Temperature: varies
throughout the year; seasons
based on temperature
changes
Precipitation: 25-75
cm/yr
 Temperate Grasslands
Adaptations: grasses
have large intact root
systems that allow them to
grow back year after year;
small mammals, or larger
herding animals
Human Impacts:
development; agriculture
 Temperate Grasslands- Other Features
Very thick topsoil- results from accumulation of
organic matter that comes from annual
decomposition; best topsoil of all biomes
over 90% of plant life has been converted to topsoil,
which can deplete the topsoil over time by removing
nutrients [when crops are harvested] quicker than
they are replenished
Fires are also common in this biome, they help
replenish nutrients into the soils
Arctic Tundra - Polar Grassland/desert
Locations: around the
Arctic Circle [different
from ice caps; soil is
present here]
Characterized by:
permafrost [frozen
ground that never
thaws]; no [full size]
trees, very short
summers
 Arctic Tundra
Temperature: generally
very cold; warms up during
short tundra summer [50-
160 days] to allow for
growing season
Precipitation: 10-25
cm/yr [similar to desert; very
little precipitation]
 Arctic Tundra
Adaptations: small
surface area to volume
ratios, thick fur, blending
coloration; plants grow low
to ground; larger animals
migrate to taiga during
winter
Human Impacts:
climate change is melting
permafrost, natural resource
development [oil, gas]
 Arctic Tundra- Other Features
- Problem with climate
change- as permafrost melts,
methane that was trapped in
the soil [decomposition]
escapes, and further
contributes to enhanced
greenhouse effect
- Oil and gas pipelines also
thaw permafrost, and hinder
migration of large animals
 Chaparral -
Shrubland
Locations:
Mediterranean climates
[Greece, California
coast]; found along
coastlines in temperate
climates
Characterized by:
small shrubs covering
bare ground; few grasses
and trees
 Chaparral - Shrubland
Temperature: mild,
moist winters and hot, dry
summers
Precipitation: low
rainfall, concentrated in
winter
Chaparral - Shrubland
Adaptations: plants are able
to grow back quickly after fire with
small amount of root material left,
oils promote burning to kill off
competing species
Human Impacts: human
development [very desirable place
to live]; fires
Tropical Rainforest

Characterized by: high

rainfall and humid conditions
year round; broadleaf
evergreen trees
Temperature: warm
year round; 25°C/ 80°F
Precipitation: 200-450
cm/yr
 Tropical Rainforest
Adaptations: many animals are
arboreal [tree-dwelling], specialists
avoid competition, ground level plants
have large leaves to take in more
sunlight; buttresses [above ground
roots] help stabilize large trees in poor
soil
Human Impacts: deforestation,
development
Tropical Rainforest- Other Features
- contain 50-80% of world’s terrestrial biodiversity
- vertical feeding pattern – helps lower competition
- specialization results in smaller niches and specialist
species
- only 1-2% of sunlight reaches the rainforest floor [which
is why leaves are so large- to catch every little bit of
sunlight]
- rapid decomposition rates [high temperature, lots of
moisture] allow for nutrients to be cycled very rapidly;
this is important because otherwise leaching would occur
[when rain carries nutrients down away from topsoil]
Tropical Rainforest- Other Features
- despite the rapid decomposition rate, soil is
generally poor because rapid growth will take
nutrients from the soil as quickly as they are added
through decomposition
- when people cut down rainforest trees for
agriculture, the soil is only usable for 2-5 years due to
nutrient depletion
Temperate Rainforest
- coniferous biome with cool
weather, dense fog, and high
precipitation
- found in areas like Northwest
US and windward sides of some
mountains
- gets more than 125cm
rainfall/year [heaviest in winter]
and have mild winters and cool
summers
- do not contain the same level of
diversity found in tropical
rainforests
Temperate Rainforest
 Temperate Deciduous Forest

Locations: temperate
climates; near temperate
grasslands
Characterized by: 4
distinct seasons [only biome
with 4]; main plants are
deciduous trees that lose
leaves annually
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
Temperature: 4 distinct
seasons determined by
temperature; hot summers
with cool winters
Precipitation:75-150
cm/year; falls regularly all
year
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
Adaptations: trees
leaves change color and fall
annually; trees remain
dormant in winter; many
animals hibernate to cope
with winter
Human Impacts:
human development,
deforestation
 Temperate Deciduous Forest- Other
Features
- this is only biome with 4 distinct seasons that show
up in the vegetation; you can look at the trees and
generally know the time of year
- soil is the best of all forest biomes due to annual
leaf litter accumulation
 Evergreen Coniferous Forest [Taiga]

Locations: North
Hemisphere, just south
of the arctic tundra;
Russia, Canada
Characterized by:
evergreen coniferous
trees; lack of permafrost
Names: Boreal Forest,
Taiga, Coniferous Forest
 Taiga

Temperature: cold
winters, mild summers;
summers are short, but do
allow for a longer growing
season than the tundra
Precipitation: ~50
cm/year
 Taiga
Adaptations: trees are shaped to
allow snow to slide off branches [so
they don’t break]; needles minimize
water loss [and the trees don’t have to
grow them back during the short
growing season];
many animals are migratory or
have a hibernating behavior
Human Impacts: climate change
is impacting freeze/thaw patterns;
logging
 Taiga- Other Features
- soil is thin and acidic due to decomposition of
conifer needles; the waxy outer covering of the
needles decomposes, making the soil more acidic
[this inhibits some other smaller plants from growing
in this area]
- cover about 11% of earth’s land surface
Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water
Aquatic life zones
Saltwater life zones (marine life zones)
Oceans and estuaries
Coastlands and shorelines
Coral reefs
Mangrove forests

Freshwater life zones

Lakes
Rivers and streams
Inland wetlands
The Ocean Planet

Fig. 8-2,
Aquatic Systems

Fig. 8-3,
 What determines distribution?

Key factors in the distribution of organisms

Temperature
Salinity
Dissolved oxygen content
Availability of food
Availability of light
Availability of nutrients (specifically N and P)
Turbidity (degree of cloudiness in water)
Inhibits photosynthesis
Oceans Provide Vital Ecological and
Economic Resources
Estimated $12 trillion per year in goods and services
Reservoirs of diversity in three major life zones
1. Coastal zone
Warm, nutrient rich, shallow
Shore to edge of continental shelf
Usually high NPP from ample sunlight and nutrients
2. Open sea
3. Ocean bottom
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive
Estuaries and coastal wetlands
Where rivers meet the sea
Seawater mixes with freshwater - brackish
River mouths
Inlets
Bays
Sounds
Salt marshes
Mangrove forests
Very productive ecosystems: high nutrient levels
View of an Estuary from Space

Fig. 8-7,
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive
Seagrass Beds
Grow underwater in shallow areas
Support a variety of marine species
Stabilize shorelines
Reduce wave impact
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive
Mangrove forests
Along tropical and subtropical coastlines
Stabilizes shorelines and reduces wave energy
Aquatic nurseries
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive
Important ecological and economic services
Coastal aquatic systems maintain water quality by
filtering
Toxic pollutants
Excess plant nutrients
Sediments
Provide food, timber, fuelwood, and habitats
Reduce storm damage and coast erosion
 Rocky and Sandy Shores Host
Different Types of Organisms
Intertidal zone
Rocky shores
Sandy shores: barrier beaches
Organism adaptations necessary to deal with daily
salinity, moisture and temperature changes
Think of tide pools
Sand dunes – why are they important?
Held in place by plant roots and provide habitats
Help prevent erosion and destruction of inland areas
during storms and high, high tides.
Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers of
Biodiversity
Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests
Highest biodiversity in water
Habitats for one-fourth of all marine species
Base of food chain and fisheries
 The Open Sea and Ocean Floor
Host a Variety of Species
Three vertical zones of the
open sea
1. Euphotic zone
Phytoplankton
Nutrient levels low
Dissolved oxygen levels
high
2. Bathyal zone (Disphotic)
Dimly lit
Zooplankton and smaller
fishes
 The Open Sea and Ocean Floor
Host a Variety of Species
1.

1. Abyssal zone (aphotic)

Dark and cold
High levels of nutrients
Little dissolved oxygen
Deposit feeders
Filter feeders
2. Upwelling brings nutrients to euphotic zone
Major Life Zones and Vertical Zones in an Ocean

Fig. 8-6,
Freshwater Systems
Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others
Four zones based on depth and distance from shore
1. Littoral zone
Near shore where rooted plants grow
High biodiversity
Turtles, frogs, crayfish, some fish

2. Limnetic zone
Open, sunlight area away from shore
Main photosynthetic zone
Some larger fish
 Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others
1.

1. Profundal zone
Deep water too dark for photosynthesis
Low oxygen levels
Some fish

2. Benthic zone
Decomposers
Detritus feeders
Some fish
Nourished primarily by dead matter
Some Lakes Have More Nutrients
Than
Oligotrophic lakesOthers
Low levels of nutrients and low NPP
Very clear water
Eutrophic lakes
High levels of nutrients and high NPP
Murky water with high turbidity
Mesotrophic lakes
Moderate levels of nutrients and NPP
Cultural eutrophication of lakes from
human input of nutrients
The Effect of Nutrient Enrichment on a Lake

Fig. 8-17,
Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges
Provide free ecological and economic services
Filter and degrade toxic wastes
Reduce flooding and erosion
Help to replenish streams and recharge groundwater
aquifers
Biodiversity
Food and timber
Recreation areas
Examples: Marshes, Swamps, Prairie potholes,
floodplains and the Arctic tundra in the summer
Nutrients Cycle in the Biosphere
Biogeochemical cycles, nutrient
cycles – Shows the stages for each of the key
nutrients in our ecosystem
Hydrologic
Carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus

Nutrients may remain in a reservoir for a period of

time
 Hydrologic Cycle
Reservoirs – Largest is the ocean, ice caps and
groundwater are smaller ones
Driven and powered by the sun
Water comes in three phases on our planet
Human impacts on the hydrologic cycle
Pollution
Climate change/increased temps increases the
weather related components
Overdrawing underground sources
Hydrologic Cycle Including Harmful Impacts of Human
Activities

Fig. 3-16,
Hydrologic and Carbon Cycles
 Carbon Cycle
Reservoirs – Trees/plants, ocean, and fossil fuels
The cycle shows the steps between the regular sinks.
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Combustion
Decomposition
Fossil Fuels
Natural Capital: Carbon Cycle with Major Harmful Impacts
of Human Activities

Fig. 3-19,
 Nitrogen Cycles through the
Biosphere: Bacteria in Action
The largest reservoir is the atmosphere (78% is N2)

It’s useless to life in this form.

Nitrogen fixation: Turning nitrogen gas into a usable
form life

ammonia (NH3)
ammonium ions (NH4+) or
Nitrate ions (NO3-)
Done by bacteria (in legumes) or lightning only
Nitrification: Soil bacteria change ammonia and
ammonium ions to nitrite ions (NO2-)then into nitrate
ions (NO3-) which plants can use
 Nitrogen Cycles through the
Biosphere: Bacteria in Action
Denitrification: Nitrate ions turned back into nitrogen
gas by another group of bacteria
Assimilation: Producers take in usable nitrogen and
incorporate it into their tissues for use by consumers
Nitrogen Cycle in a Terrestrial Ecosystem with Major
Harmful Human Impacts

Fig. 3-20,
 Nitrogen Cycles through the
Biosphere: Bacteria in Action
Human intervention in the nitrogen cycle
1. Additional NO and N2O in atmosphere from burning fossil
fuels; also causes acid rain when combined with water in
the atmosphere
2. N2O released in the atmosphere from bacteria acting on
fertilizers and manure
3. Destruction of forest, grasslands, and wetlands
4. Add excess nitrates to bodies of water (usually from
runoff)
5. Remove nitrogen from topsoil in agriculture
Human Input of Nitrogen into the Environment

Supplement
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles
Phosphorus Cycle with Major Harmful Human Impacts

Fig. 3-21,
 Phosphorus Cycle
Reservoir – Main location is in rock or sediments
containing phosphorus containing minerals
Has NO atmospheric component
One of the slowest moving cycles
Once deep in the ocean sediments, it can take thousands to
millions of years to find its way back into living organisms.
Makes it a limiting factor to growth in plants
Human Impact:
Additional fertilizer on crops often end up as runoff in water
bodies
Leads to huge algal blooms and potentially oxygen dead
zones
 Eutrophication
Excess N and P enter aquatic systems from human
sources
Algae blooms from an excess of nutrients
Aquatic plants die from lack of sunlight
Bacteria decompose the dead plant material using
oxygen in their respiration
Lack of oxygen lead to fish
death
Ecosystems crash
Producers and Consumers Are the
Living Components of Ecosystems
Producers or autotrophs
Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + O2
Chemosynthesis: using chemicals instead of sunlight
Consumers or heterotrophs
Herbivores – only eats plants
Carnivores – only eats animals
Omnivores – eats both plants and animals
Detritivores – eats dead organic matter,
especially plant detritus
Decomposer – organisms that break dead
material back into its chemical components
Detritivores and Decomposers

Fig. 3-10,
Trophic Levels and Food Chains
A trophic level is a level of feeding in an ecosystem.
Predation and Parasitism are typically the specific
interactions that lead to energy from one organism
being made available to another organism
This transfer of energy can be shown by a food chain
or a food web.
 Food Webs
A Food Chain is one possibility of feeding
relationships in an ecosystem.
A Food Web shows all possibilities for feeding
relationships.
Food Chain
Food Web
 Pyramid of Energy Flow
Energy pyramids will always
have a pyramid shape (upright)
due to the second law of
thermodynamics (cannot create
new energy)
Usually measured in some kind
of generic energy units, Joules,
or %
Typically only 10% of the energy
is transferred up the pyramid.
Lost to heat, used by the
organism or decomposed
 Biomass
Biomass refers to the overall amount of living material in an
ecosystem.
This is seen as the total dry weight of all organic
matter in an ecosystem.
The pyramid can be upright or inverted
 Primary Productivity
Primary productivity is the rate at which solar energy is
converted into organic compounds over time
Producers capture about 1% of the available energy from
photosynthesis
Aquatic systems have to deal with wavelengths of light
being filtered out.
Red is absorbed first
Blue penetrates the
deepest.
Some Ecosystems Produce Plant
Matter Faster Than Others Do
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Rate at which an ecosystem’s producers convert solar
energy to chemical energy and biomass
Kcal/m2/year
Net primary productivity (NPP)
The chemical energy converted from the Sun
MINUS the energy the producers use to live.
Ecosystems and life zones differ in their NPP
Estimated Annual Average NPP in Major Life Zones
and Ecosystems

Fig. 3-15,
Terrestrial NPP