YOUTH COMPETITION TIMES

RRB JE
2nd Stage (CBT-II)

CAPSULE
CIVIL & ALLIED
ENGINEERING
Study Material & Question Bank
Chief Editor
A.K. Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Rohit Kumar Singh, Er. Shipra Singh
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 INDEX

RRB JE Syllabus ............................................................................................ 3-4

Engineering Mechanics.................................................................................. 5-11

Building Construction .................................................................................. 12-16
Building Materials ....................................................................................... 17-45
Construction of Substructure ....................................................................... 46-52
Construction of Superstructure .................................................................... 53-78
Building Finishes ......................................................................................... 79-87
Building Maintenance .................................................................................. 88-92
Building Drawing ...................................................................................... 93-110
Concrete Technology ............................................................................... 111-158
Surveying ................................................................................................. 159-232
Computer Aided Design .......................................................................... 233-242
Geotechnical Engineering ........................................................................ 243-302
Hydraulics ................................................................................................ 303-350
Irrigation Engineering .............................................................................. 351-380
Mechanics of Structures........................................................................... 381-417
Theory of Structures ................................................................................ 418-440
Design of Concrete Structures ............................................................... 441-468
Design of Steel Structures........................................................................ 469-496
Transportation Engineering ..................................................................... 497-529
Highway Engineering .............................................................................. 530-576
Environmental Engineering ..................................................................... 577-629
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment ................................. 630-644
Estimating & Costing............................................................................... 645-661
Contracts & Accounts .......................................................................................... 662-672

2
 Syllabus for Civil & Allied Engineering
Exam Group - JE
S.N. Subject
1. Engineering Mechanics- Force (resolution of force, moment of force, force system,
composition of forces), Equilibrium, Friction, Centroid and Center of gravity, Simple
machines.
2. Building Construction- Building components (substructure, superstructure), type of structure
(load bearing, framed and composite structures).
3. Building materials- Masonry materials (stones, bricks, and mortars), Timber and
miscellaneous materials (glass, plastic, fiber, aluminium steel, galvanized iron, bitumen, PVC,
CPVC, and PPF).
4. Construction of substructure- job layout, earthwork, foundation (types, dewatering, coffer
dams, bearing capacity).
5. Construction of superstructure- stone masonry, brick masonry, Hollow concrete block
masonry, composite masonry, cavity wall, doors and windows, vertical communication (stairs,
lifts, escalators), scaffolding and shoring.
6. Building finishes- Floors (finishes, process of laying), walls (plastering, pointing, painting)
and roofs (roofing materials including RCC).
7. Building maintenance- Cracks (causes, type, repairs- grouting, guniting, epoxy etc.),
settlement (causes and remedial measures), and re-baring techniques.
8. Building drawing- Conventions (type of lines, symbols), planning of building (principles of
planning for residential and public buildings, rules and byelaws), drawings (plan, elevation,
section, site plan, location plan, foundation plan, working drawing), perspective drawing.
9. Concrete Technology- Properties of various types/grades of cement, properties of coarse and
fine aggregates, properties of concrete (water cement ratio, properties of fresh and hardened
concrete), Concrete mix design, testing of concrete, quality control of concrete (batching,
formwork, transportation, placing, compaction, curing, waterproofing), extreme weather
concreting and chemical admixtures, properties of special concrete (ready mix, RCC, pre-
stressed, fiber reinforced, precast, high performance).
10. Surveying- Types of survey, chain and cross staff survey (principle, ranging, triangulation,
chaining, errors, finding area), compass survey (principle, bearing of line, prismatic compass,
traversing, local attraction, calculation of bearings, angles and local attraction) leveling (dumpy
level, recording in level book, temporary adjustment, methods of reduction of levels,
classification of leveling, tilting level, auto level, sources of errors, precautions and difficulties
in leveling), contouring (contour interval, characteristics, method of locating, interpolation,
establishing grade contours, uses of contour maps), area and volume measurements, plane table
survey (principles, setting, method), theodolite survey (components, adjustments,
measurements, traversing), Tacheometric survey, curves (types, setting out), advanced survey
equipment, aerial survey and remote sensing.
11. Computer Aided Design- CAD Software (AutoCAD, Auto Civil, 3D Max etc.), CAD
commands, generation of plan, elevation, section, site plan, area statement, 3D view.
3
12. Geo Technical Engineering- Application of Geo Technical Engineering in design of
foundation, pavement, earth retaining structures, earthen dams etc., physical properties of soil,
permeability of soil and seepage analysis, shear strength of soil, bearing capacity of soil,
compaction and stabilization of soil, site investigation and sub soil exploration.
13. Hydraulics- properties of fluid, hydrostatic pressure, measurement of liquid pressure in pipes,
fundamentals of fluid flow, flow of liquid through pipes, flow through open channel, flow
measuring devices, hydraulic machines.
14. Irrigation Engineering- Hydrology, investigation and reservoir planning, percolation tanks,
diversion head works.
15. Mechanics of Structures- Stress and strain, shear force and bending moment, moment of
inertia, stresses in beams, analysis of trusses, strain energy.
16. Theory of structures- Direct and bending stresses, slope and deflection, fixed beam,
continuous beam, moment distribution method, columns.
17. Design of Concrete Structures- Working Stress method, Limit State method, analysis and
design of singly reinforced and doubly reinforced sections, shear, bond and development
length, analysis and design of T Beam, slab, axially loaded column and footings.
18. Design of Steel Structures- Types of sections, grades of steel, strength characteristics, IS
Code, Connections, Design of tension and compression members, steel roof truss, beams,
column bases.
19. Transportation Engineering- Railway Engineering (alignment and gauges, permanent way,
railway track geometrics, branching of tracks, stations and yards, track maintenance), Bridge
engineering (site selection, investigation, component parts of bridge, permanent and temporary
bridges, inspection and maintenance), Tunnel engineering (classification, shape and sizes,
tunnel investigation and surveying, method of tunneling in various strata, precautions,
equipment, explosives, lining and ventilation).
20. Highway Engineering- Road Engineering, investigation for road project, geometric design of
highways,
construction of road pavements and materials, traffic engineering, hill roads, drainage of roads,
maintenance and repair of roads.
21. Environmental Engineering- Environmental pollution and control, public water supply,
domestic sewage, solid waste management, environmental sanitation, and plumbing.
22. Advanced Construction Techniques and Equipment- Fibers and plastics, artificial timber,
advanced concreting methods (under water concreting, ready mix concrete, tremix concreting,
special concretes), formwork, prefabricated construction, soil reinforcing techniques, hoisting
and conveying equipment, earth moving machinery (exaction and compaction equipment),
concrete mixers, stone crushers, pile driving equipment, working of hot mix bitumen plant,
bitumen paver, floor polishing machines.
23. Estimating and Costing- Types of estimates (approximate, detailed), mode of measurements
and rate analysis.
24. Contracts and Accounts- Types of engineering contracts, Tender and tender documents,
payment,
specifications.

4
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE Coplanar Line of action lies in a same
In order to determine the effects of a force acting on concurrent forces plane and meets at a single
a body, we must known– point to each other.
Magnitude of the force (i.e. 100 N, 50 N, 20 N etc.) Coplanar non- The forces, whose lines of
Line of action of the force (i.e. along OX, OY, at 30o concurrent forces action lie on the same plane
but do not meets at a single
north etc.)
point.
Nature of the force (i.e. push or pull).
Non-coplanar Line of action does not lie on
Composition of Forces : The process of concurrent forces the same plane but meet at a
finding out the resultant force, of a number of given single point.
forces is called composition of forces. Non-coplanar The forces, whose lines of
Method for the resultant force : non-concurrent action do not lie on the same
• Parallelogram law of forces : forces plane and do not meet at
single point.
R = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos θ
Non-concurrent Line of action of all forces do
F2 sin θ forces not pass through a single
tan α = point.
F1 + F2 cos θ Line of action of all forces
Collinear forces
θ = 0º Force act along the same line. passes through a single line.
Parallel forces Line of action of all forces are
θ = 90º Force act at right angle. parallel to each other.
θ = 180º Force act along same line but in (a) Like parallel Line of action of all forces are
opposite directions. forces parallel to each other in same
• Resolution of forces : The process of splitting up direction.
the given force into number of components without (b) Unlike parallel Line of action of all forces are
changing its effect on the body. forces parallel to each other in
Note : In general, the forces are resolved in the different direction.
vertical and horizontal direction. Non-parallel Line of action of all forces are
forces not parallel each other.
2 2
Resultant force ( R ) = ( H) ( V) Equilibrium of force :
V If the resultant of a number of forces acting on a
tan θ = particle is zero, the particle will be in equilibrium.
H • Condition of equilibrium :
The horizontal component of all the forces (ΣH) and
vertical component of all the forces (ΣV) must be
zero. ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0.
The resultant moment of all the forces (ΣM) must be
zero. (ΣM = 0).
• Lami's theorem– It states that if three forces
coplanar and concurrent forces acting at a point be
in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the
sine of the angle between the other two forces.
Systems of Forces-
Force system Definition P Q R
= =
Coplanar forces The forces, having lines of sin α sin β sin γ
action lie on the same plane.
Collinear forces Line of action of forces lie on
the same line.
Concurrent forces When the forces meet at single
point or line of action of all
forces passes through a single
line

Engineering Mechanics 5 YCT

Note- M.A. < 1 (Always)
Lami's theorem is applicable only for coplanar, Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)-
concurrent, non-linear and radial forces.
When applied force on body is in equilibrium then Effort arm Load W
M.A. = = =
angle formed at joint should be 120º. Load arm Effort P
Moment of force :
• Introduction - FRICTION
Rotational tendency of a force about of fixed point is • Static friction : It is the friction experienced by a
called moment. body when it is at rest or it is the friction when the
body tends to move.
M = Force × Perpendicular distance of
Moment, • Dynamic friction :
force from fixed point
Sliding It is the friction, experienced by a
Unit- N-m friction body when it slides over another body.
• Varignon's theorem- Rolling The friction resisting the motion of a
"The algebraic sum of the moment of a resultant of rolling body on another surface is
two forces, about a point lying in the plane of the friction
forces, is equal to the algebraic sum of moments of known as rolling friction.
these two forces about the same point." • Limiting friction : The max. friction force, when a
The force system may be either coplanar or spatial, body just begins to slide over the another surface of
but it must be concurrent. body is called limiting friction. At this condition the
body just start moving.
∑ M Forces = M Resultant Limiting friction > Static friction > Dynamic friction.
Principle of moments is the extension of Varignon's
theorem. • Angle of friction : Angle between normal reaction
• Couple - R and resultant force is called angle of friction. It is
It is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on also called limiting angle of friction.
a body in a such way that the lines of action of the
two forces are not in the same straight line.
Ex.-Twisting a screw driver, Turning the cap,
Opening or closing a water tap
• Lever-
It is consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a
fixed hinge, or fulcrum about which it can rotate.
"It works on the principle of moments."
• Class of lever-
Class-I Lever- ∵ µS = tan λ
Static co-efficient of friction is equal to the tangent
of friction angle.
λ = tan −1 ( µS )

Ex. - A pair of Scissors, Crowbar, Beam balance, • Coefficient of friction :

Hand pump. limiting friction ( F)
Mechanical Advantage, M.A. ≥ 1 µ= = tan φ or F = µR
normal friction ( R )
Class-II Lever-
• Angle of repose(φ) : Minimum angle of a inclined
plane with the horizontal on which a body can slip is
called angle of repose.

Ex.- Nut-crackers, Wheel barrow, Paper sheet cutter,

Bottle openers, Weight lifting rod
M.A. > 1 (Always)
Class-III Lever-

Ex.-Fishing rod, Tongs, Human forearm, Forceps, Angle of repose = Angle of friction
Shovel, Knife tan φ = µS
Engineering Mechanics 6 YCT
CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY For an ideal machine the straight line will pass
through the origin.
Centroid It is a point through which the entire
line, area or volume is assumed to be
concentrated.
Centre of Point where entire weight of the body
Gravity is assumed to be concentrated.
It depends upon shape of the body.

Note :
Centre of gravity of uniform rod is at its middle
point. P = mW
Centre of gravity of a cube is at a distance of l/2 For an actual machine straight line will have an
from every face. intercept at C.
Centre of gravity of sphere is at a distance of d/2 The intercept C is the amount of effort required by
from every point. the machine to overcome the friction.
Centre of gravity of hemisphere is at a distance of
3r/8 from its base, measured along the vertical
radius.
The centre of gravity of right circular solid cone is
at a distance of h/4 from its base, measured along
vertical axis.
Centroid of regular plane figure-
Lamina Area x y
Triangle 1 b h
b.h
2 3 3
P = mW + C
Rectangle b.h b h Where,
2 2 P = Applied effort to lift the load.
Circle πr2 r r m = Slope of graph= tan θ (constant)
W = Lifted load
Semicircle 1 2 r 4r C = Constant (machine friction)
πr
2 3π TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MACHINES-
Quadrant Circle 1 2 4r 4r (i) Effort (P)-
πr
4 3π 3π The force which is applied to lift a load is called
Three quadrant 3 3 4r 4r effort.
πr (ii) Mechanical advantage -
circle 4 9π 9π
Projectile Motion- Lifted Load W
M.A. = =
Height Applied Effort P
u 2 sin 2 θ u2
h= h max. = , ( θ = 90° ) (iii) Velocity Ratio -
2g 2g
Displacement of theeffort y
V.R. = =
Time period 2u sin θ 2u displacement of theload x
T= Tmax. = , ( θ = 90° )
g g (iv) Efficiency of a machine -
Output of themachine w.x
Range u 2 sin 2θ u2 η= =
R= R max. = , ( θ = 45° ) Input to the machine P.y
g g
(v)Relation b/w M.A., V.R. and η of a machine -
SIMPLE MACHINE
M.A
It is a device, which enables us to do some useful η=
work at some point or to overcome some resistance, V.R
when an effort or force is applied on it, at some other (a) If η = 100% then, M.A = V.R
convenient point.
• Law of machine- (b) For Ideal machine M.A = V.R
It is relationship between the effort applied and the
(c) For Practical machine M.A < V.R
load lifted.
Engineering Mechanics 7 YCT
(vii) Ideal machine or perfect machine - (c) Resolution forces
(a) If no frictional losses, then (d) Composition of forces
η = 100% or 1 (Frictionless Machine) RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (d) : Composition of Forces:-
(b) If friction losses consider
The process of finding out the resultant force of
η < 100% or 1 numbers of given forces is called composition of forces
Note- or compounding of forces.
Non-reversible machine also called self-locking Resultant force:-
machine. If a number of forces are acting simultaneously on a
A screw jack used for lifting the loads is a non- particle, then it is possible of find out a single force
reversible machine. which could replace them, i.e., which would produce
the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This
The velocity ratio of first system pulley is 2n. single force is called resultant force and the given forces
The velocity ratio of second system pulley is n. are called component forces.
Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. The sum of all the forces acting on a body is
Zero. The inference that can be deduced from
1. How many methods can be used to find the it is:
resultant of parallel force? (a) The body may be in equilibrium provided the
(a) Three (b) Four forces are parallel
(c) Two (d) Five (b) The body may be in equilibrium provided the
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 forces are concurrent
Ans (c) : The process of finding out the resultant (c) The body cannot be in equilibrium
force of a number of given forces are called (d) The body must be in equilibrium
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
composition of forces. There are two methods to
Ans. (b) : If the sum of all forces on the body is zero. It
find resultant of forces. means the body may be in equilibrium provided the
(i) Analytical method :- The analytical method forces are concurrent.
can be sub-divided into parallelogram law of
forces and method of resolution
(ii) Graphical method
2. How many force/forces are replaced in the
process of resolution?
(a) One (b) Two
(c) Four (d) Three If two equal and opposite forces act at a point or
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 concurrent, the torque produced will be zero. The body
Ans (a) : Composition and Resolution of forces:- will not have translational and rotational motion and
Forces can be combined to provide a single will be in equilibrium.
resulting force. The process of combining forces is 6. Which of the following branches of mechanics
deal with the equilibrium of the bodies under
called the composition of forces. A single force the effect of the forces?
can also be separated into two perpendicular (a) Kinetics (b) Kinematics
Components. The process breaking one force into (c) Statics (d) Dynamics
two is called resolution of forces. PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
3. The forces whose lines of action do not lie in Ans. (c) : Statics– It is that branch of mechanics which
one plane and they do not meet at one point are deals with the action of forces on bodies in equilibrium.
known as ______. Dynamics– It is that branch of mechanics which deals
(a) Non- coplanar and concurrent forces with the action of forces in motion.
(b) Coplanar and Non- concurrent forces Kinetics– It deals with the problems which require the
(c) Non-coplanar and Non-concurrent forces determination of the effect of forces on the motion of a
body or conversely the forces causing a certain motion.
(d) Coplanar and concurrent forces
BMC Tech. Asst. (Civil) 22/10/2023 7. The unit of moment of force is :
(a) N/m (b) Nm (c) N/m2 (d) Nm2
Ans. (c) : Non-coplanar and Non-concurrent forces– Kerala PSC AE Water Authority 29/12/2022
The forces which do not meet at one point and their
lines of action do not lie on the same plane are called Ans. (b) : The turning effect produced by a force on
non-coplanar non-concurrent forces. a rigid body fixed about a point is called moment
of a force or torque.
4. The process of finding out the resultant force of
a given forces is called Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance
(a) Net force of given of action of force from axis of rotation
(b) Transmissibility τ = F × d (N-m)
Engineering Mechanics 8 YCT
8. If P and Q two forces are perpendicular to each (c) It consists of two parallel forces of equal
other, then what will be resultant force R? magnitude but opposite direction
P (d) It does not produce any moment
(a) R + (b) R = P 2 + Q 2 PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
Q
Ans. (c) : Couple–When a pair of equal parallel forces
(c) R = P2 + Q2 (d) R = P + Q that are opposite in direction is applied on a body, then
GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023 it rotate about a point or axis is called a couple.
Ans. (c) :

11. The relationship between force, mass and

acceleration is given by :
(a) Force = Mass × Acceleration
(b) Force = Mass – Acceleration
(c) Force = Mass – Acceleration
θ = 90º (d) Force = Mass / Acceleration
Resultant formula– PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
2 2
R = P + Q + 2PQ cos θ Ans (a) : Acceleration: -
The rate of change of velocity of a body is called
R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos 90° acceleration. It is a vector quantity denoted by 'a' and
its SI unit is m/s2.
R = P2 + Q2
Change in velocity
∴ Acceleration =
9. What should be the angle of projection for a Time interval
projectile so that the attained range is
maximum for a given initial velocity? ∆v
a=
(a) 30º (b) 45º ∆t
(c) 90º (d) 60º Force:- As per Newton's 2nd law-
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 Change in momentum with respect to time is called
Ans. (b) : Projectile motion– When a particle is force.
projected parabolically near the earth surface, It moves Mathematically:-
simultaneously in horizontal and vertical direction. ∆P
F=
This type of motion is called projectile motion. ∆t
Pfinal – Pinitial
= [∵ P = mv]
∆t
mv – mu
=
∆t
m (v – u)
=
∆t
F = m.a (in a given direction)
u 2sin2θ Impulse:- If a large force is acting on a body for a very
Range of projectile =
g short time, then the product of this large force (F) and
Where, u = Projected speed time (∆t) is known as impulse and large force itself is
θ = angle at which an object is thrown from the ground called impulsive force.
2 Impulse = Force × Time
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s
Range will be maximum when 2θ = 1 or θ = 45 o • It is a vector quantity and its SI Unit is N–s or kg- m/s
u 2 12. In a symmetrical and uniform object, where is
Rmax = the center of gravity located?
g
(a) At the geometric center
10. Which of the following statements is true about (b) At one end of the object
a couple? (c) At the midpoint of the object
(a) It is a single force (d) At an arbitrary location
(b) It produces translational motion PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
Engineering Mechanics 9 YCT
Ans. (a) : Center of gravity–The point at which all the 16. Efficiency of the machine is given by
weight of an object may considered to be concentrated. (a) Velocity Ratio/Mechanical Advantage
• In symmetrical and uniform object the center of (b) Mechanical Advantage/Velocity Ratio
gravity is located at geometric center. (c) Mechanical Advantage/Machine friction
(d) Velocity Ratio/Machine friction
BMC Tech. Asst. (Civil) 22/10/2023
Ans. (b) : Efficiency of machine :- The work done on
the machine by plying the effort is called work input
Winput similarly the work done by the machine on the
13. Select the correct statement regarding the 1st load in called work output (W
output)
and 2nd moment of area of circular lamina with
radius 'R'. work output
st nd
η=
(a) 1 moment of area is always +ve and 2 work input
moment of area is always -ve. L × dL L / E
(b) 1st moment of area and 2nd moment of area = =
E × dE dE
are always +ve.
st
(c) 1 moment of area is may be either -ve or +ve dL
nd
based on the chosen reference axes, but 2 Mechanical advantage
moment of area is always +ve. so η =
Velocity ratio
(d) 1st moment of area is always -ve and 2nd
moment of area is always +ve. 17. A machine is said to be reversible when the .....
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning) (a) load gets lowered on the application of the
Ans. (c) : 1st and 2nd moment of area of a circular effort
lamina with radius 'R' is indicating 1st moment of area (b) load gets highered on the removal of the
is may be either –ve or +ve based on the reference axis
effort
but 2nd moment of area is always +ve.
(c) load gets highered on the application of the
14. What is the term for the force that opposes the
relative motion or tendency of such motion of effort
two surfaces in contact? (d) load gets lowered on the removal of the effort
(a) Friction (b) Tension GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
(c) Gravity (d) Inertia Ans. (d) : Reversible machine–It is said to be
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 reversible when the load (W) gets lowered on the
Ans. (a) : Friction–Friction always acts to oppose removal of the effort. In such a case, work is done by
relative motion between two surfaces in contacts. the machine in reverse direction.
Gravity–Gravity is a force that pulls things downward.
Inertia–The tendency of an object to resist a change in Irreversible machine–It is said to be irreversible when
its motion. the load (W) does not fall down on the removal of the
effort. In such a case, work is not done in the reverse
15. The maximum value of frictional force, which
direction.
comes into play when a body just begins to
The machines having efficiency less than 50% are
slide over the surface of the other body, is
irreversible or self-locking, whereas, machines having
known as:
(a) coefficient of friction efficiency greater than 50% are said to be reversible.
(b) angle of friction 18. Which of the following statements is/are
(c) normal reaction correct?
(d) limiting friction A. The forces are represented by the
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023 directions only in the polygon law of forces.
Ans. (d) : Limiting Friction:- B. In the triangular law of forces, the
The maximum value of frictional force, which comes resultant force is shown in the same order
into play, which a body just begins to slide over the as the applied forces.
surface of the other body, is known as limiting friction. C. In the parallelogram law of forces, the
Coefficient of Friction:- forces are acting simultaneously on a body.
It is defined as the ratio of limiting friction to the
normal reaction (RN) between the two bodies. It is D. In the triangular law of forces, the
generally denoted by 'µ'. resultant force is shown in the reverse
Mathematically, order of the applied forces.
F (a) C and D (b) A and B
Coefficient of Friction (µ) = (c) A and C (d) B and D
RN
TSPSC AE 05/03/2023
Engineering Mechanics 10 YCT
 Ans. (a) : • In the parallelogram law of forces, the π
(a) (D 4 − d 4 )
forces are acting simultaneously on a body. 64
• Forces are represented by both direction and π 4
magnitude in polygon law of forces. (b) (D − d 4 )
8
π 4
(c) (D − d 4 )
16
π 4
(d) (D − d 4 )
32
• In the triangular law of forces, the resultant force is AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
shown in the reverse order of the applied forces. Ans. (a) :
Lamina Ixx Iyy
Hollow π π
Circular 64
( D4 − d 4 ) 64
( D4 − d 4 )
Section
Triangle bh 3 hb13 hb32
19. What will be the value of 'y', the distance of I yy ' = +
36 12 12
center of gravity, for the SOLID CONE given
in the figure? Circle πD 4 πD 4
64 64
Rectangle bh 3 hb3
12 12
Ellipse πab3 πba 3
r h 4 4
(a) (b)
4 4 21. The system of force represented in the
h r following figure is the_____
(c) (d)
3 2
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (b) :
• The centre of gravity of a cube is at a distance ℓ/2
from every face.
• The centre of gravity of a cylinder is at a distance of
h/2 from its base.
• The centre of gravity of right circular cone is at a
(a) coplanar concurrent force system
distance of h/4 from its base, measured along the
vertical axis. (where; h = height of cylinder) (b) non-coplanar concurrent force system
• The centre of gravity of a segment of sphere of a (c) coplanar non-concurrent force system.
3 (2r − h) 2 (d) non-coplanar non-concurrent force system
heights h is at a distance from the
4 (3r − h) APPSC AE (Civil/Mech.) 15/05/2022
centre of the sphere, measures along the height. Ans. (b) : Non-coplanar concurrent force system-
20. Which of the following expressions is correct to Multiple forces lying in different plane and intersecting
compute the moment of inertia (Iyy) of a hollow at one point are called non-coplanar concurrent force.
section shown in the figure?

Non-coplanar concurrent forces

Engineering Mechanics 11 YCT

 COMPONENTS OF BUILDING Foundation
The building components are the structures that serve It is the lowest part of the building structure resting
the purpose of load transfer, supporting, and on soil below ground level. Its main function is to
protecting the building. distribute the load evenly and safely to the ground.
Plinth
The part of the structure between the surface of the
surrounding subsoil and the surface of the raised
floor of the building, immediately above the ground.
The width of the plinth beam should be equal to the
width of the foundation at the ground level.
It acts as a barrier to the dampness and moisture
reaching the superstructure.
The plinth protects from water seepage in a framed
structure.
It protects the building from cracks at the time of
settlement of the foundation.
Super Structure
The portion above the ground floor level is known
as super structure. It includes walls, columns, beam,
floor, roofs, door and windows, lintel etc.
Damp Proof Course :
DPC is a barrier of impervious material built into
wall or pier to prevent moisture from moving to
building foundation. It is mainly laid on plinth
beam at plinth level or floor level.
Thickness - 2.5 - 4 cm with cement concrete 1: 1.5 :
3 and cement mortar 1 : 2 DPC provided over
full width of plinth wall but not provided at the sill
Sub Structure of door and verandah opening.
A substructure transfers the load from the various Walls
building components to the earth. A wall can be used for the transfer of load or for just
It is the parts of building, constructed below the partition purposes.
ground level (G.L.)
Ex. Foundation, plinth etc. Walls are of different types depending on their usage
and location such as cavity walls, partition walls,
retaining walls, compartment walls, dwarf walls,
parapet walls, and curtain walls.
Classification of walls -
1. Load bearing walls -
The wall which is constructed to support
superimposed load and their own loads.
Such a wall is made in first class brick and rich
mortar.
Ex. Solid wall with piers (pilasters), Veneered wall,
Cavity wall, Solid wall.
2. Non-load bearing walls or Drop walls-
It takes only self load i.e. partition wall. It serves as
screen for privacy.
It can be removed without affecting the building
Substructure and its components structure.
Building Construction 12 YCT
 Generally thickness is 100-125 mm The advantages of load-bearing structures and
Ex. Partition wall, Panel wall, Curtain wall, Free framed structures are coined in composite structures.
standing wall, Dwarf wall The walls in the composite buildings act as load-
3. Retaining walls - bearing structures while the columns run through the
A structure provided to the down side of the road to structure as framed structures.
protect freshly cut/fill or old surface of a natural hill.
Some examples of composite structures are long
It is used for support artificial cutting.
shed diaries, storage houses, workshops, etc.
4. Partition walls-
It is a thin wall constructed to divide an enclosed National Building Code-
space. NBC is a document that provides guidelines for
TYPE OF STRUCTURE construction, maintenance and fire safety of the
Load bearing structure : structure.
The structure in which a load of the roof is NBC was first published in 1970.
transferred through the walls to the foundation. Minimum life period of building is taken 50 years.
The loadbearing structures are used for the Most economical shape of building is square shape.
construction of small buildings. Small structures like It is most earthquake resistance shape.
temples, small houses, rural buildings, and low-rise IGBC - Indian Green Building Council.
buildings are examples of load-bearing structures.
❖ Classification of Building in Civil Engineering-
Residential building up to ground + 2 floors can be
built economically with such structure. Group Building Use
The load-bearing structure has good sound Classification
insulation properties. A Residential Sleeping, Living with or
Building without cooking or dining
(Treats as light
construction)
B Educational Education purpose.
Building
C Institutional Medical or other treatment or
Building care of persons suffering from
physical or mental illness.
Ex.- Nursing home,
orphanage, jail, sanatoria,
Framed structure :
The building components like beams, columns, and hospitals.
slabs are integrated to form a framed structure. D Assembly Building where groups of
In the framed structure, the load is transferred Building people gather.
through this frame to the foundation. Ex.-Temple, assembly halls,
The framed structure offers good stability and theatre
strength. These structures can easily withstand E Business Used for keeping records of
earthquake loads and wind loads. Building business transactions, town
These structures can be used to construct multi-story halls, court house etc.
buildings.
F Mercantile Used as housing shops, stores,
These structures can absorb the shocks and vibrations
Building showrooms to display and
in a better way as compared to loadbearing
sales.
structures.
G Industrial Assembling or processing all
Building types of material is to be
carried out.
H Storage building Storage purpose or sheltering
of goods, vehicles, grains.
Composite Structures : J Hazardous For storage, handling and
The load-bearing and framed structures are building manufacturing of explosive
combined to form the composite structures. The (Notational materials.
composite structures are used for long spans. colour→ Black)
Building Construction 13 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 6. If the soil is dry, DPC for ground floor consists
of the layer of
1. A metal fastener which connects wythes of
(a) metal (b) coarse sand
masonry to each other or to other materials is (c) fine sand (d) concrete
known as ______.
PPSC JE 06/03/2022
(a) Bond (b) Wall tie
Ans. (b) : If the soil is dry, DPC for ground floor
(c) Column (d) Pier consist of the layer of course sand. Course sand layer of
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024 about 75-100 mm thickness is provided over the entire
Ans. (b) : Wall tie– A wall tie is a mechanical metal area under the floor.
fastener that connects wythes of masonry to each other 7. Which of the following is NOT the property of
or the other materials, also referred to as an anchor. material, which is used for damp proofing
2. A panel wall is an ______ in a framed building. course?
(a) Internal non-load bearing wall (a) The material should be perfectly pervious
(b) External load-bearing wall (b) The material should be flexible so that it can
(c) Internal load-bearing wall accommodate the structural movement
(d) External non-load bearing wall without any fracture
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I (c) The material should be such that leak-proof
jointing is possible
Ans. (d) : Panel wall–Panel wall is the external non- (d) The material should be durable and should
load bearing wall, commonly related to framed have the same life as that of the building
structures. MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
Non-load bearing wall–Non-load bearing wall carry
Ans. (a) : Damp proofing–Dampness in building refers
their own load only. They generally serve as divide to the access and penetration of moisture into the
walls or partition walls. building through the walls, floor, roof etc. Provision of
Load bearing wall–Load bearing wall are designed to damp proof course prevents the entry of moisture in the
carry super-imposed loads transferred through roofs in building.
addition to their own self weight. Requirements for materials for damp-proofing
3. Which of the following offers a sense of security The following are the requirements of ideal materials
and protection? for damp proofing–
(a) Boundary wall (b) Area wall • They should be impervious
(c) Edge wall (d) Perimeter wall • They should be durable with life span as long as that
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II of the building
Ans. (a) : Boundary wall– Boundary wall means any • They should be capable of bearing the load that may
wall, fence, or enclosing structure erected on or directly be imposed on them.
next to a cadastral property boundary, and any other • They should be dimensionally stable.
structure, including security devices, such as spikes, • They should be flexible enough to accommodate the
barbed wire, razor wire, or electric fences, affixed to or structural movements without undergoing any
on top of a boundary wall. fracture.
4. Minimum gap between openings in wall should be • They should be inexpensive.
(a) 1 brick (b) 2 bricks 8. As per National Building Code, what will be
(c) 3 bricks (d) 2.5 bricks the maximum permissible built-up area for a
plot area for 200 m2 to 500 m2?
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
(a) 33.33% of the plot area
Ans. (b) : The minimum gap between openings in wall (b) 50% of the plot area
should be 18 inches or 2 bricks. (c) 40% of the plot area
5. What is the minimum recommended wall (d) None of the above
thickness for load bearing walls? UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
(a) 100 mm (b) 50 mm Ans. (b) :
(c) 300 mm (d) None of the above Maximum permissible
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 Area of the plot
built-up area
2
Ans. (a) : According to IS 456 : 2000- Less than 200 m 60% with two-storeyed
• Minimum thickness of load bearing RCC wall should structure
be 100 mm. 200-500 m2 50% of the site
• If the story height is equal to length of RCC wall, the 500-1,000 m2 40% of the site
percentage increase in strength is 10. More than 1000 m2 33.33% of site
Building Construction 14 YCT
9. Identify the correct statement with respect to 12. Which of the following is not a component of
different components of a building. sub-structure?
(a) Lintel beams are built between sub structure (a) Girders (b) Abutments
and super structure of a building, so that load (c) Piers (d) Wing walls
is distributed uniformly. JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-I
(b) Partition walls should be designed to carry the Ans. (a) : Sub-structure– A bridge substructure
roof loads. consists of the follow components which transfer the
(c) Thermal insulation efficiency of cavity walls bridge load forces to the foundation.
is better than of solid wall for the given (i) Abutment
thickness. (ii) Piers
(iii) Pier caps
(d) Stretcher bond is considered to be stronger
(iv) Wing walls
than English bond for the given thickness.
• Super-structure components
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
(i) Girder (ii) Bearings (iii) Trusses (iv) Decks (v)
Ans. (c) : Cavity wall– Cavity walls are constructed for Barriers (vi) Arches (vii) Spandrel
heat insulation sound insulation and damp prevention, it 13. Which of the following type of buildings fall
is economical as the cost of such a wall is only 80% of under group A as per the building classification
the solid wall of the same thickness. by NBC?
• To prevent dampness in the cavity walls a horizontal (a) Assembly buildings
DPC layer is provided in these walls about 15 cm below (b) Institutional buildings
the ground level and cavity is taken down only 10 cm (c) Residential buildings
below the DPC below this level. (d) Educational buildings
10. Which element of a building divides SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
superstructure and substructure? Ans. (c) : As per National building code of India
(a) Strap beam (b) Lintel beam (2016).
(c) Plinth beam (d) Landing beam Group A : (Residential buildings)– Ex. Lodging or
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II rooming houses, darmitaries, hotels etc.
Group B : (Educational buildings)– Ex. School, college
Ans. (c) : Plinth beam of a building divides etc.
superstructure and substructure. Group C : (Institutional buildings)– Ex. Hospital,
• A plinth beam is provided at plinth level and refers to custodial institutians.
a horizontal structure element that interconnects Group D : (Assembly buildings)– Ex. Theatres, Motion
columns thereby preventing buckling of columns. picture house, Auditoria, museums etc.
Strap beam:- help to distributes weight of either Group E : (Business buildings)– Ex. Banks, officies of
heavily distributable column or eccentrically loaded architects, doctor, engineer, post office, T.V. station, air
column footings to adjacent footings traffic control tower.
Lintel Beam:- Built on top of openings such as portals, Group F: ( mercantile building) – Ex. Shop, store etc.
doors, windows etc Group G :(Industrial building) – Ex. Laboratory, dry
Landing Beam:- Beam provided between stairs clinic plant, power plant etc.
changing direction to support the landing between to Group H : (Storage buildings)– Ex. Ware houses, cold
storage, transit sheds etc.
flight stairs.
Group J : (Hazardous buildings)– Ex. Artificial flower,
11. In ordinary residential and public buildings, synthetic lether, explosive etc.
the damp proofing course is generally provided
14. One of the main objectives of providing
at foundation is to provide uniform ............. of the
(a) Ground level (b) Plinth level structures.
(c) Sill level (d) Lintel level (a) Settlement (b) Pressure
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II (c) Load transmission (d) Both (a) and (b)
Ans. (b) : In ordinary residential and public buildings, ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
the damp proofing course is generally provided at plinth Ans. (a) : One of the main objectives of providing
level. foundation is to provide uniform settlement of the
• DPC is prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the structures.
building the damp proof course is provided at various 15. The lowest part of the structure which transmit
levels of the entry of dampness into the building the load to the soil is known as
• Thickness DPC for boundary wall is 25 mm (a) Superstructure (b) Plinth
Thickness DPC for building is 40-50 mm (c) Foundation (d) Basement
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Building Construction 15 YCT
 Ans. (c) The lowest part of the structure which transmit Group C : (Institutional buildings)– Ex. Hospital,
the load to the soil is known as foundation. custodial institutians.
• Plinth is divides super structure and substructure. The Group D : (Assembly buildings)– Ex. Theatres, Motion
part which is above the plinth level is called picture house, Auditoria, museums etc.
superstructure. Group E : (Business buildings)– Ex. Banks, officies of
Basement :- Floor of a building which is partly or
architects, doctor, engineer, post office, T.V. station, air
completely below the ground.
traffic control tower.
16. The component of a building below the ground
is called : Group F: ( mercantile building) – Ex. Shop, store etc.
(a) framed structure (b) hybrid structure Group G :(Industrial building) – Ex. Laboratory, dry
(c) super-structure (d) sub-structure clinic plant, power plant etc.
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 Group H : (Storage buildings)– Ex. Ware houses, cold
Ans. (d) : Sub-structure– It is the lower portion of the storage, transit sheds etc.
buildings, usually located below the ground level, Group J : (Hazardous buildings)– Ex. Artificial flower,
which transmits the loads of the super-structure to the synthetic lether, explosive etc.
supporting soil.
21. As per NBC-2016, constructed buildings have
17. The lowest part of the super structure between
been divided into ____ groups.
the ground and the floor is called :
(a) D.P.C. (b) Lintel (a) 4 (b) 2
(c) Plinth (d) Beam (c) 3 (d) 9
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : A part of the super-structure, located between Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
the ground level and the floor level is known as plinth. 22. As per National Building Code of India (1970),
18. Which of the following is used as escape which of the following is group C building?
element in building for fire safety? (a) Educational building
(a) Lobby (b) Strong room
(c) Floor (d) Outer wall (b) Institutional building
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023 (c) Residential building
Ans. (a) : Lobby is used as escape element in building (d) Assembly building
for fire safety. MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II
19. As per Part 4 of the National Building Code of Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
India (2016), which of the following types of 23. The construction above plinth level called:
buildings are classified as Group-B buildings? (a) Super structure (b) Wall
(a) Storage buildings (b) Assembly buildings
(c) Above structure (d) 1 & 2
(c) Educational buildings (d) Business buildings
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023
Ans. (c) As per Part 4 of the National Building Code of Ans. (a) : Super structure– In building construction,
India (2016), construction above plinth level is called as super
Group A– Residential building structure.
Group B– Educational building Sub structure– Construction below the plinth level is
Group C– Institutional building known as sub structure.
Group D– Assembly building • Level where the substructure and super structure of
Group E– Business building building meet is called plinth level.
Group F– Mercantile building 24. Which of the following building components
Group G– Industrial building plays the biggest role in the stability of a
Group H– Storage building
structure?
Group J– Hazardous building
(a) Plinth (b) Foundation
20. Under which category of building construction
(c) Super-structure (d) Columns
do air traffic control towers come?
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
(a) Storage building (b) Hazardous building
(c) Institutional building (d) Business building Ans. (b) : Foundation–The dictator of stability.
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-II The foundation is the lowest part of the building
Ans. (d) : As per National building code of India structure.
(2016). It provided a stable base on which the entire structure
Group A : (Residential buildings)– Ex. Lodging or rests.
rooming houses, darmitaries, hotels etc. The foundation transfer the load from the building to
Group B : (Educational buildings)– Ex. School, college the ground and ensures that any movements of the earth
etc. do not affect the stability of the building.

Building Construction 16 YCT

 STONES
Rock is a mineral mass of more or less uniform
composition.
It may consist of a single mineral (monomineralic)
or of several minerals (polymineralic)
Monomineralic rocks are quartz, sand pure gypsum
and magnesite, and polymineralic ones are granite,
basalt and porphyries.
• Rock forming minerals -
Quartz, Mica, Gypsum, Dolomite, Amphibole,
Calcite, Feldspar etc.
• Properties of Minerals-
Measurement of the capability of
some minerals to split along
Cleavage
certain planes parallel to the crystal
faces
Colour of the mineral in powder
Streak
form
Shine on the surface due to
Luster
reflection of light of a mineral
It is defined as shape, arrangement,
Texture distribution and coarseness of
grains of a mineral.
Hardness of stone based on Moh's scale-
Talc 1 Scratched
Gypsum 2 by the finger nail
Calcite 3 Scratched
Fluorite 4 by
Apatite 5 knife
Feldspar 6 Scarcely scratched
Quartz 7 by knife
Topaz 8 Not scratched
Corundum 9 by
Diamond 10 knife
Classification of Rocks-
On the basis of Percentage of silica available in
rock-

Building Materials 17 YCT

 Steps for Blasting-
Boring→ Cleaning→ Charging→ Tamping→ Firing
Quantity of Explosive-
L2
A=
0.008
A = Quantity of gun powder
L = Length of line of least resistance (m)
Types of Stones Finishing-
Compressive strength of different types of stones- Boasted For making non-continuous parallel
Compressive strength finishing marks on the surface of stone.
Stone
(in MPa) It is done by a tools called boaster.
Trap 350-380
Furrowed Sides are sunk up to 20 mm width
Gneiss 206-370
finishing and the middle portion is projected
Basalt 150-185
by 15 mm.
Slate 75-207
Dolerite 90-150 Polished Provided for marbles, granite which
Syenite 90-150 finish are mostly used for floor tiles.
Granite 75-127 Reticulated A margin of 20 mm wide is marked
Lime stone 54 finish on the sides of surface and irregular
Sand stone 64 sinking type finish is made in the
Use of various types of stone- middle area.
Name of Rock Use Tooled finish It is a classic finish which consists
Railway ballast, Roofing, parallel continuous marks.
Granite
Abutment, Pier and Sea walls Scrabbling Rough surface finish achieved after
Marble Ornamental work finish removing irregular projections on
Lime Stone Manufacture of cement the stone surface by the scrabbling
Slate Flooring, Roofing hammer.
Quartzite Retaining wall Vermiculated Sinking in this type of finish is more
Basalt Marine work, Rubble masonry finish curved and like worm eaten
Manufacture of Hydraulic appearance.
Kankar
lime Note-
Tools Used in Quarrying of Stone-
Time required for perfect seasoning of stone is
Jumper To make hole
6 to 12 month.
Scraping spoon For Cleaning hole
Specific Gravity of Various Types of Stone-
Dipper For making deep hole
Name of Stone Specific gravity
Priming Needle To make space for fuse
For tamping of explosive Sand Stone 2.65 - 2.95
Tamping Rod Length- 600 mm Marble 2.7 - 2.85
Dia (φ)- 16 mm Granite 2.65 - 2.79
Crow bar To removed the wedge Basalt 2.6 - 3
Wedge For split the rock slab Slate 2.72 - 2.89
Methods of Quarrying Laterite 2 - 2.2
Method Suitability Example Lime Stone 2 - 2.75
Wedging Costly, Soft and Sand stone, Gniess 2.5 - 2.7
Stratified rock. Lime stone,
Various types of test and purpose for stone-
Laterite, Marble
and Slate etc. Type of Test Determine for
Heating Most suitable for Granite, Gneiss Abrasion Test wearing resistance
quarrying of small etc. (By Dorry Testing machine)
thing and regular Hardness, Toughness
block of stone from Attrision Test
rock. and rate of wearing
(By Deval Testing Machine)
Digging To get stone at a Serpentine, resistance
small scale. Gypsum, Crushing Strength Test Compressive strength
Aterite. (By C.T.M)
Channeling Obtaining stone in the (IS : 1121-1974)
form of block. Soluble minerals/
Blasting To obtain stone at a Smith's Test
Muddy matter
large scale.
Building Materials 18 YCT
 Brard's Test Frost resistance Impart plasticity
Acid Test Weather resistance Alumina Excess-Cracks developed,
Crystallization Test Durability corner deformed
(IS : 1126-1974)
Hardness Test Hardness Reduce the shrinkage on
(Moh's Scale) drying
Lime
Impact Test Toughness Excess- Brick over burnt and
(By Page Impact Machine) shape changed
Water Absorption Test % Voids (≯5% for good
(IS 1124-1974) stone) Red colour, Used as flux
Note- Gives strength and hardness
Iron Oxide
Chronological order of Hydraulic conductivity Excess- Provide dark blue or
Vesicular basalt > Fractured metamorphic rock > blackish colour
Lime stone > Sand stone. Yellow colour and its prevent
Black marble is obtained from Jaipur. to shrinkage,
Magnesia
Hydrolysis is a type of chemical weathering under Reduce warping
which granite is convert into clay. Excess-Give yellowish colour
Stone used in various work- Note -
Hard stone Used in Rubble masonry Steel moulded bricks are good compared to wooden
• Cross cut saw is used moulded bricks.
for cutting. Steel moulded bricks are used in facing work.
Heavy weight stone Used in Dam, retaining Mould are made by steel or timber of Shisham.
wall and harbor.
Frog 10 cm × 4 cm × 1 or 2 cm
Light weight stone In Arch masonry.
Note-
Stock Board 21 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm
Calcium hydroxide is used to protect stones from (To make frog)
sulphate attack in Industries. Pallet Board 30 cm × 12 cm × 1 cm
Composition of sand stone Quartz, Lime and Silica. (To dry the brick)
Composition of granite Quartz, Feldspar,Mica.

BRICKS
Size of various types of bricks-
Brick Usual size Nominal size

Conventional/ 3" 3" "

Traditional/ 9"× 4 × 2 9"× 4 1 × 3" Standard brick
8 4 2
user size Sequence for the Preparation of Brick Earth-
(23×11.2×7.0) cm (23×11.4×7.6) cm
Standard/ Unsoiling → Digging → Weathering→
Modular/ (19×9×9) cm (20×10×10) cm Blending →Tempering/Kneeding → moulding
Normal size → drying → burning
Ingredients of Good Brick Earth- Burning Zone of Bricks-
Ingredients % in brick Burning Temperature- 900 - 1200°C
Silica (SiO2) 50 - 60
Dehydration Oxidation Vitrification
Alumina (Al2O3) 20 - 30
Zone Zone Zone
Lime (CaO) <5
400-650°C 650-900°C 900-1100°C
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 5-6
Magnesia (MgO) <1 Efficiency of Kiln-
Alkalies <1 Ist Class Remark
Functions of Various Brick Ingredients- Types of kiln Brick
outcome
Ingredients Function
Imparts Strength Pazawah 50-60% –
Retain shape Allahabad kiln 60-70% Intermittent
Silica
Excess-Brittle Bull's Trench kiln 70-80% Semicontinuous
(Due to loss of cohesion) Hoffman's kiln 80-90% Continuous

Building Materials 19 YCT

 Class of Brick on the Basis of Strength B. Basic refractory brick-
IS : 10719557-1970 These are use where basic slag are made. These are
Class Comp. Strength two types-
a. Magnesia refractory brick-
Grade AA ≮ 140 kg/cm2 Ingredient- 70% magnesium oxide (MgO) + 30%
silica and alumina
Grade A ≮ 105 kg/cm 2
b. Dolomite refractory brick-
In these brick is carbonate of calcium and
Grade B ≮ 70 kg/cm 2
magnesium [CaMg(CO3)2] are used as raw material
Use : In shaft and rotary kilns, which are use for
Grade C ≮ 35 kg/cm 2
production of lime and cement.
Note- C. Neutral refractory brick-
As per IS 1077 : 1992, cl. 7.2, after immersion in cold Ingredient of these brick are bauxite, silica and iron
water for 24 hrs, water absorption shall not be more oxide. It is use where acidic or basic slag are made.
than 20% by weight up to class 12.5 and 15% for 2. Hollow brick (IS : 3952)-
higher classes.
Efflorescence Test- According to IS 3495 (part-III) :
1992
White patches Alkalies
Maximum hollow ≯ 50% of total plan area.
Up to 10% Slight It is use for making sound proof and heat resistance
10 - 50% Moderate wall.
>50% Severe 3. Perforated Brick [IS : 2222]-
Presence in large amount Serious
Special Forms of brick-
Brick Figure Brick
Figure
Name Name
Total hollow area ≯ 30 - 40% of total plan area.
Rounded Cant Use- Covering wall sound proof and heat insulating
end wall construction.
Double Compass Compressive strength </ 7N / mm 2
cant Water absorption >/ 15%
Bull Perforated Efflorescence >/ 10%
nosed Warpage >/ 3 %
Hollow Coping 4. Over-burnt brick-
In over burnt brick a soft molten mass is produced
Queen King and the brick loose their shape.
closer Closer 5. Under burnt brick-
3 Bat When bricks are not burnt to cause complete
Brick vitrification, the clay is not softened because of
4 insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. These
❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF BRICKS- brick have higher degree of water absorption and
1. Refractory brick/Fire resistance brick- less compressive strength.
These brick are capable to resist very high General Data about bricks-
0
temperature up to 1500 C without melting or Types of
Water Compressive
softening. absorp- Strength Use
bricks 2
Lime quantity kept less so that brick burnt at high tion (%) (Kg/cm )
temperature of 1700 - 18000C. 1st Class
Facing work
≤ 20 >105
The minimum average compressive strength- 32.5 R.B.Slab
MPa. Hidden
2nd Class ≤ 22 >70
Water absorption- 4 - 10% Structure
Colour- Whitish yellow or light brown. Temporary
Use- Furnace lining, hollow tiles etc. 3rd Class < 25 >35 brick
Refractory bricks are following three types- masonry
A. Acid refractory brick- Perforated
Partition
Ingredient: 95 - 97% silica + 1 - 2% lime Bricks 15 70
Wall
Use: Where acidic slag are formed. (IS 2222)

Building Materials 20 YCT

 For making Use- For manufacturing fire bricks used in furnace
Hollow Bricks
heat proof, lining, hollow tiles and crucibles.
20 35 sound proof, Terracotta-
(IS 3952)
damp proof Clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery and
walls sand ground to fine powder and pugged several
Paving times till it gets uniform and soft for moulding.
Road
Bricks <5 400 Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in
pavement
(IS 3583) ornamental parts of building.
Soling The clay used should have sufficient iron oxide and
Soling of alkaline matters.
Bricks < 20 50
road
(IS 5779) It is cheap and impervious.
Kiln lining, Muffle furnace are use for burning of terracotta
Refractory product.
furnace
Bricks 4 -10 350 Porcelain-
boiler
(IS 6902) A high grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero
combustion
Engineering water absorption and glazed surface.
Brick Porcelain is fine earthenware which is white, thin
Class-A 4 -5 >125 D.P.C and semi-transparent.
It is used for manufacturing sanitary wares
Multistorey
Class-B 7 75 containers and crucibles, reactor chambers and
building
15-25 electric insulators.
Sundry bricks - - Glazing-
≃ 21
Glazing is a process of providing a glassy or
TILES impervious layer on the surface of clay product or
The clay product which thickness is less than 40mm ceramics.
is known as tiles.
Burning of tiles is same as brick burning but some The glazing layer is fused to a ceramics body by
times tiles or clay products are burnt in two times- burning at a high temperature.
Ist is at 600 - 7000C is called biscuting and IInd is at Thickness of glazing is 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
900 -11000C, after dipping the tiles/clay product in
the solution of desired colour. MORTARS
❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF CLAY PRODUCT- It is a paste (Capable of setting and hardening)
Stoneware- obtained by adding water to mixture of fine
It is made from refractory clay mixed with crushed aggregates such as sand and binding material, e.g.,
pottery, stone and sand, burnt at high temperature clay, gypsum, lime or cement or their combinations.
and cooled slowly. Stoneware consists of about 75% Classification :
silica and 25% alumina. Iron oxide is added to give On the basis of bulk density :
colour
Type of mortar Bulk density (kg/m3)
Ex.–Domestic sewer pipe, wash basin, water closet,
drains pipe and fittings. Heavy weight > 1500
Earthenware- Light weight < 1500
These are made by burning ordinary clay at low On the basis of binding material :
temperature and cooling slowly. Glazed earthenware Cement Mortar– Prepared from portland cement,
becomes resistant to weathering action. sand and water.
Ex.- Faience Lime Mortar– Mixture of air hardening lime, sand
Majolica- and water.
It is Italian earthenware coated with opaque white Mud Mortar– Prepared from clay nodules, it is
enamel, ornamented with metallic colour. used in temporary construction work.
Manufactured from low heat clays to which up to Gypsum mortars : They are prepared from gypsum
20% calcium carbonate added in the form of chalk. or anhydride binding materials.
Use- Doorways, window casing and facing tiles.
Fire Clay- Types of construction Type of mortar
These are pure hydrated silicates of alumina and Pointing work Cement mortar 1 : 1
contain a large proportion of silica (55-75%), Damp proof course (DPC) Cement mortar 1 : 2
alumina (20-35%), Iron oxide (2-5%) with about 1% Concrete pavement Cement mortar 1 : 2
of lime, magnesia and alkalis. Masonry in super structure Cement mortar 1 : 3
It is capable of resisting very high temperatures up to Masonry in foundation Cement mortar 1 : 6
17000C, without melting or softening and resist
spalling. Plastering Cement mortar 1 : 4

Building Materials 21 YCT

 Introduction These lime contain 95 to 97% calcium carbonate
Lime is a binding material found in the form of lime (CaCO3) and quantity of impurity does not increase
stone. It is not found in free state in the atmosphere. more than 2 to 3%.
Lime is obtained from the calcinations of lime stone. It is manufactured by burning of marble, white
❖ Sources of Lime- chalk, sea shell and coral.
Type of Stone Type of lime Use-Plastering and white washing.
Lime Stone (CaCO3) Pure Lime 2. Lump lime-
Kankar Hydraulic Lime It is obtain in the form of lump after calcination.
Dolomite (MgCO3) Magnesia Lime 3. Quick lime/Caustic lime-
It is obtained immediate after calcination is called
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) Sweet Lime
Quick lime.
Shell, Chalk Pure Lime
4. Slaked lime-
❖ Lime and its chemical formula- The lime whose hydration is completed is called
Name of Lime Chemical Formula slaked lime.
Lime Stone Calcium Carbonate 5. Magnesia lime-
[CaCO3] It is manufacture by calcination of dolomite. It
Lime, Quick lime, Lump Calcium oxide contain 20 to 35% magnesia.
lime, White lime, Rich [CaO] Colour - Reddish
lime, Pure lime Types of lime on the basis of Impurities-
Slaked lime, Fat lime Calcium Hydroxide 1. Pure lime- Impurities < 5%
[Ca(OH)2] 2. Impure lime- Impurities >5%
Plaster of Paris (P.O.P.) Calcium Sulphate Impure lime is following two types-
[CaSO4.1/2 H2O] (i) Lean lime or Poor lime/Impure lime-
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate It consists 80% CaO, less than 5% MgO and clay
[CaSO4.2H2O] impurities more than 7% in the form of silica,
Calcination- alumina and iron oxide.
The process under which lime stone is burned at Setting and hardening process is very slow.
8000C to 9000C to removed CO2 & moisture is called It's expansion is less than that of fat lime.
calcination. (ii) Hydraulic Lime-
CaCO3 + 42.52 kcal 800−9000 C CaO It is capable to setting under water and in damp
 → + CO 2 ↑ situation.
Lime stone Calcination
Quick Lime
Impurity range- 5 to 30%.
Slaking of Lime- setting time under water- 7 to 30 days.
In this process quick lime reacted with water and
formed Ca(OH)2. ❖ Hydraulic lime is classified into further three
Volume increases 2 to 2.5 times of its initial volume. categories-
CaO Ca (OH) 2 Feebly Moderate Eminently
HO
+ 2  slaking
→ + Heat Item Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydraulic
Lime Water Slaked lime description lime lime Lime
Slaking is an exothermic reaction. % Impurities 05 to 10% 11 to 20% 21 to 30%
Type of lime Slaking time Slacking Few 1 or 2 1 day or
Lump lime, Quick lime, action minutes hours more
Rich lime, Pure lime, Fat 2 to 3 hrs. 3 week or 1 week or 1 days or
Setting action
more more more
lime, White lime
Hydraulicity Feebly Moderate Eminently
Hydraulic lime, Poor lime, 12 to 48 hrs. For Use in very
Lean lime Used for
superior damp places
ordinary
Hardening or setting of lime- Use type of
masonry
It depend on the types of lime and its hardening masonry
work
condition. It is three types– work
i). Carbonate Hardening ❖ Classification of Lime as per BIS : 712-1984-
ii). Hydrate hardening Class of Example Use
iii). Hydrosilicate hardening lime
Carbonate hardening- Class A Eminently Hydraulic lime Hydraulic structure
In this process slaked lime reacts with CO2 and set Class B Semi Hydraulic lime Masonry and in lime
& hard. Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 → CaCO3 + H 2 O + Heat concrete
Class C Pure lime/Fat lime Plaster work
Various types of lime- Class D Magnesium White washing and
1. Pure lime/Fat lime/White lime/Rich lime- lime/Dolomite lime finishing
It slakes rapidly and its volume increase by 2-2.5 Class E Kankar lime Masonry mortar
times than its original volume. Class F Siliceous dolomite lime -
Building Materials 22 YCT
 Test of lime- Unit weight of lime-
1. Visual Inspection Test- Type of lime Unit weight (kg/m3)
Class of lime Colour Unslaked lime 1050
Class A Dirty white Slaked lime 640
Class B Light dirty white Hardened lime 800
Class C White Lime putty is the plastic paste of lime and water.
Lumps of lime indicates quick lime or unburnt lime.
Class of lime Modulus of rupture
2. HCl Test/Acid Test-
(kg/cm2)
This test is perform to find out impurities and
amount of calcium carbonate.
Class A (Hydraulic lime) ≥ 10.5
A teaspoon of powdered lime is taken in the test tube Class B ≥7
and 10 ml of 50% dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is (Semi hydraulic lime)
added to it, and heat for few minute.
If bubble is formed during heating it indicate TIMBER
calcinations of lime is not done perfectly.
3. Ball Test- Timber classification on the Basis of Growth-
Balls (40 mm size) of stiff lime paste are made and left
for 6 hours. After six hours, the balls are immersed in a
water basin. If expansion and disintegration of balls is
observed, the lime is of type C. Little expansion and
numerous crack indicate it to be class B lime. Class A
lime will have no adverse effect.
4. Soundness Test [IS : 6932 (Part-IX)]-
Aim-To find out the quantity of free lime,
unsoundness and disintegration property of lime.
This test is conduct with the help of Le-chatelier apparatus.

Conifers Tree-
These trees having pointed needle like leaves. Most
Conifer tree are evergreen tree but not all of them.
(Ex.- Larch tree (larix Laricina) or Tamarack)
External diameter of cylinder of Le-chatelier On the Basis of Modulus of Elasticity (E)-
apparatus = 30 mm Group E (kN/mm2) in bending
The expansion of indicator should not be more than
A > 12.5
10mm.
B 9.8 – 12.5
5. Compressive Strength Test [IS : 6932 (Part -II)]- C 5.6 – 9.8
12 cube of 50mm sides are prepared from standard
lime sand mortar ( 1:3) Availability-
6 Cube are tested after 14 day's and remaining 6 Grades Quantity in m3 per year
cube are tested after 28 day's with the help of X ≥ 1415
compression testing machine. Y 355 - 1415
Rate of loading- 150 N/min Z < 355
Note-
Durability-
Carbide lime is a by-Product of manufacturing of
acetylene. Durability Avg. life in months
Barium plaster is used as final coat for surface of X- High ≥ 120
Ray room. Moderate 60 - 120
Potash- lime glass is also known as Bohemian glass. Low < 60

Building Materials 23 YCT

 Structure of timber : • A.D - Air dried • Used for rapid seasoning
The innermost part or core of on large scale.
Medulla (Pith) • Kiln seasoning causes case
the stem of a tree
Heart wood Death portion of the tree hardening.
Sap wood Outer layers of a log of wood 4. Charring or • It is used for lower part of
Cambium To growth wood cells Scorching wood pole which is below
Protect the wood against the ground level.
Bark 5. Mc. Neil's Process • Best but most expensive
mechanical damage
Transverse septa The vascular tissue which (15 - 60 days) method.
(Medullary rays) Encloses the pith 6. Electric Seasoning • Timber losses their
A cellular tissue and woody strength and may split.
Annual rings fibre arranged in distinct • Most expensive method.
concentric circle • Strength of timber at 12% Moisture Content-
Trunk of tree obtained after the Shear strength 6.5 -14.5 N/mm2
Log
removal of branches. Bending strength 10.2 -18.2 N/mm2
Lumber
It is a log pieces of timber sawn Compressive strength 33 -77.5 N/mm2
into pieces of desired shape. Tensile strength 80-190 N/mm2
Defects of Timber-
Checks Longitudinal cracks which is normal
to the annual rings
Shakes Longitudinal separation b/w the
Annual rings.
Star shake Wide at outside and diminish inside
Heart shake Wide at center and diminish out side
Cup shake Caused due to rupture of tissue in
circular direction. It is developed
due to non uniform growth
Ring shake When cup shake cover the entire
ring.
Seasoning of Timber (IS : 1141)- Radial shake When timber is exposed to sun for
Purpose of Seasoning- seasoning after being felled down
1. Reduce the weight of timber.
Knots These are the base of branches
2. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement
which are broken or cut-off from the
in structure.
trees.
3. Increase strength, durability and workability.
Rind Galls Abnormal growth or curved
4. Make it suitable for painting.
swellings on the body of tree.
5. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing in the
• Method of Seasoning and its property-
form of yellow or red tinge.
Method Property Cause-Over maturity lack of
(A). Natural or Air It take long time but best ventilation.
Seasoning- quality of seasoned wood Burl It is a deformed growth occurs when
(6 month to 1 Year) are obtain. the tree receives shock or injury in
• Easy and most economical its young age.
method. Callus It is the soft tissue or skin which
• Reduce moisture up to 12- cover the wound of a tree.
15%
Druxiness White spots are formed on the top
(B). Artificial Seasoning-
surface of wood.
1. Water Seasoning It is quick process but elastic
(2 - 4 weeks) property and strength are Twisted fiber It is caused by wind turning the
reduced. trunk of young tree in one direction.
2. Boiling This process is very quick • Reaction wood is the wood with
(3 - 4 Hour) but expensive. twisted fiber.
3. Kiln Seasoning Most effective and Upsets In this case wood fibers damaged by
( 3 - 5 days) economical method. compression or crushing.
• K.D- Kiln dried • Loss in strength < 10% Rupture It is due to injury or impact.

Building Materials 24 YCT

 Cup This is the hollowing of the board
throughout its length on its bark side face
Twist In this defect the end of timber is rotate in
opposite direction.
Preservation of Timer (IS: 401)-
It is done with the helps of various types of
preservative to increase life, durability of timber.
1. Tarring-
Process of heating the coal tar to make it in workable
condition is called tarring.
2. Charring- It is a old method of preservation of
timber. This method is not suitable for exterior wood
works.
3. Oil Paint- It is suitable for well seasoned wood and
generally applied 2-3 coats.
4. Creosote Oil-
It is derived from wood or coal tar and best
antiseptic material.
It is applied at 500C and pressure of 0.7 - 1.0 N/mm2.
5. Solignum Treatment- This treatment well suitable
for preserving timber from white ants.
Defect Due to Conversion of Timber– 6 AsCu Treatment-
It is developed at forest research institute Dehradun.
Defect Description 7. Worms and Insects treatment-
Chip Mark A mark or sign placed by planer on 8. Dipping- In this method timber is dipped directly
finished surface of timber. in the preservative solution. The solution penetrates
the timber better than the case of brushing or
Wane It is the original rounded surface on spraying.
the manufactured part of timber. 9. Fire resistance of timber-
Torn Grain Small depression occurs on the (i) Able's Process- It is used to make wood Fire
finished surface (along the fiber of resistance.
timber) due to falling of tool. Chloride, Borex, Boric Acid, Sodium arsenate and
Ammonium sulphate is used in Able's Process of
Diagonal It is formed because of improper Preservation of timber.
Grain timber sawing indicate by diagonal (ii) Bethel Process- It is used when max. absorption of
mark on the straight-grained surface the preservative is desired.
of the timber. (iii) Boucherie Process- It is used to treatment of green
wood.
Empty cell process-
It is also known as pressure process. It is aimed at a
maximum penetration of the preservative with a
minimum net retention.
The Lawry process and Rueping process are
commonly used.
Diffusion process-
It is the method of treatment of timber (poles and
planks) and other plant material like in green
condition.
Properties of a good timber-
Defect due to seasoning- Properties Value
Warp Due to unequal shrinkage the curved Density 540 kg/m3
deformation formed along the length of Specific gravity 1.54
Moisture content 10-12%
board.
Shrinkage 0.1- 0.3% Along fibers
Bow Curve along the face of board caused by Swelling 0.1- 0.8% Along length
the wood on one face shrinking more than Sound 2-17 time more than air
face. Conductivity
Building Materials 25 YCT
 Use of Various Type of Timber- Parts of plywood and its other name-
Outer most veneer sheet - Faces
Guava Scientific instruments
Interior ply (grain parallel to face) - Core/Centre
Babool Agricultural instruments
Interior ply (grain perpendicular to face) - Cross
Mulberry Sports Goods band.
Jackfruit Musical instruments Fiber boards-
Benteak Boat It is a type of engineered wood product that is made
Teak Plywood out of wood fibers.
Sal, Deodar Railway sleepers, Timber Types of fiber board-
1. Particle board/Low density fiber board (LDF)
VENEERS (IS : 14315) 2. Medium density fiber board(MDF) (<400 kg/m3)
3. High density fiber board (HDF)
Note:- Hard fiber board can be used as wall slab,
door board, floor, furniture and other decorations.
Hard board -
Hard board is a tough smooth panel made with wood
fibers compressed under high pressure and heat.

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
Introduction-
Glass is an amorphous substance having
It is the thin strip of timber which thickness is about homogeneous texture and mixture of metallic
0.4 mm to 0.6 mm. It should not be exceed 1 mm in silicates.
any case. Constituent of glass their function-
It is also known as Ply and made by good quality Constituent Function
timber like Teak, Sal, Deodar etc. Silica/Sand It is the major constituent of glass.
Walnut is most suitable wood for this purpose. Lime It makes the glass fluid and suitable for
blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or
PLYWOOD
spinning.
Soda Impart durability and toughness. Acts
as an accelerator for the fusion of
glass.
Potash It renders glass infusible and makes
fire resistance.
Lead oxide Imparts colour, brightness and shine.
Classification of Glass Based on
Composition-
Glass Composition
Common glass Silicate of Na, Ca and Fe
Soda lime glass Silica, lime and soda
Plywood is a material manufacture from thin layer or ead glass or Silica, lead and potash
'Plies' of wood veneer that are glued together with flint glass
adjacent layer having their wood grain rotate upto Boro-silicate Silica borax, lime and feldspar
900 to one another. glass
Plywood are glued under pressure of 130 - 140 MPa Various manufacturing Process of Glass-
and from an odd number of layers (≥ 3 layers) of
veneers. Each layers are perpendicular to each other. Process Used for
Advantage of Plywood- Blowing Glass bottle and Jar
Drawing Tube, Rod, window glass
• Strength of plywood is equal in all direction.
Rolling Glass sheet
• Impact load resistance capacity is more.
Pressing Open pot
• It is made of odd layers of ply. Casting Lens, mirror
• Tendency to shrink, swell and twisting is reduced. Spinning Heat, sound and electric
• It can be curved into desired shape. insulator glass.

Building Materials 26 YCT

 Colouring Pigment- Examples are material resins— rosin, kopal, amber,
It is mixed to impart colour in the glass. shellac; cellulose derivatives— cellulose acetate,
Colour Pigment cellulose nitrate, nitrocellulose or celluloid, cellulose
Blue Cobalt oxide, cupric oxide acetate-butyrate; polythenic or vinyl resin—
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate,
Red Selenium oxide, Iron
vinyl chloride = vinyl acetate, poly vinylidene
White Antimony oxide, tin chloride, polystyrene, polymethyl methyacrylate or
Yellow Lead with antimony lucite or plexiglass and polytetrafluoroethylene;
Ruby Red Gold chloride polyamides Nylon 6:6, Nylon 6 and Nylon 11.
Green Chromium oxide • Thermosetting plastic :
Commercial Forms of glass- It cannot be reused.
Type of Glass Remark They are hard, strong and more brittle.
Pyrex glass It is fire resistance and use The important thermosetting resins are phenolic
for making laboratory resins or phenoplasts (bakelite), amino resins,
apparatus and insulator. polyester resins, epoxy resins and silicon resins.
Optical Glass • It contain phosphorus, lead The principal uses are in electrical equipment, plugs,
silicate and cerium oxide. sockets, switches, ash trays, handles etc.
• It is absorb UV ray and use FIBRES
for making lenses. Fibres are a flexible, hair like strand whose length is
Opal glass or It is used where high thermal much more than its width or thickness.
milk glass shock resistance & chemical The purpose of adding fibre is to control cracking
durability is desired. due to plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage.
Ground glass Used for bedroom, toilets and When added to concrete, fibres reduce permeability
for making black board. of concrete and hence reduce bleeding. Further,
Obscured glass It is used in doors and some of the fibres in concrete are added to improve
or Patterned window of bedroom and resistance to impact and abrasion.
glass bathroom. The concrete with fibres is called fibres reinforced
Bullet Proof or It produced by placing vinyl concrete (FRC).
Laminated glass plastic and glass in several Types of Fibres
alternate layers and pressing • Natural Fibres – These are naturally occurring
them with outer layer of glass vegetable fibres. Some examples of natural fibres
• Used in banks, Jewelry are jute, bamboo, sisal, flex, coir, banana etc.
stores and display window. • Synthetic Fibres – Artificially manufactures fibres
Sheet glass It is used for glazing door, are referred as synthetic fibres. These include steel
window and partition. fibres, glass fibres, carbon fibres, polymers i.e.
made by blowing, available plastic fibres.
with in 2 - 6 mm thickness. • Jute Fibres
Plate Glass It is used for all engineering Jute is a naturally occurring fibrous material which
purpose and is superior than is traditionally used to make sacking bags and as a
sheet glass. backing material in carpets.
Forming and Shaping- Jute fibres are added in concrete mainly to improve
Molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by its resistance to shrinkage.
one of the following method- Jute fibres have a good bonding with concrete.
1. Blowing, • Glass Fibres
2. Flat drawing The glass fibres are available in the form of strands
which can be cut into desired lengths and used as
PLASTICS reinforcement in concrete.
Plastics are made from resin with or without fillers, The glass fibres reinforced concrete (GRC) is
plasticisers and pigments. lightweight and has very good resistance to
Types of plastics : aggressive environment like alkali attack, acid attack
• Thermo plastic : etc.
It is softens on heating and hardens on cooling. • Plastic Fibres
They can be remoulded, for use as many times as Plastic fibres are typically synthetic fibres which are
required. engineered for concrete to withstand long term
These are formed by addition polymerisation and alkaline environment.
have long chain molecular structure. Plastic fibres are manufactured polymer based
They can be remoulded, for use, as many times as materials such as polypropylene, nylon or
required. polyethene.
Building Materials 27 YCT
 Plastic fibres are added during the mixing operation 2. Viscosity Test [IS : 1206 : 1978]
of concrete. It is the measure of resistance to flow. It is suitable
Plastic fibres in concrete include control of plastic to test tars and cutbacks.
shrinkage during fresh or green stage of concrete. Apparatus- Orifice type viscometers.

ALUMINIUM STEEL
The principal constituents of bauxite (Al2O32H2O)
which yield aluminium on a commercial scale are
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with some
silica.
Aluminium is silver white in colour with brittle
metallic lustre on freshly broken surface.
Aluminium is harder than tin.
Tensile strength of aluminium is 117.2 N/mm2 in the 3. Ductility Test [IS : 1208 – 1978]
cost from and 241.3 N/mm2 when drawn into wires. Apparatus- Standard briquette.
It is most suitable for making door and window To measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its
frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for ability to stretch.
roofing system.
C/S area of briquette 10 mm × 10 mm (1 cm2)
GALVANIZED IRON Rate of pull- 50 mm/min.
Galvanized iron is the same as standard iron, the Temperature - 27-C.
only difference is that it features a layer of zinc. Minimum ductility- 50- 75cm
The added layer of zinc helps to protect the iron 4. Softening Point Test [IS : 1205–1978]
from rust and corrosion. Apparatus- ''Ring and Ball''.
Without it, the iron will be exposed to moisture and Dia. of steel ball- 10 mm
oxygen from its surrounding environment. Softening point- 350 - 700C.
Corrugated galvanized iron sheets are used for roof 5. Flash and Fire Point Tests [IS : 1209 – 1978]
covering. Object-To determine flash and fire point of bitumen
The GI sheets are generally 0.9 m wide. These are Apparatus- Pensky Marten's closed cup
manufactured in the length of 1.8 m, 2.2 m, 2.5 m, Fire point is always > flash point.
2.8 m, 3.0 m, and 3.2 m. Minimum specified flash point for pavement =
BITUMEN 175oC
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the 7. Specific gravity test [IS : 1202 – 1978]
fractional distillation of crude oil. Apparatus- Pycnometer
It is viscous liquid, black or brown in colour. Specific gravity for-
It is soluble in carbon di-sulphide and carbon tetra (i). Bitumen- 0.97 - 1.02
chloride but insoluble in water. (ii). Tar- 1.10-1.25
The bituminous materials are mostly employed for (iii). Natural asphalt- 0.92- 1.02
the construction of flexible pavement. Cutback Bitumen-
Specific gravity of Pure bitumen 0.97 - 1.02. It is obtained by reducing the viscosity of bitumen
by diluents or by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in
It oxidizes slowly and chemically inert.
presence of some suitable liquid distillates of coal tar
Bitumen is more resistant to water than tar. or petroleum.
Tests on Bitumen It is prepared by using naphtha or kerosene oil.
1. Penetration Test [IS : 1203 - 1978]– Use- Road construction and soil stabilization, cold
Apparatus- Penetrometer. region.
Object-To determine hardness or softness of Cutback Bitumen are of three types–
bitumen (a) Rapid Curing (RC) Cutback-
Common grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. Recommended for surface dressing and patch work.
Penetration value- 80 - 120.
It is flux with Petroleum, Naphtha or gasoline.
(b) Medium Curing (MC) Cutback-
Recommended for premix with less quantity of fine
aggregates.
Bitumen is flux with kerosene and light diesel oil.
(c) Slow Curing (SC) Cutback-
It is obtained by blending bitumen with high boiling
point gas, oil or by controlling the rate of flow and
temperature of crude during the first cycle of
refining.
Building Materials 28 YCT
Note : Questions Asked in Previous Years
Cutback bitumen used for premix with appreciable
Quantity of fine aggregates. 1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a
RC-2 is more thick than RC-1 but RC-2, MC-2 & (a) thermosetting material
SC-2 have same viscosity. (b) thermoplastic material
Each group of cutbacks is subdivided into six (c) elasto-plastic material
categories in the increasing order of viscosity. (d) rigid plastic material
Bitumen Emulsion - GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
It is liquid product in which a substantial amount of Ans. (b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)–
bitumen is suspended in finely divided condition in • It is a plastic that gets deformed easily when heated
an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of one and can be molded again into other forms.
or more suitable materials. • It is used to make pipes, containers, various types of
Emulsion is the two phase system consisting of two toys etc.
immiscible liquid. Bitumen/Tar content in it- 40 - • It is a thermoplastic material.
60% (remains is water)
Emulsion is always applied in cold state. 2. Bitumen felt is used for
Types of Bitumen Emulsion - (a) Water proofing (b) Damp proofing
Slow setting - Use for fine aggregate mixes (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
Medium setting - Used for premixing with coarse JSSC JE (Civil) 03/07/2022
aggregate Ans. (c) : Roofing felt or bitumen felt– is a roll
Rapid setting - Used for surface dressing. material prepared by impregnating roof cardboard with
Blown bitumen or oxidized bitumen- soft bitumen.
It is obtained by passing air under pressure at a high • Subsequently coating it on one or both sides with
temperature through the bitumen. high-melting bitumen and finally facing it with
It can be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in finally ground mineral powder, mica or coloured
the manufacture of pipe asphalts and joint fillers. mineral granules.
It has a lower penetration grade and more softening • Bitumen felt used for water roofing damp proofing.
point in comparison to pure bitumen. 3. Polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride resins are
Plastic bitumen- used in various parts of building areas for:
It consists of bitumen, thinner and a suitable inert (a) structural strength
filler (40 to 45%). (b) structural ductility
It is used for filling cracks in masonry structures for (c) water proofing
stopping leakage. (d) termite proofing
POLY-VINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
PVC is an economical construction material which Ans. (c) : Polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride resin are
has very good insulating properties, good water used in various parts of building areas for water
resistance and good fire resistance. proofing.
PVC sheets are used to make electrical panels and • Polyvinyal chloride resins are totally rust-proof, rot-
boards in buildings. It is a light weight material and proof, termic-proof, and water proof.
is easy to use and assemble. 4. Which of the following is a requirement for
PVC pipes are used as water and waste water thermal insulation in materials?
carrying pipes. (a) High temperature resistance
(b) Low density
PVC sheets are used as flooring, roofing and wall
(c) High permeability
panelling to give decorative look to the structure.
(d) Low thermal conductivity
CHLORINATED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
CPVC is a thermoplastic produced by chlorinated of Ans. (d) : Thermal resistance of a material is the
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin. property which resists the flow of heat in a material.
CPVC is significantly more flexible than PVC, and • For a material to be a good thermal insulator, it must
can also withstand higher temperatures. have low thermal conductivity.
Uses include hot and cold water delivery pipes and 5. Which of the following materials possesses a
industrial liquid handling. specific gravity value in the range of 0.97 to
1.02?
POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES (PPF)
(a) Pure bitumen
A polypropylene fibre has good compressive and (b) Asbestos
tensile strength. (c) Ordinary Portland cement
These are used in reinforced concrete as a partial (d) Lime
replacement to steel to take up tensile stresses. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
Building Materials 29 YCT
Ans. (a) : Specific gravity test on bitumen– A Thermosetting plastic– These are the plastic which set
knowledge of the correct specific gravity of bituminous after application of heat and pressure and then do not
materials have mainly two application convert the change their form on further application of heat and
specified bitumen content by weight of volume basis. pressure. These plastic originally pass through the
• When the binder is measured by volume in thermoplastic phase.
necessary to know the coefficient of expansion or Example– Bakelite, E-poxy resin, Melamine, resin etc.
specific gravity value is useful to identify the source 9. The pipe material 'UPVC' stands for _______.
of a bituminous binder. (a) Unplasticized polyvinylchloride
• Pure bitumen has specific gravity in the range from (b) Ultrastrength polyvinyl chloride
0.97 to 1.02. (c) Unplasticized polyvanadium chloride
6. Which type of thermo-resins helps make (d) Ultrastrength polyvanadium chloride
plastics as clear as glass and possess excellent AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
electrical properties? Ans. (a) : UPVC–Unplasticized polyvinylchloride.
(a) Styrene (b) Cellulose • It is a type of piping that is made from PVC plastic.
(c) Alkyd (d) Cumarone- indene 10. Where is lead glass commonly used in building
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 construction?
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic or themoresins–These (a) Plumbing and piping
plastics soften on heating and harden on cooling. The (b) Facades and windows
process of softening and hardening can be repeated any (c) False ceiling
number of times, provided the temperature is not so (d) Flooring works
high as to cause chemical decomposition. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
• Major thermoplastic is PVC, polyethylenes, Ans. (b) : In the case of lead glass, lead oxide (PbO)
cellulose, acrylic, styrene etc. replaces the calcium oxide. However, with the
• Where, cellulose base conductive materials have exception of glass for protection against x-rays, this
excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. It is type of glass has no significance for the building
also stable, strong, wear resistant, transparent. industry.
• The films of cellulose exhibit excellent optical • It is used in building construction as a Facades and
properties with glass. windows.
Thermosetting plastics–These plastics undergo 11. Which of the following is NOT an engineering
chemical changes at temperatures 127º–177ºC and set property of glass?
into permanent shape under pressure. Reheating will not (a) Recycling property (b) Value
soften them. (c) Transparency (d) Strength
Example– Phenol, formaldehyde, melamine PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
formaldehyde.
Ans (b) : Engineering property of glass–
7. Which of the following is NOT a type of (a) Strength (b) Transparency
polymer? (c) Workability (d) Transmittance
(a) Fibres (b) Brass (e) Recycle property.
(c) Plastics (d) Elastomers 12. Which is the acidic refractory material that is
GAIL JA (Tech) 13.05.2023 used for preparing coke oven and lining for
Ans. (b) : Polymer– High polymer, also known as glass furnaces?
macromolecular, are large molecules of colloidal (a) Dolomite (b) Silica
dimensions having high weight. (c) Fire-clay (d) Quartzite
Example– Resins, plastic, rubbers, elastomers ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Note– Brass in classified as a metal. Ans. (b) : • Acid refractory bricks consist of silica
8. Which of the following is a thermosetting bricks (95-97% silica and 1-2% lime) and ganister
plastic? bricks (ganister - a hard coloured sand stone containing
(a) Polycarbonate (b) Bakelite 10% and 2% of lime), used in lining furnaces having
(c) Polytetrafluorethylene (d) Polyvinyl chloride siliceous and acidic slag, steel industry and coke oven.
CRPF Assistant Commandant 2023 • The softening temperature ranges from 1700ºC to
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic– These are the type of 1800ºC.
polymers which becomes soft upon heating and • These cannot be used for lining of furnaces which
becomes hard on cooling. Such plastic can undergo have to be cooled and reheated frequently.
infinite cycles of heating and cooling provided the 13. Glass used in windows to prevent heat loss:
temperature is not so high to cause any chemical (a) Colored glass (b) Frosted glass
composition. (c) Processed glass (d) Insulating glass
Example– Polystyrene, nylon, Teflon etc. PGCIL DT 05.12.2023
Building Materials 30 YCT
Ans. (d) Insulated glass application– Insulating glass 18. Seasoning of timber is
is traditionally used at office buildings, hospitals, hotels, (a) a process of removing sap
houses and those buildings where large amount of (b) creosoting
heating or cooling is required. That place where (c) painting with sodium silicate
humidity and temperature needs to be controlled (d) coating with tar
insulated glass is best suited for them. PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
14. Which property of borosilicate glass makes it Ans. (a) : Seasoning of timber (IS : 1141)– It is the
suitable for thermal shock resistance ? process of reducing the moisture content of timber in
(a) Low density order to prevent the timber.
(b) High transparency It is use for–
(c) Low thermal expansion coefficient. • Reduce its weight and increase strength and durability
(d) High refractive index
• Make timber burn readily as a fuel
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
• Make it suitable for paining
Ans. (c) : Borosilicate glass– Borosilicate glass is a
form of glass that contains silica and boron trioxide as • Reduce its tendency to split and decay and reduce
its major ingredients. shrinkage and warping.
• Borosilicate glasses have much lower thermal 19. In which type of seasoning is timber immersed
expansion coefficients than most common glass in a solution of suitable salt, and then taken out
making them very resistant to thermal shocks. and seasoned in ordinary way?
• Such glass is less thermally stresses and sustain (a) Water seasoning (b) Chemical seasoning
temperature difference of up to 1650C without (c) Kiln seasoning (d) Boiling
cracking. Reagent bottles and flasks, as well as SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
digits, electronics and cooking are all made from it. Ans. (b) : Chemical or salt seasoning–An aqueous
15. Fiberglass materials have a usable temperature solution of certain chemicals have lower vapor pressure
up to ................... than that of pure water. If the outer layers of timber are
(a) 105oC (b) 473oC treated with such chemicals the vapor pressure will reduce
o
(c) 45 C (d) 200oC and a vapor pressure gradient is setup. In chemical
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I seasoning timber immersed in a solution of suitable salt
Ans. (d) : Fiberglass– Fiberglass materials have a low and then taken out and seasoned in ordinary way.
service temperature which is below 200ºC. This is 20. In plywood, three or more veneers in odd
despite the fact that they usually have high strength. numbers are placed one above the other with
These materials also have a great impact resistance and the direction of grains of successive layers at
are extremely flexible. Fiberglass is composed of glass ________ to each other.
fibers bonded with a thermosetting resin. It is resistant (a) 600 (b) 450
0
to bacteria or fungus attack. (c) 90 (d) 300
16. The glass which is used for glazing of windows, SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
door and for making ordinary glassware. Ans. (c) : Plywood–A wood panel glued under pressure
(a) Soda-lime glass (b) Bonemian glass on odd number (three or more) of layer of veneers are
(c) Pyrex glass (d) Common glass placed one above the other with the direction of grains
(e) Answer not known of successive layers at perpendicular to each other is
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 known as plywood.
Ans. (a) : Soda-lime glass- It is also known as soda ash 21. ______ determines the thickness of plywood
glass or soft glass. it is obtained by fusing a mixture of board.
silica, lime and soda. The quality of this glass can be (a) pile width
improved by adding alumina magnesium oxide and the (b) pile length
glass is then called crown glass. This is most type of (c) pile area
glass used in doors, windows and for making glassware (d) number of pile layers
such as bottles.
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
17. Percentage content of silica in window glass, is
____ Ans. (d) : Plywood–A wood panel glued under pressure
from an odd number (usually 3 to 13) of layers of
(a) 85 to 90 (b) 45 to 55
veneers is known as plywood.
(c) 55 to 60 (d) 70 to 75
As per IS: 303-1989, thickness of plywood
JSSC JE (Civil) 03/07/2022
3 ply → 3, 4, 5, 6 mm
Ans. (d) : The composition of soda-lime glass is
normally 60-75% of silica, 12-18% soda and 5-12% 5 ply → 5, 6, 8, 9 mm
lime. • A low percentage of other materials can be 7 ply → 9, 12, 15, 16 mm
added for specific properties such as colouring. 9 ply → 12, 15, 16, 19 mm
• Percentage content of silica in window glass is 70 to 11 ply → 19, 22, 25 mm
75%. more than 11 ply → as per order.
Building Materials 31 YCT
22. Which types of trees grow inwards and fibrous Ans. (d) :
mass is seen in their longitudinal sections? Some of the objects of seasoning wood are follows–
(a) Deciduous (b) Endogenous trees • Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in
(c) Exogenous trees (d) Conifers structure.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I • Increase strength, durability and workability.
Ans. (b) : Endogenous trees–These are the types of • Reduce it weight.
trees which grows in bulk is inward direction and • Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
fibrous mass can be seen across their longitudinal 26. In the context of structure of timber, the
section. function of_____ is to grow wood cells on the
Example–Bamboo, cane, palm etc. insider and smaller best cells on the outside.
Exogenous tree–These grows outward, for all (a) sap wood (b) bark
engineering work we use exogenous tree. (c) medullary rays (d) cambium
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
Ans. (d) : Cambium–The second layer is the cambium,
a thin tissue where tree growth takes place. Cambium
cells are constantly dividing. Producing food
transporting phloem cells closer to the bark of the free
and xylem or wood cells towards the core of the tree.
27. Which group of timber are most commonly
23. How many methods are employed for the available in quantity 1415m3 or more per year
seasoning of Timber? according to IS: 399-1963?
(a) Three (b) Two (a) Z (b) Y
(c) Four (d) Five (c) X (d) Q
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 DDA JE 17/10/2023 (Shift-III)
Ans (b) : Seasoning of timber:- The newly cutted Ans. (c) :
trees have water in large quantity in sap and minimum Classification of timber based on availability–
in this inner part of wood. X : Most common grade – 1415 m3 (1000 tonnes) and
more per year
• We remove sap of the wood, then do seasoning for
Y : Common grade – 355 m3 (250 tonnes) to 1415 m3
drying the wood and making for structural use
(1000 tonnes) per year
• By drying the timber we make its strength high more Z : Less common grade – Below 355 m3 per year.
elastic and durable. Based on durability
• A well seasoned timber has 12% moisture content in it. Durability Average life
(I) Natural seasoning High > 120
(II) Artificial seasoning Moderate 60 < life < 120
24. How are trees classified based on mode of Low < 60
growth? Basis of seasoning characteristics–
(a) Grade and elasticity 1. High refractory: Class A
(b) Perpendicular and parallal 2. Medium refractory: Class B
(c) Endogeneous and exogeneous 3. Non refractory: Class C
(d) Small and large 28. A very thin sheet of wood which is cut from the
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 round logs with 0.5 to 5 mm thickness is called:
Ans. (c) : Classification of trees– Trees are classified (a) veneer (b) chipboard
as endogenous and exogenous according to the mode of (c) fibre wood (d) blockboard
growth. Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023
Endogenous Trees– Trees grow inwards e.g. palm, Ans. (a) : Veneers (IS 14315)– The primary process in
bamboo etc. the manufactures of wood based products is veneering
Exogenous trees– Trees grow outwards and are used which produces thin sheets of wood known as veneers.
for making structural elements. They are further • The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 to 0.6 mm. In
subdivided as conifers and deciduous. no case it should exceed 1 mm.
25. Select the INCORRECT objective of seasoning 29. Star shake, a type of defect in timber arises due
of timber. to ______.
(a) growth of layers of sapwood over Wounds
(a) Reduce the shrinkage and warping after
(b) severe frost and fierce heat of sun
placement in structure
(c) wind causing young tree to turn in one
(b) Increase strength, durability and workability direction
(c) Reduce its tendency to split and decay (d) greater evaporation of sap at the end grains of
(d) Increase its weight log
Odisha JE Lect. 28/01/2024 Paper-I DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I
Building Materials 32 YCT
Ans. (b) : Star shake– It is radial splits or cracks wide 33. Timber is considered moderately heavy when
at circumference and diminishing towards the centre of the density varies from_______
the tree. This defect may arise from severe frost and (a) 2.5 to 4.5 kN/m3 (b) 5.5 to 7.5 kN/m3
3
fierce heat of sun. Star shakes appear as the wood dries (c) 7.5 to 9.5 kN/m (d) None of these
below the fibre saturation point. It is a senous fault UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
leading to separated by when sawn. Ans. (b) : Density of light to very light timber is less
30. During the construction of particle board in the than 5.5 kN/m3 moderate timber has density between
extrusion pressing process, what is the 5.5 to 7.5 kN/m3 and heavy to very heavy timber has
orientation of the wood particles with respect density greater than 7.5 kN/m3.
to the plane of board? 34. The shrinkage of wood from green to over dry
(a) 45° (b) 30° condition will be maximum in
(c) 90° (d) 0° (a) Longitudinal direction
SSC JE Pre. 09/10/2023 (Morning) (b) Tangential direction
Ans. (c) : Particle board/chip board (IS : 3129,12406, (c) Radial direction
3478)– They are manufactured from particles of wood (d) Wood exposed to moisture
or other ligno-cellulose materials which are UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
agglomerated, formed and pressed together by the use Ans. (b) : Shrinkage of wood– Shrinkage is the
of an organic binder together in the presence of heat, reduction in linear and volumetric dimensions in drying
pressure or moisture. of wood.
• During the construction of particle board in the • Linear shrinkage along the fibres lies between 0.1 to
extrusion pressing process, it is the orientation 900 of the 0.3 percent, in radial direction between 3 to 6
wood particles with respect to the plane of board. They are percent and in the trangential direction between 7 to
manufactured from small timber pieces and wood wastes. 12 percent.
The latter is first converted into small chips. • In general the radial shrinkage of wood is 60 percent
31. A wood panel glued under pressure from an of the tangential and the longitudinal shrinkage is
odd number of layers of veneers is known negligible.
as___ 35. The density of wood used for construction in
(a) plywood (b) fibre board the ranges between
(c) hard board (d) particle board (a) 1.2 to 1.3 g/cm3 (b) 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm3
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-III (c) 2.3 to 2.6 g/cm 3
(d) 2.6 to 2.9 g/cm3
Ans. (a) : Plywood : ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
• A wood panel glued under pressure from an odd Ans. (b) : The density of wood used for construction in
number (usually 3 to 13) of layers of veneers is the ranges between 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm3.
known as plywood.
36. As per IS : 303 and 10701, the thickness of 5
• Plywood may be classified upon direction of gains ply plywood boards for structural purpose are
in the piles and on the type of adhesive used. available in
• Normally the alternate plies are oriented at 300 or (a) 6 mm and 9 mm (b) 12 mm and 16 mm
600 in star plywood. (c) 16 mm and 19 mm (d) 10 mm and 15 mm
32. Which of the following defects occur in the ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
seasoning process of wood? Ans. (a) : Thickness of plywood boards (IS : 303
(a) bow (b) brown rot and 10701)–
(c) sap stain (d) blue stain Thickness (mm)
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 Board General Structural
Ans. (a) : purpose purpose
3 Ply 3,4,5,6 4
5 Ply 5,6,8,9 6,9
7 Ply 9,12,15,16 12,16
9 Ply 12,15,16,19 16,19
11 Ply 19,22,25 19,25
above 11 ply On order
37. According to IS : 14315-1995, the maximum
thickness of commercial veneers produced
from wood is:
(a) 12 mm (b) 6 mm
(c) 8 mm (d) 3 mm
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
Building Materials 33 YCT
Ans. (b) : As per IS 14315 : 1995, clause 9.3 41. The shearing strength of wood along the fibres is:
The maximum thickness of the veneer shall be 6 mm. (a) 6.5 to 14.5 N/mm2 (b) 10 to 30 N/mm2
Veneers– A thin slices of wood that typically are glued (c) 2.5 to 3 N/mm2 (d) 20 to 30 N/mm2
on to core panels in order to produce flat panels. UPMRCL JE 02/01/2023
• The thickness of veneers lies between 10–6 mm Ans. (a) Properties of timber–
having same strength in all direction.
• Tensile strength along the grains is 2-4 times
• These are commercial wood which are used to make
plywood. stronger than compressive strength.
38. The innermost central portion or core of the • The shearing strength of wood along the fibres is
tree is called as .............. 6.5 to 14.5 N/mm2.
(a) Cambium layer (b) Medulla • The shearing strength along the fibers. Resistance of
(c) Annular rings (d) bark wood to cutting across the fibers is 3 to 4 times
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 greater than that along the fibers.
Ans. (b) : Structure of timber– 42. Timber can be made more fire resistant by
Bast–The barks inner layer called bast conveys the (a) Dipping and stepping process
nutrients from the crown downwards and stores them. (b) Sir Abel's process
Pith–Inner most central portion or core of the tree is (c) Charring
called the pith or medulla. (d) Hot and cold open tank treatment
Sap wood– The outer annual rings, between heartwood
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
and cambium layer is known as sapwood.
Heart wood– It consist of the inner annual rings round Ans. (b) Fire resistance of timber–
the pith. Sir Abel's process– Surface of wood is painted by a
Inner bark– It is the inner skin or layer covering the weak solution of sodium silicate.
emulsion layer. • Thereafter slaked lime solution of the consistency of
Cambium layer– The thin layer below bark not a paste is applied followed by the application of
converted to sap woods it is called cambium layer. concentrated solution of sodium silicate in two coats
the second being applied after 6 hours of the first coat.
Composition of the solution is–
• Sodium silicate 56g
• Water 50 g
• Kaolin 75 g
43. Identify the endogenous tree type from among
the following.
(a) Palm (b) Pine
39. The moisture content in a property seasoned (c) Deodar (d) Oak
timbers will in the range of? SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
(a) 5% to 10% (b) 8% to 10%
Ans. (a) Endogenous tree–These tree grow more in
(c) 10% to 12% (d) 12% to 15%
length. Inwards and fibrous mass can be seen in the
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 longitudinal section.
Example: Bamboo, cane, palm.
Ans. (c) : The process of drying the wood to moisture
content approximately equal to the average humidity of These trees have limited engineering applications.
surroundings where it is to be permanently fixed is Exogenous trees– Trees grow outward and these are
called seasoning. used for making structural elements.
• The seasoning of timber is required to remove sap • They are further subdivided as conifers and decidous.
from the timber. Ex-Deodar, chir, teak, shishum pine etc.
• The moisture content in a well seasoned timber is 44. Along the grains, tensile strength of timber is
10-12%. .... the corresponding compressive strength
40. Which of the following types of wood flooring is (a) same (b) less than
the softest wood?
(c) not comparable (d) more than
(a) Pine (b) Oak
(c) Maple (d) Pecan NBCC JE 09/05/2022
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 Ans. (d) : Tensile strength of timber along the grain
Ans. (a) Pine flooring– (parallel to grain) is 2 to 4 times more than the
• Pine wood flooring is the softest wood. compressive strength.
• Evergreen trees • Pins, space and firm • It is an order of 80 to 190 N/mm2. Further, across the
• Less costly • Almost light grain (perpendicular the grain) tensile strength of timber
Uses–Chips for laminated wood, flooring, roofing, shingles. is low.

Building Materials 34 YCT

45. Which of the following is not a types of 48. As per IS 3129-1985, the permissible tolerance
seasoning of timber? for the length of finished boards shall be
(a) Air Seasoning (b) Soil Seasoning ___________.
(c) Electrical Seasoning (d) Water Seasoning (a) ±6 mm (b) ±2 mm
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II (c) ±8 mm (d) ±4 mm
Ans. (b) : Air seasoning– The log of wood is sawn into SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
planks of convenient sizes and stacked under a covered Ans. (c) : According to IS 3129-1985, the permissible
shed in cross wise direction in alternate layers so as to tolerances on the nominal sizes of finished boards
permit free circulation of air. shall be as follows–
Water seasoning– The logs of wood are kept
completely immersed in running stream of water, with Dimension Nominal size Tolerance
their larger ends pointing upstream. Length for all lengths ±8 mm
Electrical seasoning– The logs are placed in such a Width for all widths ±8 mm
way that their two ends touch the electrodes. Thickness above 25 mm ±1 mm
• Current is passed through the setup, being a bad upto and ±0.8 mm
conductor, wood resists the flow of current, generating
including 25 mm
heat in the process, which results in its drying.
46. Tensile strength of timber parallel to the fibres 49. Timber which are slow and difficult to season
is in the range of free from defects, are classified as based upon
(a) 10–80 N/mm2 (b) 80–190 N/mm2 their behavior to cracking and splitting during
(c) 190–250 N/mm 2
(d) 250–310 N/mm2 normal air-seasoning practice.
GPSC AE Class-2, N.W.R. 05/09/2021 (a) Null refractory
Ans. (b) : Tensile strength of timber parallel to the fibre (b) Moderate refractory
is in the range 80-190 N/mm2. (c) High refractory
The compressive strength is lower and is usually 30- (d) Low refractory
77.5 Mpa (N/mm2). SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
• Shear strength 6-15 N/mm2. Ans. (c) : Non-refractory timbers can be rapidly
• Tensile strength along a direction parallel to the grains seasoned without any trouble. They can be seasoned
is found to have the greatest strength that can be even in the open air and sun. Examples are deodar,
developed under any kind stress. simul etc.
47. _____ is a sign of decay appearing in the form • Moderately refracting timbers have tendency to split
of yellow or red tinge or discolouration of and to crack during seasoning. They are therefore to be
overmatured trees. protected against rapid drying conditions.
(a) Foxiness (b) Twisted fibres • Highly refracting timbers are likely to be damaged
(c) End splits (d) Upsets severally during seasoning. They are difficult to season.
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II 50. Which of the following indicates a preliminary
Ans. (a) : stage of dead knot, where the fibres of knot are
Knot These are the base of branches which not firmly held in the surrounding wood?
are broken or cut-off from the trees. (a) Tight knot (b) Dead knot
Rind galls Abnormal growth or curved swellings (c) Loose knot (d) Round knot
on the body of tree. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing in the Ans. (c) : Knots in Timber–These are the sections of
form of yellow or red tinge. the branches of the tree present on the surface of the
Cause-Over maturity lack of ventilation. wood which appears in the form of hard and dark
Burl is the growth of tree in which the pieces.
grain has grown in a regular projection • Knots are the spots of weaknesses in timber when
Burl or the timber body. used to carry compression.
• It formed when the tree receives shock Pin knot–When the diameter is less than 12 mm.
or injury in its young age. Small knot– When the diameter is 12-20 mm.
Callus It is the soft tissue or skin which cover Medium knot– When the diameter is 20-40 mm.
the wound of a tree. Large knot–When the diameter is more than 40 mm.
Druxiness White spots are formed on the top Tight knot–Tight knot are those which are joined
surface of wood. securely to the adjacent wood.
Twisted It is caused by wind turning the trunk Dead knot– The fibers of knot are properly
fiber of young tree in one direction. interconnected with those of surrounding wood. Hence
• Reaction wood is the wood with it can be easily separated out from for engineering
twisted fiber. purposes.
Upsets It is due to the crushing of fibers Loose knot:– It indicates preliminary stage of dead
running transversely during the growth knot.
of the tree due to strong winds and
unskilled felling consequently resulting The fibers of knot are not firmly held in the surrounding
in discontinuity of fibers. wood.

Building Materials 35 YCT

51. __________ are popularly known as white ants, 55. Which of the following IS codes provides
though they are in no way related to ants. specifications on ‘Plywood for concrete
(a) Bacteria (b) Flies shuttering work - Specification [Wood and
(c) Termites (d) Viruses other lignocellulosic products]’?
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (a) IS 5440:2011 (b) IS 5450:2011
Ans. (c) : White ants are really called termites. (c) IS 4990:2011 (d) IS 2330:2011
Although, these insects are often called white ants they MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
are nothing like ants when we dig a little deeper. Ans. (c) : IS 4990 : 2011 → Ply wood for concrete
• White ants actually belong to the cockroach family. shuttering work- specification (wood and other ligno
52. To make timber more fire resistant than it is, cellulosic products)
the wood is first impregnated with a fire IS 5440 : 2011 → optical flats
retarding chemical solution such as _____. IS 2330 : 2011→ Metallic Materials - Tube flanging test
(a) gasoline 56. Which of the following types of wood is known
(b) ammonium phosphate for its high strength and resistance to decay,
(c) butane making it suitable for outdoor construction?
(d) turpentine (a) Cedar (b) Pine
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (c) Oak (d) Mahogany
Ans. (b) : Fire Resistance of timber– Fire proofing RITES AM 05/05/2024
makes timber resistant to fire at high degree that it is Ans. (d) : Mahogany wood is a durable hardwood that
difficult to ignite and support its own combustion. The is resistant to scratches, dents and other types of
fire resistance of wood can be enhanced either by damages. It is also resistant to rot and decay, making it
impregnating it with chemicals like phosphates of a popular choice for outdoor furniture and decking.
ammonia, mixture of ammonium phosphate and 57. What is the primary purpose of a rip saw?
ammonium sulphate etc. or by designing wood to (a) Making finer cuts
provide slow burning construction. (b) Cutting along the grain
53. Which property of timber makes it resistant to (c) Cutting panels for door shutters
corrosion and rust? (d) None of these
(a) High strength HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(b) High moisture absorption Ans. (b) : Rip saw–A rip saw is wood saw that is
(c) Low density specially designed for making a rip cut, a cut made
(d) Non-metallic composition parallel to the direction of the wood grain.
Compass saw–A compass saw is a type of saw used
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
for making curved cuts known as compasses,
Ans. (d) : Corrosion is a natural process that occurs particularly in confined spaces where a larger saw
when a material reacts with its environment such as air, would not fit.
water or other substances. Dovetail saw–A small backsaw used to cut dovetails,
• Corrosion resistant materials are designed to resist these saws will usually have a higher number of teeth
this process, either via a protective layer on the per inch (around IS-20 T.P.I) with teeth sharpened in a
surface or through a chemical composition that does rip tooth pattern and minimal set to leave a narrow
not react with the environment. kerfs this fine tooth pattern also works well in cross
• Timber is non-metallic composition those makes it cutting operations.
resistant to corrosion and rust. Tenon saw–A mid sized backsaw, the saw derives its
54. Which property of particle board makes it name from its used in the cutting of tenons for mortise
advantageous for use in ceiling panels? and tenon joinery. Tenon saws are commonly available
with rip-filed teeth for rip cutting and cross-cut for
(a) Thermal insulation properties
cutting across the grain.
(b) Sound insulation properties
(c) Lightweight 58. What is the difference between soft wood and
hard wood?
(d) Termite resistance
(a) The colour of soft wood is light whereas the
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
colour of hard wood is dark
Ans. (b) : Particle board:- It is made out of small size
(b) Soft wood is heavy and hard wood is light
timber and wood waste residue of all types like logs and
(c) Soft wood is more fire-resistant than hard
tops of trees, edgings of saw mills, end cuts, stump
wood
....etc and other similar woody material.
(d) Soft wood has more strength in compression
→ Sound insulation of particle board makes it and shear compared to hard wood
advantages for use in ceiling panels HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Building Materials 36 YCT
 Ans. (a) : 63. Which of the following is manufactured from
Soft wood Hard wood particles of wood or other ligno cellulose
In soft wood the fibers In case of hard wood the materials, which are agglomerated, formed and
are less dense. fibers are quite close and pressed together using an organic binder
dense. together in the presence of heat, pressure or
It is light weight and It is heavy weight and moisture?
softer than hardwood. harder than softwood. (a) Block boards (b) Particle boards
It is light in colour Normally these are dark (c) Plywood (d) Veneers
colour woods. SSC JE Pre. 11/10/2023 (Morning)
It has poorer resistance It has better resistance to Ans. (b) : Particle board/chip board (IS :
to fire than hardwood fire softwood. 3129,12406, 3478)– They are manufactured from
and burn at a high rate particles of wood or other ligno-cellulose materials
It has less strength and It has more strength and which are agglomerated, formed and pressed together
shear in compression shear in compression hard by the use of an organic binder together in the
hard wood wood presence of heat, pressure or moisture. They are
59. Which of the following additives is typically manufactured from small timber pieces and wood
included in paint to increases itself life and wastes. The latter is first converted into small chips.
stability but may raise environmental or health
concerns if released into the environment? 64. Crushing of fibres running transversely during
(a) Pigments the growth of the tree due to strong winds is
(b) Bio-accumulative agents known as–
(c) Plasticizers (a) Upsets (b) End splits
(d) Solvents (c) Twisted fibres (d) Rind galls
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 CHB Asst. Architect 05.02.2023
Ans. (b) : Bio-accumulative agents are used in paints to Ans. (a) : Upsets – Caused by the crushing of fibre
increases its life and stability but may raise running transversely during the growth of the tree due
environmental or health concerns if released into the to strong winds and unskilled felling consequently
environment. resulting in discontinuity of fibres.
60. Identify the defect in timber, which is NOT Twisted fibres – Caused by wind constantly turning the
caused by seasoning of timber? trunk of young tree in one direction.
(a) Checks (b) Rind gall Rindgall – It is peculiar curved swellings formed on
(c) Warpage (d) Splitting the body of a tree. These are caused due to the growth
SSC JE Mains 04.12.2023 of layers over the injuries left over after improper
Ans. (b) : felling of trees.
Knot– Knots are bases of branches buried by cambial
activity of the mother branch. The root of the branch is
embedded in the stem, with the formation of annual
rings at right angles to those of the stem. The knots
interrupt the basic grain direction of the wood, resulting
in a reduction of its strength.
65. Curved swellings found on the body of a tree
are known as ...............
(a) Shakes (b) Knots
(c) Rind galls (d) Upsets
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
61. Which of the following is NOT related with Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
defects in timber? 66. The number of zones in India for classifying
(a) Cup shake (b) Upset allowable moisture content for building timber
(c) Rindgall (d) Bark as per the Indian Standard are -
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I (a) Four (b) Six or five
(c) Three (d) Two or one
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
62. Which of the following defects is NOT caused Ans. (a) : As per IS 287 : 1993
by seasoning of timber? Zones– The country has been broadly divided into the
(a) Splitting (b) Dry rot following four zones on the basis of information
(c) Checks (d) Warpage collected by the forest research institutes on the
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III seasonal changes in the moisture content of timber at 12
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. localities in India supplemented by published

Building Materials 37 YCT

meteorological data on the humidity variations in the 70. Which is the product that is formed after the
country. heating of gypsum at 393 K and evaporation of
Zone-I Average annual relative humidity less than 75% of water content from it?
40%. (a) Cement (b) Geo-polymer
Zone-II Average annual relative humidity 40-50%. (c) Plaster of Paris (d) Calcined lime
Zone-III Average annual relative humidity more than UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
so and up to 67%. Ans. (c) : Gypsum on heating at 393 K will produce
Zone-IV Average annual relative humidity more than 1
CaSO4 . H 2O ( Plaster of paris )
67%. 2
67. What is the maximum limit of water-soluble 1 3
content (percentage by mass) present in fly ash, CaSO4 .2H 2O  393K
→ CaSO4 . H 2O + H2O
2 2
which could be used as an additive to brick Most plasters theoretically approach which contains
earth? about 6.2% of water.
(a) 1.5% (b) 5% Properties–
(c) 15% (d) 0.1% • White in colour
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 • Setting time is 5 to 10 minutes
Ans. (d) : Apparatus required for water absorption • Specific gravity is 2.57.
test– 71. What is the chemical combination formula of
The following apparatuses are required for the testing of Plaster of Paris?
water absorption of fly ash bricks. (a) CaCO3.2H2O (b) CaSO4.2H2O
(i) A sensitive weighing balance capable of weighing 1
within 0.1% of the total mass of the specimen. (c) CaSO4. H2O (d) CaSO3.2H2O
2
(ii) Ventilated oven [1100C ( ± 5 0C)]
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
(iii) Water bath [270C ( ± 120C)]
Ans. (c) : See the explanation of above question.
(iv) Damp cloths.
72. Unslaked lime is :
68. As per is 712, which of the following is class A
(a) calcium carbonate (b) calcium oxide
type lime?
(c) calcium hydroxide (d) calcium sulphate
(a) Magnesium lime
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
(b) Fat lime
(c) Semi hydraulic lime Ans. (b) : Unslaked lime-
Unslaked lime or quick lime (CaO) pure lime. generally
(d) Eminently hydraulic lime
called quick, however, contains more or less
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 magnesium oxide, which gives the product a brownish
Ans. (d) : As per IS 712-1984– Cl– 3.1 or grayish tinge. Quick lime obtained after the
Building lime– calcination of limestone. It is also called caustic lime. It
Class A- Eminently hydraulic lime used for structures is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity for
purposes. carbonic acid. The specific gravity of pure lime is about
Class B- Semi-hydraulic lime used for masonry 3.40.
mortars lime concrete and plaster undercoat. 73. Identify the INCORRECT statement with
Class C- Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, respect to a type of stone ‘Kankar’.
white washing, composite mortar etc. (a) Kankar is irregular in shape
Class D- Magnesium/dolomitic lime used for finishing (b) Kankar has a porous structure
coat in plastering, white washing. (c) Kankar is a type of metamorphic rock
Class E- Kankar lime used for masonry mortars. (d) Nodular Kankar is used to produce hydraulic
Class F- Siliceous dolomitic lime used for undercoat lime
and finishing coat of plaster. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
69. Which of the following non-metallic materials Ans. (c) : Kankar: A stone with irregular shape and
are also known as thermo softening plastic? porous structure that is used to produced hydraulic lime.
(a) Elastomers (b) Thermoplastics Kankar is as sedimentary rock.
(c) Thermoset materials (d) Minerals 74. What is produced when water is added to quick
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 lime?
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic materials are those which (a) Fat lime (b) Hydraulic lime
soften on the application of heat, with or without (c) Lime stone (d) Caustic lime
pressure and require cooling to be set to a shape. JSSC JE (General Engg.) 16/10/2023
• They can be heated and cooled any number of times, Ans. (d) : Caustic lime is obtained by adding water in
only they should not be heated above their quick lime.
decomposition temperatures. • It is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity
• They are highly plastic and are easy for moulding or for carbonic acid. The specific gravity of pure lime is
shaping. about 3.4.

Building Materials 38 YCT

75. Which lime contains about 70% to 80% CaO 79. Fat lime is pure lime that contains
and 20% to 30% clay? approximately calcium oxides :
(a) Fat lime (b) Pure lime (a) 90% to 95% (b) 80% to 90%
(c) Poor lime (d) Hydraulic lime (c) 80% to 85% (d) 85% to 90%
JSSC JE (General Engg.) 16/10/2023 UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
Ans. (d) : Hydraulic lime–it is a product obtained by Ans. (a) : Fat or pure lime–It is a pure lime that is
moderate burning (900ºC-1100ºC) of raw limestone made by burning a pure limestone rock like chalk, shell
which contains small proportions of clay (silica and or coral.
alumina) 5-30 percent and iron oxide in chemical • It contains approximately 90% to 95% of calcium
combination with the calcium oxide content (CaO + oxides, fat lime absorbs carbon dioxide when it is
MgO 70-80% with MgO less than 5%). In slaking exposed in air and gets transferred into calcium
considerable care is required to provide just sufficient
carbonate.
water and no excess, since an excess would cause the
lime to harden. • Fat lime has the following properties–
1. It hardens very slowly
76. Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a
temperature of about: 2. Fat lime has very high degree of plasticity
(a) 1000 ºC (b) 800 ºC 3. Fat lime slakes vigorously
(c) 1100 ºC (d) 850 ºC 4. Fat lime sets very slowly if exposed to air.
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I 80. Which one of the following is NOT correct for
Ans. (b) : Calcination of lime– It refers to the heating characteristics of lime?
of lime stone of redness in the presence of air. (a) Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to
Lime is obtained by calcination of limestone. Moisture work with
and CO2 are removed from the limestone leaning behind (b) It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture
lime. (c) The excellent cementitious properties make it
CaCO 3 Calcination
→ CO 2 ↑ + CaO ( lime ) most suitable for masonry work
8000 C
(d) The shrinkage on drying is large because of
77. Which of the following is NOT a property of its high water retentively
Lime? ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
(a) Flexible and easily workable
Ans. (d) Characteristics of lime–
(b) Poor plasticity
(c) Solidify in less time and become hard (i) Lime has good plasticity and has high workability.
(d) Highly resistant moisture (ii) It has good cementetious properties and is suitable
for masonry works.
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(iii) If stiffens easily and has light resistant to moisture,
Ans (b) : Property of lime–
because of its high water retentively. Shrinkage on
• Lime possesses good plasticity and easy to work drying is small compared to cement.
with.
81. As per IS : 712 – 1984, the lime used for
• It stiffens easily and resistance to moisture.
structural purposes (for making mortar and
• The excellent cementitious properties make it most
concrete for construction and foundation
suitable for masonry work.
works) having an initial setting time of 2 hours
• The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high (minimum) and final setting time of 48 hours
water retentivity.
(maximum) is :
78. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic (a) Class D - Magnesium/Dolomitic lime
of poor lime? (b) Class C - Fat lime
(a) Slaking requires more time and so it hydrates (c) Class A - Eminently hydralic lime
slowly. (d) Class F - Silicious Dolomitic lime
(b) It makes thin paste with water. JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
(c) setting and hardening is fast. Ans. (c) : As per IS 712-1984– Cl– 3.1
(d) The colour varies from yellow to grey. Building lime–
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022 Class A– Eminently hydraulic lime is used for making
Ans. (c) : Poor lime– It is also known as lean lime or mortar and concrete for construction and foundation
impure lime. As it contains more than 30% of clay, works, i.e. for structural purposes.
which makes lime to slaking slowly. Characteristics–
• It sets and hardens very-slowly compared to the other (i) The colour is grey
types of limes. It has very poor binding properties (ii) Calcium oxide and clay are 60-70 and 25 percent
and can form a thin paste with water. It is colour respectively.
varies from yellow to gray. (iii) Sets and hardens reading under water with initial
• It is used for inferior types of works because of its setting time 2 hour and final setting time 48 hours.
inferior quality. (iv) Slakes with difficulty.

Building Materials 39 YCT

 Class B- Semi-hydraulic lime used for masonry Ans. (c) : Engineering bricks are used where in
mortars lime concrete and plaster undercoat. construction where strength and resistance to water/fire
Class C- Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, and frost attack are important.
white washing, composite mortar etc. • Some common application examples are–Retaining
Class D- Magnesium/dolomitic lime used for finishing walls, damp proof courses, manholes, sewers and
coat in plastering, white washing. general ground works.
Class E- Kankar lime used for masonry mortars.
86. Which one of the following statements is NOT
Class F- Siliceous dolomitic lime used for undercoat correct?
and finishing coat of plaster.
(a) Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish,
82. Which of the following lime is used in masonry varying in pattern
work? (b) Arch Bricks are over-burnt also known as
(a) Hydraulic lime (b) Fat lime clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of
(c) Quick lime (d) White lime the kiln
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (c) Pale Bricks are over-burnt bricks obtained
Ans. (a) : Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning of from outer portion of the kiln
kankar. (d) Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying
• Hydraulic lime has proportion of clay 5–30%. central portion of the kiln
• Hydraulic lime is used in lime concrete in masonry ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
work. Ans. (c) Rustic brick– It has a mechanically textured
83. When heated to 205 ºC, pure gypsum loses its finish which varies in the pattern.
luster and its specific gravity is increased from Arch bricks– These are over burnt bricks obtained
_____ to _____ due to the loss of water of from the inner portion of the kiln.
crystallization. Pale bricks– These are under burnt bricks obtained
(a) 2.3 ; 2.95 (b) 1.5 ; 2.95 from outer portion of the kiln..
(c) 2.3 ; 2.7 (d) 2.3 ; 3 Body bricks– These are well-burnt bricks obtained
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I from the central portion of the kiln.
Ans. (a) : Gypsum– Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder 87. Which of the following is an example of an
occurring naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand. igneous rock?
Pure gypsum is a white in colour and so soft that it can
(a) Phyllite (b) Marble
be scratched by a finger nail.
(c) Aplite (d) Dolomite
• When heated to 2050C pure gypsum loses its luster
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
and its specific gravity is increased from 2.3 to 2.95 due
to the loss of water of crystallization. Ans. (c) : Igneous Rock:– It is also known as primary,
unstratified rocks. Igneous Rocks are formed as a result
84. As per IS : 1077, how many whole bricks shall
the solidification of molten mass lying below or above
be selected at random from the sample for
the earth's surface. If the magma solidifies below the
carrying out dimensions test?
earth's surface itself, the solid crystalline rock is termed
(a) 5 (b) 10
or deep-seated plutonic rock. The examples are granite,
(c) 15 (d) 20
Aplite, Syenite, diorite and gabbro.
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
88. Marble is formed after the metamorphosis of
Ans. (d) : Dimension test (IS 1077)– 20 pieces out of
selected pieces are taken and are laid flat. (a) Sand stone (b) granite
The dimensions of bricks when tested shall be within (c) Slate (d) Lime stone
the following limits per 20 bricks. DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
For modular size– Ans. (d)
Length 3720 to 3880 mm (3800 ±80 mm) Rock Rock after metamorphism
Width 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 ± 40 mm) Granite Gneiss
Height 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 ±40 mm) Basalt Schist
(For 90 mm high bricks) Limestone/Marl Marble
760 to 840 mm (800 ± 40 mm) Mudstone / shale Slate
(For 40 mm high bricks) Sandstone Quartzite
85. What type of bricks are known for their high 89. Specific gravity of most of stones lie
compressive strength and resistance to fire? between_____.
(a) Perforated bricks (b) Solid bricks (a) 3.2-3.5 (b) 2.5-3
(c) Engineering bricks (d) Common bricks (c) 4.5-5.4 (d) 1.2-2.2
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023 SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Building Materials 40 YCT
 Ans. (b) : A good stone should not be porous, rain 94. Among the following, the hardest mineral is :
water, enter the pores which is generally acidic, (a) Quartz (b) Mica
chemical composition of stone limestone and weak (c) Talc (d) Calcite
sandstone are relatively less durable than a good sand ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
stone, granite or gneiss.
Ans. (a) : Talc is a soft rock.
• Specific gravity for most of the building stone lie
between 2.5-3.0 • The moh's scale of mineral hardness is based on
• Crushing strength of good building stone should scratch hardness comparison ranging from 1 to 10,
be more than 1000 kg/cm2 or 100 MPa. a value of 10 being the hardest of minerals.
• Toughness index </ 13. • The hardness talc, the softest of minerals, defines
90. Granite, which is mainly composed of quartz the value of 1 on the scale.
and feldspar particles, is obtained from : Type of rocks Hardness on Moh's scale
(a) Metamorphic Rocks (b) Igneous Rocks Talc, easily scratched 1
(c) Segimentary Rocks (d) All of the above with the thumb-nail
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I Gypsum 2
Ans. (b) : Granite which is mainly composed of quartz Calcite 3
and feldspar particles is obtained from igneous rocks. Fluorite 4
Igneous rock also known as primary unstratified rock
are of volcanic origin and are formed as a result of Apatite 5
solidification of molten mass lying or above the earth's Orthoclase 6
surface. Quartz, not scratched 7
91. A good building stone should not absorb water steel
more than Topaz 8
(a) 5% (b) 10% Sapphire 9
(c) 15% (d) 20% Diamond (Hardest) 10
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
95. A broad - faced chisel used for dressing a stone
Ans. (a) Characteristics of good building stone are– to a comparatively smooth surface is called a
• Compressive strength > 1000 kg/cm2. ____.
• High durability and co-efficient of hardness > 14. (a) soft stone chisel (b) boaster
• Specific gravity > 2.7 (c) claw chisel (d) fillet chisel
• Toughness index > 13 SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
• Water absorption < 5%
Ans. (b) A broad-faced chisel used for dressing a stone
92. Select the Indian standard code which provides
guidelines for testing and determination of the to a comparatively smooth surface is called a boaster.
compressive strength of natural building stones.
(a) IS 1121 (Part 3) : 2013
(b) IS 1121 (Part 1) : 2013
(c) IS 1121 (Part 2) : 2013
(d) IS 1121 (Part 4) : 2013 Boaster Scutch Trowel
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 96. According to Moh’s Hardness Scale, the
Ans. (b) : IS : 1121 (Part-I) 2013 – Compressive Hardness value of Quartz is_______.
strength of stone. (a) 7 (b) 5
IS : 1121 (Part-II)– Transverse strength test stone. (c) 2 (d) 10
IS : 1121 (Part-III) – Tensile strength of stone. JSSC JE (Civil) 31/10/2022
IS : 1121 (Part-IV) – Shear strength of stone. Ans. (a) Hardness number for different minerals
IS : 1124 – Absorption test of stone.
based on Moh's scale are–
IS : 1126 – Crystallisation test of stone
Mineral Scale number
93. Formation of ______ type(s) of rocks involves
biological activity in addition to complex Talc 1
mechanical or chemical processes. Gypsum 2
(a) sedimentary rocks (b) metamorphic rocks Calcite 3
(c) volcanic rocks (d) igneous rocks Fluorite 4
SSC JE Pre. 11/10/2023 (Morning) Apatite 5
Ans. (a) Sedimentary rock– are also known as Feldspar 6
aqueous or stratified rocks. The properties of the Quartz 7
sedimentary rocks very considerably depending upon
the nature of the sediment and type of bond between the Topaz 8
sediment and grains. Corundum 9
Ex- Sand stone, lime stone, shale, gravel, gypsum etc. Diamond 10

Building Materials 41 YCT

97. Crushing strength of good building stone 100. Expanded perlite is used as an insulating
should be more than material. It is a chemically inert substance
(a) 50 N/sqmm (b) 100 N/sqmm composed basically of ..............
(c) 150 N/sqmm (d) 200 N/sqmm (a) limestone and rock salt
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (b) glass and calcium carbonate
Ans. (b) : Crushing strength of stone is determine by (c) silica and aluminium
compression test. This test occurs in compression (d) asbestos and mica
machine. After immerse 24 hrs stone are obtained and PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
then rate of loading 140 kg/cm2/minute is apply So,
compressive strength are express in kg/cm2 Ans (c) : Expand perlite– Perlite is a volcanic rock
Ultimate crushing strength of stone (kg/cm2) = containing from 2 to 5% bonded water. It is a
chemically inert substance composed basically of silica
crushing weight
and aluminium, but some impurities, such as Na2O,
weighted surface CaO, MgO and K2O which are hygroscopic can absorb
The crushing strength of stone is 100 N/mm2. moisture easily.
98. In which type of dressing of stone are about 1 101. As per IS 3495 part-3 (1992), soluble salts, if
cm vertical or horizontal grooves sunk with a present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on
chisel having its shape as a hollow semi-circle? the surface of bricks. If the white deposits
(a) Punched dressing cover about 10% of the surface, the
(b) Reticulated finish efflorescence is said to be ________.
(c) Close picked and fine tooling (a) nill (b) moderate
(d) Boasted or droved finish
(c) slight (d) heavy
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (a) : Punched dressing–In this method of
dressing of stone, about 1 cm vertical or horizontal Ans. (c) : Efflorescence test of brick as per IS :
grooves are sunk with a chisel having its shaped as a 3495 Part-3– It is the whitish crystalline substance
hollow semi-circle. The sides of the rock are kept which appears on the surface due to presence of salt
chamfered or sunk. in brick.
• Close picked and fine tooling–A punched stone is Exposed area of brick Conditions
then further dressed so as to obtain a finer surface. 10% exposed area of the brick is Slight
• Boasted or drove finish–It is a very common type covered with a thin salt layer.
dressing of stone in which the surface of the stone is It is covering upto 50% of the Moderate
covered with parallel marks that may run in any exposed area of brick but
direction. unaccompanied by powdering or
99. In which type of the finish is the booster or flaking of the brick surface
chisel used to make non-continuous parallel There is a heavy deposit of salt which Heavy
marks on the stone surface? These marks may covers 50% or more than 50% of the
be horizontal, inclined, or vertical. exposed area of the brick surface but
(a) Hammer dressed finish unaccompanied by powdering or
(b) Dragged or combed finish flaking of the brick surface.
(c) Rubbed finish
(d) Furrowed finish dressing of stones There is a heavy deposit of salt Serious
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I accompanied by powdering and
flaking of the exposed surface of the
Ans. (b) : Dragged or combed finish–The dragged or
brick.
combed finish is the booster or chisel used to make non-
continuous parallel marks on the stone surface. This 102. Depending on the quality of burning, B class
finish is used only in soft stones. bricks are ..............
• These marks may be horizontal inclined or vertical. (a) Under burnt (b) Over burnt
• Boosted finish, dragged or combed finish, are same of (c) Well burnt (d) Normal burnt
the finishes which can be developed by using specific ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
type of chisel in specific way. Ans. (c) : Characteristic of B class brick (Second
Hammer dressed finish–The stone blocks are made class) :
roughly square or rectangular by means of Waller's • A second class brick is well-burnt but slightly over
hammer. The exposed face is roughly shaped by means burnt is acceptable.
of mash hammer. • It has a rough surface.
Rubbed finish–This type of finish is obtained by
• Its edges are neither straight nor well defined.
rubbing a piece of stone on the level surface.
Furrowed finish–This type of finish is applied to the • It is not free from lumps and cracks.
fillets or flat bands of cornics, string courses, doors and • It does not have a uniform colour.
windows archita etc. • It has fine, compact and uniform texture.

Building Materials 42 YCT

103. In case of absorption test on burnt clay Ans. (b) : Water absorption as per IS : 1077-1992
building bricks as per IS 3495 (part 2);1992, (Clause 7.2)– The bricks, when tested in accordance
bricks shall be soaked in cold water for a with the procedure laid down in IS : 3495 (Part-2) :
duration of______ 1992 after immersion in cold water for 24 hrs. water
(a) 16 hours (b) 9 hours absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight upto
(c) 12 hours (d) 24 hours class 12.5 and 15% by weight for higher classes.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
108. According to IS Code provisions, minimum
Ans. (d) : Water absorption test of bricks as per IS 3495 compressive strength of heavy-duty bricks
(part 2) 1992, bricks shall be soaked in cold water for a required for masonry in heavy engineering
duration of 24 hours at temperature 27 ± 2°C. works such as bridge structures and industrial
• Five bricks are taken for test. foundations is
• They are allowed to dry in an oven at 110° to 115°C (a) 40 N/mm2
till they attain a constant weight which usually takes (b) 20 N/mm2
place in 48 hours. (c) 10 N/mm2
104. As per IS 1077:1992, the size of standard (d) 5 N/mm2
modular burn clay building bricks is___ MH Nagar Parishad JE (Civil) 24/11/2023
(a) 19 cm × 18 cm × 18 cm
(b) 22 cm × 15 cm × 10 cm Ans. (a) : Heavy duty burnt clay brick (IS 2180)–
(c) 25 cm × 19 cm × 9 cm The compressive strength of heavy duty brick should
(d) 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm not be less than 40 N/mm2.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III • Water absorption should not be more than 10% after
Ans. (d) : Size of various types of bricks– 24 hours immersion in water for heavy burnt clay
bricks.
Brick Usual size Nominal size
Classification–
classification
Class 400 → Compressive strength 40-45.0 N/mm2
Standard/modu (19 × 9 × 9) cm (20 × 10 × 10)
lar/ normal size cm Class 450 → Compressive strength 45.0 N/mm2
Conventional/ Efflorescence → Should be nil.
3 1
traditional/ user 9" × 4 8 " × 9"× 4 "× 3" Bulk density → Should be less than 2500 kg/m3.
2
size (23 × 11.4 × 109. According to IS-1077 (Specification common
3 burn clay building brick), what is the limiting
2 " 7.6) cm
4 percentage of water absorption for class 25
105. The temperature at which vitrification of low bricks?
melting clay bricks occurs at a temperature of (a) 5% (b) 10%
_____. (c) 15% (d) 7%
(a) 300ºC-500ºC (b) 900ºC-1100ºC DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
(c) 600ºC-800ºC (d) 1200ºC-1400ºC Ans. (c) : Water absorption as per IS : 1077-1992
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (Clause 7.2)– The bricks, when tested in accordance
Ans. (b) : Vitrification–To convert the mass into glass with the procedure laid down in IS : 3495 (Part-2) :
like substance. The temperature ranges 900-1100ºC for 1992 after immersion in cold water for 24 hrs. water
low melting clay and 1000-1250ºC for high melting clay. absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight upto
106. What is the maximum percentage of absorption class 12.5 and 15% by weight for higher classes.
allowed for bricks? 110. The compressive strength of a second class
(a) 90% (b) 75% brick is
(c) 20% (d) None of these (a) 10.5 N/mm2 (b) 12 N/mm2
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 (c) 7.0 N/mm 2
(d) 4.0 N/mm2
Ans. (c) : 20% of its dry weight, water absorption of a MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
burnt clay building brick up to class 12.5 as per IS 1077-
Ans. (c) :
1992, is immerged in cold water for a duration of 24 hour.
Class Compressive strength
• Water absorption of IInd and IIIrd class brick, when
1st class brick 10.5 N/mm2 or 105 kg/cm2
immerged in cold water for duration of 24 hour are
2nd class brick 7 N/mm2 or 70 kg/cm2
22.5% and 25%.
3rd class brick 3.5 N/mm2 or 35 kg/cm2
107. As per IS code 1077 : 1992 the maximum
Water Absorption of common burnt clay brick 111. The number of bricks required per cubic metre
is not more than by weight for higher classes. of brick masonry is________.
(a) 20 percent (b) 15 percent (a) 430 (b) 500
(c) 12.5 percent (d) 10 percent (c) 450 (d) 340
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023

Building Materials 43 YCT

Ans. (b) : Ans. (a) Silica– It enables the brick to retain its shape
Nominal size of brick = 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping.
Per cubic meter required number of brick = Alumina– Absorbs water and renders the clay plastic.
Lime– Normally constitutes less than 10% clay.
1m3
= = 500 m3 Magnesia– Rarely exceeding 1%, affects the colour and
0.20 × 0.10 × 0.10 ( m3 ) make the brick, yellow, in burning.
112. The clay used for brick making consists mainly 116. The minimum average compressive strength of
of : common burnt clay bricks shall not less
(a) Silica and alumina than____.
(b) Silica and magnesia (a) 3.50 kg/mm2 (b) 3.50 N/mm2
2
(c) 10.00 N/mm (d) 7.50 N/mm2
(c) Lime and alumina
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
(d) Lime and magnesia
Ans. (b) : As per IS 1077-1992 Cl 4.1, the common
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
burnt clay bricks shall be classified on the basis of
Ans. (a) : The clay used for brick making consists average compressive strength.
mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion Average
that clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. Class compressive
2
The proportion of various ingredients are as– N/mm
designation strength not less
• Silica 50 – 60% than (kgf/cm2)
• Alumina 20 – 30% 35 35 350
• Lime 2 – 5% 30 30 300
• Magnesia <1% 25 25 250
• Iron Oxide 3 –5% 20 20 200
113. What should be the recommended size of frog 17.5 17.5 175
provided in the standard brick? 15 15 150
(a) 9 × 4 × 0.8 cm 12.5 12.5 125
(b) 9 × 4 × 1 cm 10 10 100
(c) 10 × 3 × 1 cm 7.5 7.5 75
(d) 10 × 4 × 1 cm 5 5 50
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 3.5 3.5 35
Ans. (d) : The most important purpose of frog in a 117. The purpose of providing frog in clay bricks is
brick is to form keyed joint between brick and mortar to :
and therefore the brick are laid with frogs on top. Frog (a) form a reinforced cement column
is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded brick. (b) form a key for holding the mortar
(c) drain out the moisture or water
• The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm. (d) circulate air in the brick wall
114. According to IS : 1077-1992, non-modular size DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
of the bricks is ______. Ans. (b) : The purpose of providing frog is to form a
(a) 190×90×40 mm key for holding the mortar and therefore, the brick are
(b) 190×90×90 mm laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4.6 m
(c) 230×110×40 mm high bricks and extruded bricks.
(d) 230×110×70 mm • The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm.
UP MRC AM (Civil) 02.01.2023
Ans. (d) : The size of non-modular brick size is 230 ×
110 × 70 mm.
• Additionally, for obtaining proper bond arrangement
and modular dimension for the brick work with the non-
modular sizes.
115. Which of the following ingredients of bricks 118. Efflorescence is the ill effect of
(a) dampness
enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts
durability, prevents shrinkage and warping? (b) growth of vegetation
(a) Silica (b) Alumina (c) action of weathering agents
(c) Lime (d) Magneisa (d) chemical action of mortar on masonry
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I PPSC JE 06/03/2022

Building Materials 44 YCT

Ans. (a) : As efflorescence is a sign of excessive 122. Which component enhances the refractory
moisture attach on structure, so not addressing the properties of bricks and makes them resistant
problem can lead to some unpleasant surprise like to high temperatures?
structural damage or mold formation. (a) Alumina (b) Silica
• Efflorescence results from moisture. (c) Iron oxide (d) Clay
• Sametimes salt, inside the structure react within the MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
other structural materials and can damage gradually.
Ans. (a) : These are made from fire-clay using the
• Efflorescence is the ill effect of dampness. same process as an ordinary
119. Second class bricks are recommended for
(a) Hidden masonry work
• They are yellowish or light brown coloured brick
(b) Reinforced brick work • It is made up of materials which have high melting
(c) Flooring brick work points and have properties which make them suitable
(d) Pointing to act as heat resisting barriers between high and low
MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-II temperature zones.
Ans. (a) Second class brick, are supposed to have the • Alumina enhances the refractory properties of bricks
same requirements as the first class ones except that. and makes them resistant to high temperatures.
• Small cracks and distortions are permitted. • Water absorption varies from 4–10% and this
• A little higher water absorption of about 22.5% of compressive strength lies b/w 15–20 N/mm2
dry weight is allowed.
• It is generally used for the lining blast furnaces
• The crushing strength should not be less than 7 ovens, kiln, Boilers and chimneys
N/mm2.
123. Mortar usually used in masonry work is
Used– Second class bricks are recommended for all
important or unimportant hidden masonry work and (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement (c) 1 : 6 (d) 1 : 10
concrete (RCC) structures. SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
120. Which type of material is mainly used in Ans. (c) : Mortar usually used in masonry work is 1 : 6.
making insulating tubes, switch blocks and • For external wall masonry = 1 : 4
lamps sockets? • For internal wall masonry = 1 : 6
(a) Earthenware • For ceiling wall masonry = 1 : 3
(b) Terracotta • For grouting = 1 : 1
(c) Porcelain • For pointing = 1 : 2
(d) Polished terra cotta
124. What type of mortar can be used in
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 unimportant buildings made of bricks?
Ans. (c) : Porcelain– A high grade ceramic were (a) Cement mortar
having white colour zero water absorption and glazed (b) Lime mortar
surface which can be safe or hard consists of finely (c) Mud mortar
dispersed clay, kaolin, quartz and felspar, backed at
(d) Epxy mortar
high temperature and covered with coloured or
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
transparent glass.
Ans. (c) : Mud mortar– They are the cheapest type of
121. The dimension of modular bricks when tested
in accordance with IS : 1077 – 1992, the mortar prepared with locally available ingredients and
maximum tolerance in length of brick is limited are used for masonry works, surfacing floors and
per 20 bricks as : plastering wall surfaces in low cost houses.
(a) ± 10 mm (b) ± 40 mm 125. Which of the following is an application of
(c) ± 60 mm (d) ± 80 mm ferrous metals in construction?
GPSC DEE (GWSSB) 04.07.2021 (a) Reinforcing bars used for concrete structures
Ans. (d) : As per IS 1077-1992 Cl. 6.2 (b) Window frames made up of aluminium
For modular size bricks (limits for 20 bricks) (c) PVC pipes used for plumbing
Dimension Tolerance (d) Roofing tiles
(mm) (mm) MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Length (L) 3800 mm ± 80 mm Ans. (a) : Ferrous metals such as steel are widely used
Width 1800 mm ± 40 mm in construction for building structures, bridges and
Height 1800 mm ± 40 mm roads due to their high strength and durability
For 90 mm Reinforced concrete, which uses steel rebar is a
high bricks common construction material.

Building Materials 45 YCT

 JOB LAYOUT
Job layout can be defined as a drawing of the
proposed construction site which shows different
locations such as entry point, exit point, equipment,
and material stores, temporary facility, site office,
and place where workers will stay.
Job layout helps us to plan the construction site in
such a way that different construction resources like
tools, machinery, materials, manpower, etc. can be
arranged easily and optimal uses of construction
space can be achieved.
Following are the main purpose of job layout :
It helps in reducing the completion time for the Face Line Method of Job Layout
construction. In the face line method, the marking by lime sand
powder is done on the wall exterior and interior
It provides easy movement of equipment from one
surface.
point to another. The marked line is extended by 2 meters away from
It helps in reducing wastage and deterioration of the the excavated point.
material.
It saves time by delivering and making a uniform
flow of material at the site.
It provides more safety to the worker at the site.
The output from manpower and equipment can be
increased using the job layout.
Factors Affecting Job Layout
(1) Type of project : The construction layout varies
according to the project and its functioning.
(2) Method of construction : The construction at the
site may require a pre-cast structure or castin-situ or
both.
(3) Availability of resources : Various resources such EARTHWORK
as manpower, machinery, material, etc. are required
at the construction site. The process of the excavation and deposition of
(4) Temporary road : Roads are important to transfer excavated material is known as earthwork.
material and equipment from one place to another The earthwork includes the excavation, loading,
place inside the construction site. transportation, deposition, compaction, and
(5) Miscellaneous facilities : The necessary provision improvement of the soil. After the clearance of the
site, the earthwork begins.
for facilities such as electricity, water supply,
Earthwork can be defined as engineering work that
material storage yard, and telephone connection involves moving the soil or processing the soil from
should be there in the site job layout. the earth’s surface.
Centre Line Method of Job Layout In this process, the soil moves from one part to other
The Centre line method is generally used for load- parts and help in achieving the desired shape
bearing structures that have a wall foundation of a required for construction purpose.
similar cross-section. Earthworks mainly required heavy machinery
In this method, the center line length of all the equipment for the excavation of soil and backfill.
Heavy machinery is generally used due to the
layout structures is measured which have similar
involvement of large quantities of the material
cross sections and the same type of foundation. which has to be moved.
Construction of Substructure 46 YCT
 Excavation for Foundation If the area is larger the pressure reduces. The
Excavation can be defined as a process that helps in foundation acts on the same principle. The load of
transferring subsoil, rock, or any other material the structure is distributed by the foundation and
using machinery and tools. transferred to the ground.
It includes trenching, tunneling, earthworks, and The larger the area of the foundation, the lesser will
wall shafts. be the load intensity and the safer will be the
One of the common practices using excavation is structure.
building construction. The load is distributed uniformly by the foundation.
Excavation is primarily used in foundation for If the load is distributed non-uniformly or unevenly,
digging, trenching, and site development. there can be differential settlements in the base.
The following points are considered while doing The differential settlements can cause cracks in the
excavation work : building components. In extreme cases, even failure
If the soil does not permit the vertical sides of the of building components can occur.
trench, support should be provided. There is a significant impact of winds and
The shoring can be done for the unstable sides of the earthquakes on the buildings. The wind and
trench. earthquake loads have a tendency to overturn the
The excavated material should be placed at least 1 m building due to their horizontal impact.
away from the place of the excavation. The foundation binds the superstructure and
The bottom of the trench should be perfectly provides lateral stability to the structure.
leveled. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
The bed of the foundation should be rammed before Classification of shallow foundation :
pouring concrete for better stability. Spread footings :
The soft soils or the rocks should be removed and The spread footings are the footings that distribute
the bed of the trench should be leveled and filled the load to the earth by spreading the load over a
with stabilized soil. larger area.
The wires should be placed around excavation work Types of spread footing :
so that no person or any stray animal from the
outside area falls inside the excavated region.
Underground water pipelines, gas pipelines,
communication cables, etc. should be protected
while digging a trench.
Earthwork for Embankment
Earthwork is the engineering work using machinery
and tools for moving or processing subsoil and
underground rocks.
The subsoil may be transported from one location to
another or formed into any shape that is required for
the construction. Single column footing Stepped column footing
Earthwork generally involves cutting and filling and
machine excavation at the site.
FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowermost part of the structure
which transfers the load of the superstructure and
other loads to the ground. Strip wall footing Stepped wall footing
A foundation may be defined as a solid base on
which the structure rests. Foundation remains in
direct contact with the ground to transfer the dead
load and superimposed load.
The foundation plays a major role in the stability
and strength of the structure.
Functions of Foundation
A foundation provides a hard and level surface that
is suitable for the construction of a superstructure
over it.
The foundation distributes the load from the Grillage footing
structure to a larger area which helps in reducing the Combined footings :
load intensity. We know that pressure is the ratio of If the columns are constructed near to each other, it
force to area. is not possible to provide the individual footings.
Construction of Substructure 47 YCT
 So, a combined footing for two or more columns is Sometimes structures like commercial buildings,
provided. water tanks, silos, storage tanks, etc. have very high
The combined footings are more economical as loading. So, a mat foundation can be used when the
compared to the individual footing for each column. structure faces very high superimposed loads.

Combined rectangular footing

Combined trapezoidal footing

DEEP FOUNDATION
Strap footings : If the hard stratum lies deep below the ground, a
Strap footing is a special type of combined footing. deep foundation can be provided. A deep foundation
The combined footing can only be used if the is the type of foundation that has more depth than its
columns are not much far from each other. width.
If the columns have a larger distance between them, Types of deep foundation
the trapezoidal footings become narrow. Pile foundation
A pile may be defined as a slender long column
made of timber, concrete, steel, or composite
material that is used to transfer the load of the
structure through its bottom or friction action or by a
combination of both.
The diameter of the piles is generally equal to or less
than 0.6 m.

Raft foundations :
The raft foundation is also known as the mat
foundation. The raft foundation is provided
throughout the base of the superstructure as a mat.
It is a continuous slab that supports a number of
columns. The mat foundation transfers the load of
all the components of the building to the earth.
The raft foundation also reduces the differential
settlements.
The raft foundation is suitable for the regions where
the bearing capacity of the soil is low or the soil is
subject to movement. Pile foundation
Construction of Substructure 48 YCT
 Strait shaft Bell shape
Well foundation or Caissons
Mechanism of end bearing pile Caissons are box or cylindrical type structures that
are hollow in nature.
The caissons are fabricated on the ground and
penetrated at the waterbed.
The caissons are used to support the bridges in the
water bodies.

Friction pile

Floating caisson

Combined action piles

Pier foundation
A pier is a drilled cylindrical column with a large
diameter.
If the diameter of the cylindrical structure is less Open caisson
than or equal to 0.6 m, it is known as drilled pile. DEWATERING
If the diameter of the bored pile is more than 0.6 m, Drainage is the process of removal of the water from
it is called a pier. the soil. The drainage can be classified into two
The load can be transferred by the bottom end or types which are surface drainage and sub-surface
skin friction or by the combined action. drainage.
A pier can be provided as a straight shaft or a bell The runoff water that moves on the ground is
can be provided at the bottom. diverged in any other direction to save the site from
If the hard stratum lies within 5 m below the ground the flow of water. This type of drainage is known as
surface drainage.
level, a straight concrete pier can be used for the
If the water which is held in the pores of the soil is
transfer of the superimposed load. removed, this process is known as sub-surface
If the hard stratum is deeper than 5 m, the bottom of drainage or dewatering.
the pier can be enlarged in the form of a bell. The dewatering also improves the properties of the
The angle of the bell portion is kept around 60º. soil.
Construction of Substructure 49 YCT
 If the water is removed only at the time of BEARING CAPACITY
construction and the water level is maintained again, The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to
then it is called temporary dewatering.
If the water is removed permanently and the water as its bearing capacity.
level is varied, it is called permanent dewatering. Gross pressure intensity (q)-
It is the total pressure at the base of footing due to
weight of structure, self weight of footing and
weight of earth fill.
Net pressure intensity-
q net = q g − σ qg = Gross pressure

Various types of bearing capacity of soil-

1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)-
It is the maximum gross pressure that soil can
support before it fails is in shear.
qu = CNc + γDf
Well point
COFFER DAM 2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)-
The coffer dams are an arrangement of enclosing the It is the minimum net pressure causing shear failure
working area so that water can’t enter and the of soil.
construction work can be performed.
The coffer dams are made temporarily and facilitates q nu = q u − σ Where, σ = γ Df
the construction of bridges, piers or dams. 3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)-
When the work is to be carried out in an open water,
the coffer dams are used. q nu q − γD f
q ns = = u
When water table is high, coffer dams can be used FOS FOS
on the ground construction too.
The cofferdams should be stable against the water 4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)-
currents. Max. pressure which soil can carry safely without
The coffer dams can be constructed from the earth, risk of shear failure
sheet piles, rocks etc.
q nu
q s = q ns + γD f = + γD f
FOS
σ or γDf = Overburden pressure.
Factor of Safety-
Ultimate net bearing capacity
FOS =
Allowable net bearing capacity

Ultimate bearing capacity

Earth cofferdam Safe bearing capacity =
Factor of safety
5. Net Allowable bearing pressure/capacity (qna)-
It is the maximum net intensity of loading that can
be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
qu
q na =
F.O.S
Rockfill cofferdam It can be used for the design of foundations.
(i) qna = qns, If qnρ > qns
(ii) qna = qnρ, If qns > qnρ
qnρ = Net safe settlement pressure.
Decreasing order of bearing capacities-
q u > q nu > q s > q ns
Load carrying capacity of footing-
Sheet pile cofferdam Strip < Circular < Square footing
Construction of Substructure 50 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 4. Which among the following is not types of
shallow foundation?
1. A pile has an enlarged base of mush-room (a) Raft foundation
shape is called
(b) Isolated footing
(a) Franki pile (b) Vibro pile
(c) Strip footing
(c) Simplex pile (d) Padestal pile
(d) Friction pile
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (a) : Franki pile– Franki pile have an enlarged
Ans. (d) : Friction pile is a type of deep foundation. It
base of the mushroom shape, which gives the effect of
is used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load
spread footing.
carrying material by means of skin friction along the
• This pile is best suited in granular soil. length of the pile. Such piles are generally used in
Vibro piles– This pile is used where the ground is soft. granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very
It offer little frictional resistance to the flow of great.
concrete.
• Raft foundation, strip footing and isolated footing are
Simplex pile– This type of pile is used through soft type of shallow foundation.
soil or hard soil.
5. The _______ is made of steel sheet piles and
Pedestal pile– This pile is used where thin bearing
this type of cofferdam is proved successful in
stratum is reached with reasonable depth.
unwatering large areas.
2. Which of the following purpose is not served by (a) Suspended cofferdam
the foundations? (b) Cellular cofferdam
(a) Reduction of load intensity
(c) Dikes
(b) Protection against extreme heat and extreme
(d) Concrete cofferdam
cold
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
(c) Lateral stability
(d) Provision of level surface Ans. (b) : Cellular cofferdam– The cellular
cofferdam is made of steel sheet piles and this type of
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
cofferdam is provide successful in unwatering large
Ans. (b) : Purpose of foundation– areas.
• To distribute the weight of the structure over a large There are two types of cellular cofferdam–
area in order to avoid overloading the underlying soil. (i) Diaphragm cellular cofferdam
• To anchor the structure against natural forces (ii) Circular cellular cofferdam
including earthquakes, floods, droughts, frost heaves,
6. When the depth of water is from 4.5 m to 6 m,
tornadoes and wind.
the type of cofferdam used is
• To provide a level surface for construction. (a) Earthen cofferdam
• To prevent lateral movements of the supported (b) Rockfill cofferdam
structure. (c) Single-walled cofferdam
• To anchor the structure deeply into the ground, (d) None of the above
increasing its stability and preventing overloading. GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
3. Which of the following type of pile is not used Ans. (c): Single walled cofferdams– Single wall
in building foundation? cofferdams are used for small areas with a depth of
(a) End bearing piles (b) Bakelite piles water typically between 4.5 to 6 meter. Guide piles
(c) Compaction piles (d) Friction piles made of timber are driven deep into the river bed-
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 below the firm ground beneath it.
Ans. (b) : End bearing pile– It is used to transfer load Double wall cofferdams– A double wall cofferdam
through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum. consists of two straight parallel walls made of sheet
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely to hard piling that are tied together. The space between the two
strata. Multi-storeyed buildings are invariably founded walls is filled with soil.
on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are • Double wall cofferdams are used in water with a
minimized. depth upto 12 meters.
Friction pile– It is used to transfer loads to a depth of a 7. A temporary structure which is constructed so
friction load carrying material by means of skin friction as to remove water and/or soil from an area
along the length of the pile. Such piles are generally and make, it possible to carry on the
used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is construction work under reasonably dry
very great. condition is called
Compaction pile– It is used to compact loose granular (a) cofferdam (b) foundation
soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity. The (c) caisson (d) spillway
compaction piles themselves do not carry any load. Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
Construction of Substructure 51 YCT
Ans. (a) : A cofferdam is a temporary structure which is 11. The relative displacement between the floors
built to remove water from an area and make it possible above and/or below the storey under
to carry on the construction work under reasonably dry consideration is termed as
conditions. (a) soft storey (b) storey drift
Cofferdams are usually required for projects such as (c) weak storey (d) displacement
dams, locks and construction of bridge piers and PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
abutments. Ans. (b) : Storey drift as the relative displacement
8. Anchor piles are used ________. between the floors above or below the storey. The
(a) to provide anchorage against horizontal pull storey drift shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey
from sheet piling or other pulling forces height.
(b) in bulkheads or cut-offs to reduce seepage 12. When setting a foundation for a sub-structure,
and uplift in hydraulic structures what is the primary reason for allowing
(c) to transfer loads through the pile tip to a concrete to cure properly before proceeding
suitable bearing stratum, passing soft soil or with the construction of the superstructure?
water (a) To ensure that the construction workers have
ample time to prepare the scaffolding
(d) to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional
material by means of skin friction along the (b) To allow for modifications in the design of
the superstructure if necessary
surface area of the pile
(c) To achieve the necessary strength to support
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
the loads from the superstructure
Ans. (a) : Anchor pile:– It provides anchorage against (d) To allow time for the site inspection team to
horizontal pull from sheet piling or other pulling forces. their reports
The anchors provided forces for the stability of the BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of
Ans. (c) : When setting a foundation for sub-structure
the soil into which the sheet piles are driven. It does not of concrete to be cure properly because to achieve the
take any vertical load. Anchor plates and Anchor piles necessary strength to support the loads from the super
are connected to the wall by steel anchor tie. structure.
9. _________ foundation is a large continuous 13. The Rules and regulations framed by the
rectangular or circular concrete slab that government to regulate and control
carries the entire load of the superstructure construction of buildings are known as
and spreads it over the whole area beneath the (a) Area usage rules
building. (b) Building rules
(a) Shallow (c) Construction valuation code
(b) Combined (d) Building bye laws
(c) Mat CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023
(d) Strip Ans. (d) : The rules and regulations framed by the
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024 government to regulate and construction of buildings
Ans. (c) : Raft/Mat foundation is a large continuous are known as building bye law.
rectangular or circular concrete slab that carries the 14. Select the examples of shallow foundations
entire load of the superstructure and spreads it over the from the following.
whole area beneath the building. 1. Pile foundation
10. The aim of thermal insulation is to ________ 2. Strip foundation
between outside and inside of the building. 3. Raft foundation
(a) Enhance the transfer of heat 4. Pier foundation
(b) Minimize the transfer of heat (a) Only 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 4
(c) Balance the temperature (c) Only 2 (d) Only 4
(d) Retard the transfer of heat DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
(e) Answer not known Ans. (a) :
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (b) : The term thermal insulation is used to
indicate the construction or provisions by way of which
transmission of heat from or in the room is retarded.
• The aim of thermal insulation is to minimize the
transfer of heat-between outside and inside of the
building.

Construction of Substructure 52 YCT

 STONE MASONRY 3. Flint Rubble Masonry-
When sufficiently suitable large stones are not
Classification of stone masonry- available then smaller stones such as flints or
Rubble masonry- cobbles of varying width and thickness from 7.5 cm
Stone masonry in which either undressed or rough to 15cm and lengths from 15cm to 30cm are used for
dressed stone are used with a suitable mortar having masonry purpose.
wider joint. • These are hand stones obtained from irregularly
Joints are not in uniform thickness. shaped nodules of silica.
The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used.
1. Random rubble masonry-
Stones used in the work are hammer or chisel
dressed. It is the roughest and the cheapest form of
stonewalling. Since stones are not of uniform shape
and size.
Height of stone should be > breadth or length of tail.
More skill is required to make the masonry
structurally stable.
Masonry appearance is good.
Joint thickness ≯ 13 mm.

Ashlar Masonry-
A stone masonry in which finely dressed stones with
extremely fine bed and end joints are laid in cement
or lime mortar is termed as ashlar masonry.
Its have architectural importance that provide
smooth appearance.
This is used for heavy structures arches, architectural
building, high piers, bridge abutment etc.
2. Dry Rubble masonry- This types of masonry is much costly as it requires
It is cheaper than ordinary rubble masonry dressing of stones.
constructed without mortar. The height of stone varies from 25 to 30cm.
More manpower required in construction.
Useful for non-load bearing walls like compound 1. Ashlar Fine Masonry-
retaining wall, boundary wall. All stones have same size and stones are fine tooled
It is also used in pitching the earthen dam and the on all bed and side joints and the face are rendered
canal slope. perfectly.
For any stone H ≯ 30 cm
Height of stone ≮ Breadth and L > (2-3)H
Bed and side joint > 3mm.
thickness
2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-
Expose faces of stone has rough and uneven but
corners and sides are perfect dressed.
Joint thickness ≯ 6 mm.
Construction of Superstructure 53 YCT
 b. Cross joint/Vertical joint or Head joint-
Mortar joint in masonry normal to the face of the
wall.
Technical terms in masonry–
Bed -Horizontal mortar joints on which masonry
units are laid is known as bed.

3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-

Dressing and surface are same as above but edged
around the exposed faces of stone is chamfered at
450.
BRICK MASONRY
Important terminology used in masonry- Quoin-
1. Face and facing- It is the exterior angle or corner of the wall.
Outer or exposed front face of the wall is called face
and material used on face is called facing.
2. Back and Backing-
Internal or back surface of the wall is back and
material used is called backing.
3. Hearting or Filling-
It is the internal portion between face and back.
4. Spall-
Small pieces or chips of stone.
It is used in filling the interstices in stone masonry. Cornice Brick -
5. Frieze- Several shapes and size of brick when combined to
Course of stone masonry provided just below the form cornice are known as cornice bricks.
cornice.
Provided to increase the appearance of wall.
6. Template or bed block-
A stone or concrete block used under a girder or
beam to spread the concentrated load from the roof
over a large area of bearing surface.
7. Intending-
Process of leaving recesses in masonry into which
future work can be bonded.
8. Perpend-
An imaginary lines containing vertical joints in Various forms and shapes of bricks-
masonry. It is represented by 'A'.
9. Joint-
It is junction of two or more bricks/stones.

a. Horizontal or bed joints-

Thickend horizontal layer of mortar just below the
course.
Construction of Superstructure 54 YCT
 Bat- Generally its weight is one third of ordinary bricks.
Portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut Sufficiently strong for all purpose except in case of
by some fraction of its length. concentrated load.
Bat is used in flemish bond. Useful for non-load bearing walls.
Closer- Perforated Brick-
Position of bricks obtained by cutting it along Its consists 35-45% cylindrical holes on their thick
length.
surface.
King Closer-
A brick which is cut to remove half the header and
half the stretcher or the triangular pieces between
the center of one end and the center of one side.
When two walls meet at an angle king closer is used.
Queen Closer-
It is a brick cut into two parts longitudinally then
one part is known as Queen closer.
To get a proper bond it is placed next to the first
header in alternate course.
Note-King closer and Queen closer are related to Not useful for hydraulic structure.
brick masonry. It should be free from cracks and free lime.
Bull-Nosed bricks- The dimensions are 19×9×9cm and 29×9×9cm.
Used to round off sharp corners. The shapes of brick may be circular, square,
rectangular or any other shape in cross-section
Use-use in the panel of light weight structure and
multi- storeyed frame structure
. BOND-
The art applying to the overlapping of the brick in a
wall in each alternate course to bind up the whole
wall together is known as bond.
Coping Bricks- Rules for Bonding-
It is used to topmost course of parapet and its shape 1. The amount of overlap should be minimum 1/4 brick
are made like that rain water drained out from the along the length of the wall and 1/2 brick across the
top of parapet. thickness of the wall.
Throat- throw the rain water from the face of wall. 2. As for as the use of brick bat should be avoided
except under a special circumstances.
3. Length of the brick should be twice its width plus
one joint.
4. It is preferable to provide header course on both the
sides of the wall at every six course.
5. The vertical joint in the alternate course should be
along the same perpend.
6. Hearting should be carried out with headers only.

Cant, Splay or plinth brick-

Types of bond-
These are used in door and window jambs and also 1. Stretcher Bond-
in plinth. All the bricks are laid as stretcher horizontally on
There is splay may be on the header or stretcher. the faces of wall.

It is possible only for half brick walls or 10 cm thick

wall.
Hollow or Cavity Brick (IS : 2222-1979)- Ex.- Partition wall.
Solid volume of brick ≮ 1/2 of total volume. It is also known as running bond.
Advantage- Overlap is obtained by commencing each alternate
Provide insulation against heat and sound. course with a half brick bat.
Construction of Superstructure 55 YCT
2. Header Bond- Facing of the wall consist flemish bond while
backing consist English bond in each course.
(b) Double Flemish Bond-

In this types of bond bricks are laid as only header

on the face of wall.
It is mostly used for footing in foundation.
Header bond is usually used for one brick wall (20
cm) or in well lining, well foundation.
Not used for load bearing walls because of it not
contain enough strength in delivering pressure along There is same appearance in each course can be seen
the length of wall. in the front and back face of the wall.
3. English Bond-
Flemish bond is used on both faces.
This bond have better appearance than English bond.
Header and stretchers are laid in each course
alternately.
This bond have maximum used of half bat, quarter
bat and 3/4 brick bat in wall thickness.
Quoin closers are laid next to quoin headers in each
alternate course.
Other types of bond-
This bond consists alternate course of headers and Facing Bond-
stretcher. It is the strongest bond and required more Useful where facing and backing are desired to be
facing bricks than other bond. constructed with bricks of different thickness.
This is most common and popular bond that is used Dutch bond-
for wall thickness ≥ 20 cm.
A queen closer must be provided after the quoin
header.
Header course should never start with queen closer.
Continuous vertical joints should not be allowed.
Joint in a header course should be thinner than those
in stretcher course.
Stretcher should have minimum lap of 1/4th their
length over the headers in stretcher course.
It is costly and stronger than Flemish bond and used It is the modified form of English bond.
in all government works. Dutch bond consists of alternate courses of header
4. Flemish Bond- and stretchers.
Every stretcher course starts with three quarter (3/4
brick) bricks and in every alternate stretcher course
in the header is place after the three quarter bricks.
In every alternate course, a header is placed next to
the three quarter brick bat provided at the quoin.
Flemish Bond
Each course has alternate header and stretchers. HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY
Every alternate course starts with a header at the The concrete blocks are made of ordinary Portland
corner. cement and aggregate. High-density blocks are
(a) Single Flemish Bond- fabricated using cement, sand, and gravel.
The concrete blocks can be categorized in solid
concrete blocks and hollow concrete blocks. In the
solid concrete blocks, the cavity is not provided or
remains below 25% of the gross cross-sectional area.
In the hollow concrete blocks, one or more cavities
are provided and it can be up to 50% of the total
It is the combination of English and flemish bond. gross cross-sectional area.
Construction of Superstructure 56 YCT
 Stone facing with brick backing :
The wall is constructed of bricks and the stones are
provided at the face.
The advantages of the hollow concrete blocks are as
follows: The stone facing with brick backing is provided to
These are light in weight due to the cavity. So, the improve the appearance of the structure.
handling and placing of the hollow concrete blocks Stone slab facing with brick backing:
are easy. Stone slabs of 5 cm to 10 cm thickness are provided
The construction of structures with hollow concrete on the face of the wall while the wall is constructed
blocks is quick and easy. It consumes less time in of bricks.
construction.
Brick facing with concrete backing:
The buildings can be made earthquake-resistant
using hollow concrete blocks. For this purpose, In this type of composite masonry, concrete is
these blocks can be reinforced with steel bars and provided in the back for providing strength while the
concrete. bricks are used on the surface.
These blocks provide good acoustic and thermal
insulation due to the availability of the cavity. CAVITY WALL
The cavities in the hollow concrete blocks are used Cavity walls are types of walls made up of two
for the installation of electrical setup and plumbing different walls joined with the help of wall ties.
systems. In this type of wall, an outer wall is attached with
The production cost of the hollow concrete blocks is the help of ties to the inner wall separated by
slightly lesser than the bricks. These blocks consume cavity/airspace. Metal strips are used as wall ties.
less mortar as compared to bricks.
The maintenance cost of the hollow concrete blocks Wall ties are placed at the gap of 90 cm along the
is lesser. length and 45 cm in the direction of height.
There is no need for formwork like in the case of The cavity wall protects the building from external
construction of concrete members. wall moisture and rainwater and also provides space
The hollow concrete blocks are divided into A and B for the installation of thermal insulation.
grades. The cavity starts from the floor level to the roof of
If the minimum density for the A-grade hollow the building and is covered from the top to prevent
concrete blocks is 1500 kg/m3. For B-grade blocks,
the density varies. the penetration of rainwater.
The size of cavity wall varies from 4 to 10 cm.
COMPOSITE MASONRY
Composite masonry is composed of more than one
type of masonry.
The construction materials like stones, bricks, etc.
are used for improving the performance and
appearance of the structure.
Composite masonry imparts higher strength and
durability. The appearance of the structures can be
improved using composite masonry.
The optimum use of the locally available material
helps in achieving economy in construction.
Composite masonry is high in cost and requires
skilled workers due to the complexity of
construction.
Glass composite masonry is also used nowadays.
Construction of Superstructure 57 YCT
 DOORS Various Parts of Door-
An openable barrier or as a framework of wood,
steel, aluminium or combination of these material
secured in a wall opening for the purpose of
providing access to the users is known as door.
Common name of all door, window and such units
are called joinery.
Designation of Door-
Width of door × Door type × Height of door
x.DS.y Single shutter door with width of 'x'
module and height equal to 'y' module.
Where,
Width of door = x module or x×100 mm
D - Door
S - Single shutter
x.DT.y Height of door= y module or y × 100 mm
T = Double shutter Horn-
Size of Doors- Horizontal projection of the head and sill of a frame
Types of building Size of door (m) to facilitate the fixing of the frame in the wall
opening.
1. Residential building Projection length beyond post – 10 - 15 cm.
External door 1 × 2 - 1.1 × 2 Rebate-
Internal door 0.9 × 2 - 1 × 2 It is the cut or depression in door frame to fitting the
Bathroom & W.C. door 0.7 × 2 - 0.8 × 2 shutter.
2. Public building as Hospital, 1.2 × 2, 1.2 × 2.1 Rebate size in chaukhat - 12 - 20 mm
School, Library. or 1.2 × 2.25 Depth of rebate = Thickness of shutter
Rebate is cut on both side of post, if double door is
3. Door for garage 2.25 × 2.25
required.
Door should be away 20 cm from the corner. Transom-
As far as possible door should be located near the Transom is defined as the horizontal member of a
corner of room because of proper space utilization frame that is employed to horizontally sub-divided a
and privacy. window opening.
Components of door- Mullion-
Vertical intermediate member of the frame which
1. Frame or Chaukhat-
divide the door/window vertically is known as
A wooden structure made with two vertical member mullion.
known as post and one top horizontal member Post-
known as head is called door frame or chaukhat. These are vertical rectangular compression member
of frame that support the shutter of door.
Hold Fast-
It is mild steel flats bent-up in Z-shape to fix or hold
the frame into wall.
Length of hold fast - 20 cm
Cross-section - 30 mm × 6 mm
Note -
Min. Number of holdfast required on each side.
1. For door frame - 3
• If horn is available - 2
2. For window frame - 2
Sill-
It is the Bottommost horizontal parts or door of
window. Mostly sill is not provided for door. It
should be kept 70-90 cm above floor level.
• Door frame - 8 × 10cm - 10 × 12cm Reveal-
• Window frame - 8 × 8cm - 8 × 10cm The external jamb of door/window opening at right
angle to the wall face is known as reveal.
• Ventilator frame - 8 × 8 cm Dimension - 5 cm
Construction of Superstructure 58 YCT
 Jamb- Panelled Door-
This is the vertical wall face of an opening which This door consist of timber framework with styles
supports the frame. and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive
Its dimension is taken - 20 cm one or more panels.
2. Shutter or Leaf- This types of door provided in all types buildings.
Door shutter is an assembly of style, panel and rail. Bottom and lock rails are of bigger size than the top
It is the openable part of the door.
and frieze rails. Bottom rails are wider than that of
Max. thickness is taken 50 mm.
all.
Style-
Vertical outside member of shutters without any Maximum area of a single panel ≯ 0.5m2
joint is known as style.
Style width generally kept 8-10 cm.
Style which are hang on one side is called hanging
or hinged style.
Top Rail-
Top most horizontal member of shutter (width 8-10
cm)
Lock Rail-
It is middle horizontal member of shutter in which
lock is fixed (width, 20 cm)
It is fixed at the height of 75-85 cm above floor
level.
Bottom Rail-
Lowermost horizontal member of a door shutter
with width of 15-20 cm called bottom rail.
Middle or Frieze Rail-
An extra frame used between top rail and lock rails
is known as middle or frieze rail.
Panel-
For single panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 12 mm.
Area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails
is called panel. For double panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 10 mm.
Sash bar/Glazing bar-
It is a strip of wood or metal separating and holding Revolving Door-
glass panels in a window.
Types of door-
Framed Ledged and Braced door-

Elevation
It consists mullion at its centre to which four
It is similar to above two doors only different except radiating shutters are attached. It provides entrance
that the braced are introduced. on one side and exit on other simultaneously
Braced should be inclined upward from the hanging keeping the opening automatically closed when not
side. in use.
It can be used for external side because of this is • Revolving door are only provided in public building
more durable and stronger. like museum, banks, libraries etc.
Construction of Superstructure 59 YCT
 Louvered Door- Area required for window-
It permits natural ventilation when closed. It also (a) For residential building
provide privacy in the room. 1
(i) Total area with frame = × A room Floor
8
1
(ii) Total area of door and window = + A room Floor
4
1
(iii) Area of ventilators = + A room Floor
25
1
(iv) Area of window in W.C. and bathroom = + A Floor
10
(b) Hospital, school- 20% × Aroom Floor
Area of glass panel in window - 8% × Aroom Floor for
adequate natural light.
Classification of window-
A. Window on the basis of fitted in walls-
1. Casement Window- It is like as simple doors in
which shutters open like doors.
Rolling Shutter-
This door consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin
steel plate inter locked together. A horizontal shaft is
provided in the drum which helps to open or close
the shutter.
• Use for warehouse, garages, shops etc.

2. Pivoted or Revolving Window-

Shutter rotates about a pivot fixed to window frame.
Window frame have not any rebate. Shutter may
rotate horizontally or vertically.

❖ Use of Doors-
1. Revolving door Public building and AC
building 3. Bay or Projected Window-
2. Sliding door Bank, office garrage,
workshop and AC building.
3. Glazed and Residential and public
planelled door building.
4. Rolling steel shutter Garrage, Godowns, shops.
5. Swinging door Residential building.
6. Louvered door Used in toilets of public and
residential building. Types of window which are projected outward from
7. Collapsible door Workshop, sheds, warehouse. the wall of a room is known as bay window.
Its provide an increase area of opening in three
WINDOWS direction and admitting more light and ventilation.
Window is defined as an opening in the wall for the 4. Clerestory window-
purpose of providing daylight, vision and Provide near the main roof of a room and opens
ventilation. above the adjoining verandah.
Construction of Superstructure 60 YCT
 5. Louvered Window-
This types of window is provided for the purpose of
ventilation and proper outside vision but not permit
inside vision.

B. Window Provided on Roof-

1. Dormer window-
Dormer window is provided on the sloping sides of
roof. This types of window is provided to achieve 6. Lantern Window- This types of window is
proper lighting and ventilation to the enclose space provided on flat roof on a room. It is a glass
below the roof. structure that sits on top of a flat roof. They are
Dormer window projects vertically beyond the plane usually pyramid shaped to encourage light to come
of the pitched roof. through from all angles.
2. Gable Window-
The window provided on the gable end of a pitched
roof is known as gable window.

VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
3. Sky Light-
This types of window is provided on the sloping side STAIR
of pitched roof being parallel to the sloping. Introduction -
A stair is may be defined as a series of steps suitably
arranged between two or more floors of a building to
bridge a large vertical distance.
or
A part of building enclosed with series of steps,
balustrade, hand rail, landings is called stair case.
Terminology related to stair-

4. Fan Light -
Fanlight is fitted between the head of the door frame
and transom. It provides cross ventilation in the
room while the door is closed.
It is also known as transom window.

Steps-
A portion of stairway comprising the tread and riser
which permit the ascent or descent from one floor to
another.
Construction of Superstructure 61 YCT
 Stair consists a set of steps. Winder-
Tread- It is the horizontal portion of the step on Triangular or wedge shaped steps, that is used to
which foot is placed to ascent or descent. changing the direction.
Riser- Landing-
Vertical portion of step to providing support the It is a horizontal platform provided between two
steps which connects the tread is called riser. flights.
Horizontal distance between the two consecutive If, L = 2B → Half space landing
risers is known as Going, go or Run. Where,
Rise- L = Length of rectangular landing
Vertical distance between the upper surface of the B = Width of stair
successive treads is called rise. Head room or head way-
Pitch or slope- The clear vertical distance between the tread of step
The angle at which line of nosing of the stairs makes or nosing line and the ceiling of the stair case or
with the horizontal. soffit of the flight.
Pitch of stair- ≯ 400 and ≮ 250 Head room should not be less than 2.05 m.
Newel Post- Spandrill-
It is a wooden or metallic post supporting the hand A triangular framing under the outside string of an
rail and is usually provided at the top and bottom of open string stair.
a flight.
Baluster-
These are the short wooden, metal or masonry
vertical member which support the hand rail.
Balustrade-
It is the combination of hand rail, newel post and
balusters.
Stringers-
It is a sloping wooden member employed to
provides support for the steps.
Thickness - 32 - 50 mm, Depth - 25 -38 cm.
Soffit-
Inner surface of the stair is known as soffit.
Run-
Total length of stair in horizontal plane including
landing. Requirement of a good stair-
Hand Rail- Number of steps in a flight-
Moulded block of wood or metal provided to afford • Maximum - 12
assistance and safeguard to person during going on • Minimum - 3
stairs. Width of stair-
Railing height - 75 cm from nosing line.
Handrail supports the balustrade and run parallel to
• For public building - 1.5 - 1.8 m
the slope of stair. • For residential building - 90 cm
Flight- Width of landing ≮ width of stair.
Continuous series of steps in one direction without Minimum head room ≮ 2.10 m
any plateform separated by horizontal plateform or Fixing the tread and Rise-
binders. Tread + Rise 40 - 45 cm
Nosing- Tread + 2 × Rise 60 cm
It is the outer front projecting edge of the tread. Tread × Rise 375 - 450
Usually it is rounded in shape that provide good Tread + 2 × Rise 55 - 65 cm
architectural effect to the tread. Standard size of-
Line of nosing joint the ends of nosing of all treads 1. Rise - 15 cm
in a flight. 2. Tread - 30 cm
Scotia- ❖ For residential building-
Molding provided under nosing to beautified the
elevation of steps. • Size of step 25 cm × 16 cm
Scotia block is wooden triangular block used below • Without nosing min. 25 cm
the nosing to given it additional strength. width of tread
• For public buildings 27 cm × 15 cm to
Fliers- 30 cm × 13 cm
A straight step having a parallel and equal width of size of step
• Width of tread for cinema hall 25-30 cm
tread or it is a rectangular steps of uniform shape
• Area of stair case ≯ 12 m2
and size.
Construction of Superstructure 62 YCT
 Tread and Rise Calculation- Use of various stairs-
Ceiling height of Room Residential building Dog-legged, straight flight
Riser height =
No. of risers Public building Open -well, bifurcated
Number of tread To give better Geometrical stair.
Length available − Landing width appearance
=
Tread depth
LIFTS
A lift (or elevator) is a form of vertical
transportation between building floors, levels or
decks, commonly used in offices, public building
and other types of multi-storey building.
• The main components of lifts are following :
No. of Tread
= No. of Riser - 1 (in case of straight staircase) The lift can moving on guide rails.
No. of tread Suspension ropes (steel wire rope with FOS 12 to
= No. of Riser - 2 (in case of one landing and two 20).
flight) Counter weight on pulley to balance the car with 40
Classification of stairs- to 50% of maximum live load.
1. Straight Flight Stair- The passenger capacity of a lift is usually rated
Provided where place is long and narrow and assuming the weight of a person as 68 kg.
possibility of any other form of stair may not be
practically possible.
In case of steep ascending straight flight can be
broken with intermediate landing.

2. Dog-legged stair-
It is a common type of stair case in which two • Structural components of lifts :
consecutive right angle (2×900 or 1800) changes at A lift well of suitable size, usually extending up to
mid landing slab level. 1600 to 2600 mm, below the bottom landing.
It is also known as half turn or U-turn stair. Opening of height of 2 m for entry of people at
No space is provided between two flights. every floor level.
Useful, where width of staircase hall = 2 × width of
landing. ESCALATORS
It A power-driven inclined continuous stair way
used for raising or lowering passengers known as
Escalators.
It is suitable where movement of large number of
people at a controlled rate in a minimum available
space is involved.
The escalators are provided in hospitals, shopping
malls, business areas, and any place where users are
large in number.

SCAFFOLDING
A scaffolding is a temporary structure to support
original structure as well as workmen, material etc.
It is a platform to carry the construction work.
Construction of Superstructure 63 YCT
 Important members used in scaffolding- It is also called as independent scaffolding

1. Standards -
Vertical tube held suitable distance from the wall
that transfer the load to the ground.
2. Ledgers - Mason's Scaffolding
Horizontal member parallel to the wall connected 3. Suspended scaffolding-
between standards. There is no use of standards, bracing etc.
It decide the height of working platform. These scaffolding are suspended using ropes or
3. Putlog - chain from a strong overhead structures.
They are at right angles to the wall. It is free from touch of ground.
These are horizontal member parallel to wall which Used for painting and repairing work.
is placed one end on wall holes and other is SHORING
connected on standards or kept over ledger.
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure
4. Transom or Bearer -
to support an unsafe structure.
It is used to Supports standards and placed at right
It is used in case of wall cracks, bulge out of wall,
angle to the ledgers.
openings are to be newly made, timbering of the
Bay width may defined by transom. trench etc.
5. Diagonal Braces - Used to change the room dimension.
To increase the strength of basic structure to carry
more loads. Types of shoring-
6. Boards - 1. Inclined or Raking Shore-
It is temporary working platform made of steel or This is a system of giving temporary support to an
wooden boards to kept material and for standing unsafe wall. In this method, inclined members
workmen. known as rakers used to give lateral supports to wall.
It is supported over putlog. Inclination of rakers 450 - 750.
7. Volt - Angle between top shore and platform- 87 to 89
Used to bind the all parts of the scaffold to withstand C/C distance b/w rakers along the wall length 3-4.6
load and make a framed structure. m.
Inclined rakers are suitable for 5 m height of wall.
Types of scaffolding-
1. Single/Brick layer or putlog scaffold -
This cheap and common types of scaffolding widely
used for brick masonry.
One end of scaffold is supported on wall while other
is on standards so it is called single scaffold.
C/C distance b/w standards - 2.4 - 3.0 m and from
wall - 1.2m.
Vertically C/C distance b/w ledgers- 1.2 - 1.5m
C/C distance b/w putlog - 1.20-1.5m
2. Mason or Double Scaffold -
If there is difficult to leave whole in stone wall to
support the putlog mason's or double scaffolding is
provided. In its two frame of standards, ledgers and
braces used. One is placed near the wall and other is
1.5 m apart the first.
Two rows of standards are provided in this system. 2. Flying Shoring or Horizontal Shoring-
It is totally free from masonry wall. Flying shores is a system of providing temporary
It is generally used for stone masonry supports to the partition wall of the two building.
Construction of Superstructure 64 YCT
 Centre line of flying shore and strut and those of the Questions Asked in Previous Years
wall should meet at floor level of the two buildings.
Strut inclination - 450 1. Identify the stair element pointed by the arrow
Single flying shore is suitable for 8-10 m distance.

(a) Handrail (b) Wooden Rail

(c) Baluster (d) Naval Post
Andaman PWD Arch. Asst. 18/02/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : Important terminology about stair–

3. Dead or vertical shoring-

Vertical shore is used to render vertical support to
floors, wall and roofs etc.
Dead shore erected to increase the size of opening in
an existing wall.

Soffit – The underside of a structural component, such

as a beam, arch, staircase.
Headroom– It is the height above the nosing of a tread
to the ceiling above it. The minimum height of a head
room in stair case is 2.1 m.
Pitch – The angle of inclination of the stairs with the
floor is known as a pitch. It also indicates the angle
which the line of noising makes with the horizontal.
Winders– It steps that are narrower on one side than the
other they are used to change the direction of the stair
without landing. A series of winders form a circular or
spiral stairway.
Tread– Horizontal portion of step in stair case is known
as tread.
Riser - It is the vertical portion of a step providing a
support to the tread.
Landing – The width of the landing should not be less
Purpose- than the width of the stair, landing is the horizontal
• Opening in the wall to be made. platform provided at the top of a flight.
• To rebuilt the defective lower part of the wall. Stairwell–The space/void provided for the stairs.
Scotia/cornice–The piece running between the wall and
• To replace or deepen the existing foundation which
ceiling at the top of the wall is called a scotia.
have either becomes unsafe or required Nosing–the edge of the tread projecting beyond the face
strengthening for carrying heavier loads. of the riser and the face of a cut string.
A buttress in a wall is intended to provide lateral Flight– The length of staircase situated between two
support to wall. landings is called flight.
Construction of Superstructure 65 YCT
Baluster–It is a safety member of stair which is made 6. To provide light to the inner portion of the
of wood or metal to support the handrail. building where light coming from the windows
Newel post– This is a vertical member supporting the in the external walls is insufficient, which type
handrail at the end of the flights connected to string. of windows are fixed on flat roofs?
Run– The total length of stair in a horizontal plane is (a) Clerestory windows (b) Lanterns
known as the run and it in includes the lengths of (c) Dormer windows (d) Skylights
landings. PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
2. ______ are used for cutting and shaping the Ans. (b) : Lantern Light– It is an open work timber
wood. construction placed on top of a building to admit light
(a) Chisels (b) Auger bit and allow smoke to escape.
(c) Gimlet (d) Mallet
MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (a) : Chisels–The chisels which are used to cutting
and shaping the wood.
Gimlet–The gimlet is hand operated tool and used to
bore small holes, such as for starting a screw or large
nail.
Mallet–It is generally made of wood or plastic it is used
whenever slight blows are required. Wooden hammer
(mallet) is most commonly used because it does not
damages the work surface. Dormer windows– A dormer window is vertical
3. When should holdfasts for doors and windows window provided on the sloping roof, such a window
be embedded in brick masonry construction? provides ventilation and lighting to the enclosed space
(a) After the wall construction is completed below the roof, and at the same time, very much
(b) Before the wall construction starts improve the appearance of the building.
(c) During the wall construction
(d) None of the above
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (c) : Holdfasts for doors and windows should be
embedded in brick masonry with cement mortar or
concrete. It the time of constructing the wall itself.
4. Which of the following type of HVAC uses
tubes instead of larger ducts to move air into a
room from an outdoor compressor and Sky window: It is a window provided on a sloping roof
condenser? to admit light.
(a) Split system
(b) Hybrid Heat pump system
(c) Ducted Mini-Split system
(d) Ductless Mini-Split system
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
Ans. (c) : A ducted mini-split system uses tubes instead
of larger ducts to move air into a room from an outdoor 7. The window which is provided on a sloping
compressor and condenser. roof of a building is called
• This solution is best for homes where there isn't a lot (a) Louvered Window (b) Lantern Window
of room for traditional duct works. (c) Dormer Window (d) Corner Window
• Compared to ductless mini-split systems, ductile mini- PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
splits have the advantage of better air circulation. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
5. Types of flushed doors are 8. ................ is a glass/timber piece attached in
(a) Solid core or laminated core inclined position within a window/ventilator
(b) Hollow and cellular core frame.
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Rebate (b) Architrave
(d) None of the above (c) Louver (d) Sill
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (c) : Flush door– Two types of flush doors are Ans. (c) : Louvered window– These are provided for
available. A door with an outer frame with plywood
the sole function of ventilation and not for the vision
sheets covering on the front and backsides is called, a
hollow core flush door. Instead of keeping the inner outside..
portion empty; it may be filled with an inferior variety • The louvers are usually fixed act 450 inclination
of wooden planks. This type of door is called a solid sloping downward to the outside to run-off the rain
core flush door. water.

Construction of Superstructure 66 YCT

9. The horizontal projections at head and sill of a Generally adopted sizes of door for various types of
door frame which are embedded into the side buildings–
walls for fixing the frame are known as • External door – (1.0m × 2m) to (1.1m to 2m)
(a) horns (b) holdfasts • Internal door – (0.9m × 2m) to (1m to 2m)
(c) jambs (d) rebates • Bathrooms and WC –(0.7m × 2m) to (0.8m to 2m)
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18.11.2022 Shift-II
• Public building– (1.2m×2.1m) to (1.2m to 2. 5m)
Ans. (a) : Horns–The horizontal projection at the head
of a door frame which are embedded into the side walls 12. Staircase with a central post with radiating
for fixing the frame on wall opening, the length of steps that spiral upwards to the floor above is
horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm, which is embedded ................... stairs.
into the side wall. (a) Winder (b) Curved
Jamb– This is the vertical wall face of an opening (c) Spiral (d) Closed
which supports the frame. ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Rebates– It is depression or recess made inside the Ans. (c) : Spiral staircase– Spiral staircase have a
door frame, to receive the door shutter. central post with radiating steps that spiral upwards to
Holdfasts – The horizontal length of holdfast is kept the floor above, typically through a hole cut into the
about 20 cm is embedded in the masonry. These are floor level.
mild steel flats (section 30 mm × 6 mm), generally 13. The minimum slope for a stairs is ...............
bent-up into z-shape, to fix or hold the frame to the (a) 30º (b) 26º
opening. (c) 28º (d) 24º
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (b) : The minimum slope for a stairs is 260.
14. Minimum width of staircase for a single family
residential house is ............. cm.
(a) 180 (b) 60
(c) 90 (d) 75
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (d) :
• Minimum width of staircase for a single family
residential house is 75 cm.
• The maximum slope for a staircase is 37o.
15. Which of the following components of a
staircase is defined as an unbroken series of
steps between landings?
(a) Waist (b) Landing
(c) Winders (d) Flights
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans (d) : Flight– This is an unbroken series of steps
between landing.
10. ............. are the vertical sides of an opening for Landing– It is a level platform at the top or bottom of a
doors and windows. flight between the floors.
(a) Jambs (b) Sill
(c) Lintel (d) Reveals 16. What is the minimum required width of stair
for residential building?
ISRO Technical Asst. 03/11/2022
(a) 1000 mm (b) 700 mm
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (c) 800 mm (d) 650 mm
11. Common criteria for the size of Door used in UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023
India is :
Ans. (a) : Minimum width of provision for
(a) Width = 0.4 to 0.6 x Height
staircase-
(b) Height = 0.8 to 1.0 x width
(c) Height = 0.4 to 0.6 x width a. i - residential low risk building 0.9 m
(d) Width = 0.8 to 1.0 x Height ii - Other residential building flats, 1.25 m
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-III hostels, group housing
Ans. (a) : As per rule the height of a door should not be b. Assembly buildigs like, 2.0 m
less than 1.8 to 2m. audotorium theatres and cinemas
Width = 0.4 to 0.6 height c. All othe buildings included hotels. 1.5 m
Height = (width + 1.2) meter. d. Institutional building like hospitals 2.0 m
• Height of door in domestic building usually taken as e. Educational buildings like school 1.5 m
2.10 m. college
Construction of Superstructure 67 YCT
17. The minimum width of a staircase in an • Escalators are moving stairs provided for continuous
educational building shall be _____. operation and to move large number of people/goods
(a) 1.5 m (b) 1.0 m from floor to floor.
(c) 3.0 m (d) 2.0 m 22. What is the term used to describe the height of
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II one step of a staircase?
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (a) Pitch (b) Run
18. If a staircase has 'N' number of risers, the (c) Rise (d) Tread
number of treads would be equal to : PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
(a) N + 1 (b) N – 1 Ans. (c) : Riser - It is the vertical portion of a step
(c) N + 3 (d) N – 3 providing a support to the tread.
UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023 Pitch – The angle of inclination of the stairs with the
Ans. (b) : Tread– It is an upper horizontal portion of a floor is known as a pitch. It also indicates the angle
step upon which the foot is placed while ascending or which the line of nursing makes with the horizontal.
de-secending.
Flight– This is an unbroken series of steps between
landing.
Number of tread = rise– 1
19. Identify the correct technical term for the given
description, related to stairs.
"An additional finish or moulding provided to
the nosing or treated to beautify the elevation
of the step and to provide strength to the
nosing."
(a) Winder (b) Flier
(c) Waist (d) Scotia
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 23. Horizontally Wedge-shaped Treads in
Ans. (d) : Scotia– An additional finish or moulding Stairways are termed as
provided to the nosing or treated to beautify the (a) Stringers (b) Winders
elevation of the step and to provide strength to the (c) Scotia (d) Newel
nosing. Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
Winder– These are the tapered treads, provided at the Ans. (b) : Winders– triangular as horizontally wedge
turnings of the landing space to reduce the number of shaped steps, used for changing the direction are called
steps required in the other straight portions of the stairs winders.
and thus economize the length required for the staircase. Flies– Rectangular steps of uniform shape and size are
20. Treads and riser in staircase is respectively: called fliers.
(a) 150mm and 300mm • Winders allow a turn by 900 (Single winder), 1800
(b) 300mm and 150mm (double winder).
(c) 150mm and 150mm 24. The horizontal platform that is used for connecting
(d) 300mm and 300 mm two flights of a staircase is called_______.
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 (a) Connector (b) landing
Ans. (b) : Speciation of staircase– (c) thread (d) stringer
2 × Riser + Tread = 530 – 630 mm SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Maximum height of riser = 150 mm to 200 mm Ans. (b) : Stair related terminology–
Minimum tread length = 250 mm – 300 mm Landing–It is an intermediate floor or platform
• Rise + Tread = 400 – 450 mm. between flights of stairs. Landings permit directional
• Riser × Tread = 40000 – 45000 mm2 changes in the staircase.
• Number of riser = Number of treads + 1 • It is also defined as the horizontal platform that is used
21. ______ are moving stairs provided for to connecting two flights of a staircase.
continuous operation and to move large Riser–Vertical component of a step is known as riser.
number of people/goods from floor to floor.
(a) Spiral staircase (b) Escalators Tread–It is an horizontal component of staircase or the
(c) Life (d) Dog-legged stair step, the part you step on.
TSPSC Architecture Engg.05/09/2023 Shift-II Stringer–It is an structural component that supports the
treads and risers.
Ans. (b) Escalators are power driven, inclined,
continuous stairways used for transporting passengers in 25. In a staircase, the horizontal projection
large departmental stores, airports, exhibition halls etc. distance between the first and the last riser or
They transport person between two levels with speeds an inclined flight is called :
not more than 38 meters per minute and its capacity (a) waist (b) tread
may vary from 3200 to 6400 passengers per hour (c) going (d) nosing
depending on the width of the escalator. PPSC Building Inspector 27/11/2022
Construction of Superstructure 68 YCT
 Ans. (c) : Going– It is the horizontal projection 30. The width of landing in a staircase should not
between the first and the last riser of an inclined flight. be less than
Tread– The horizontal top portion of a steep where foot (a) 1.0 m (b) 1.2 m
rest is known as tread. The dimension range from 270 (c) 0.9 (d) Stair width
mm for residential buildings and factories to 300 mm Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
for public buildings where large number of persons use Ans. (d) : Minimum dimension of steps–
the staircase. (1) No stair in residential building shall have a rise of
Nosing– In some cases the tread is projected outward to more than 20 cm and tread of less than 25 cm.
increase the space. This projection is designated as nosing. (2) No stair in a commercial, public or industrial
Waist– The thickness of the waist slab on which step buildings shall have a rise of more than 18 cm and a
are made is known as waist. The depth of the waist is tread of less than 27 cm.
the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the (3) The width of landing should not be less than the
staircase. width of stair.
Baluster–It is a safety member of stair which is made 31. Sum of tread and rise must lie between
of wood or metal to support the handrail. (a) 300 mm to 350 mm
Landing – The width of the landing should not be less (b) 400 mm to 450 mm
than the width of the stair, landing is the horizontal (c) 500 mm to 550 mm
platform provided at the top of a flight.
(d) 600 mm to 650 mm
26. The upper horizontal portion of a step upon TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
which the foot is placed while ascending or
Ans. (b) : As per thumb rule, Design property of stair–
descending is called as :
(a) Riser (b) Landing • Rise + Tread = 400 – 450 mm.
(c) Tread (d) Baluster • Riser × Tread = 40000–45000 mm2
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 • Number of riser = Number of tread + 1
Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation. • (2 × riser in mm) + (tread in mm) = 600 mm
Take riser = 150 mm and tread = 300 mm as standard
27. The protecting part of the tread beyond the
face of Riser is known as a __________. In the case of flight the number of treads = No. of riser –1.
(a) Nosing (b) Pitch 32. Which of the following factors do NOT affect
(c) Riser (d) Rise the design of escalatory system?
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 (a) Location
(b) Carrying capacity
Ans. (a) : See the above Explanation.
(c) Traffic patterns
28. Nosing is the outer projection edge of a (d) Colour of the building
(a) riser (b) tread SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
(c) baluster (d) landing
Ans. (d) : Escalators–These stairs are also known as
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
moving stairs or even moving flights. By a revolving
Ans. (b) : See the above Explanation. drum, the escalator is kept in motion. A few steps at top
29. In which of the following staircase and bottom are kept level through moving individually.
classifications is the stair slab supported A person has to occupy a step of the escalator for the
parallel to the riser at two or more locations, upward or downward motion.
causing the slab to bend longitudinally between The main factor which affects the design is the floor of
the supports? floor height. The stair way should be kept independent
(a) Slab cantilevered from a spandrel beam or by providing a structural framework around the stair
wall well. The structural frame is designed to take care of the
(b) Stair slab spanning longitudinally load of floor, hand rail etc.
(c) Slab supported between two stringer beams or 33. As per IS-875., for stair in residential building
walls office building, hospitals, etc., where is no
(d) Slab doubly cantilevered from a central spine possibility of overcrowding, the live load taken
beam as________ .
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (a) 6000 N/m2 (b) 3000 N/m2
Ans. (b) : Structural system of stair slab– (c) 5000 N/m 2
(d) 2000 N/m2
1. Stair slab spanning horizontally SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally
Ans. (b) : As per IS 875 Part 2, Clause 3.1.9 imposed
Stair slab spanning longitudinally- In this case, the
supports to the stair slab are provided parallel to the floor load for residential building are:
riser at two or more locations, causing the slab to bend Residential buildings UDL (kN/m2)
longitudinally between the supports it may be noted that 1. All rooms and kitchens 2.0
longitudinal bending can occur in configuration other 2. Toilet and bathrooms 2.0
than the straight stair configuration such as quarter-turn 3. Corridors, passages, staircases 3.0
stairs, dog-legged stairs, open well stairs and including tire escapes and store rooms
helicoidally stairs. 4. Balconies 3.0
Construction of Superstructure 69 YCT
34. ............... is the light weight scaffolding used for 37. Longitudinal horizontal members parallel to
repair works. the wall used in scaffolding is called as :
(a) Cantilever scaffolding (a) Planks (b) Standards
(b) Mason's scaffolding (c) Stringers (d) Putlogs
(c) Steel scaffolding DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-II
(d) Trestle scaffolding Ans. (c) : Stringer– Longitudinal horizontal members
TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022 parallel to the wall used in scaffolding is called as
Ans. (d) Trestle scaffolding– Generally used inside of stringer.
building for repairs and maintenance works. It is the Putlogs– These are horizontal members which are
light weight scaffolding used for repair works. perpendicular to the walls. One end of the putlog is
Cantilever scaffolding– Used when ground does not supported by the wall and the other by the ledger.
have capacity to supports standards, ground near the wall
needs to be free from traffic or upper part of construction. Standards– The vertical members of the framework are
Mason scaffolding– It is difficult to leave wholes in the called standers.
stone masonry to provide a bearing for the putlogs in 38. Jacketing is used for _______.
mason's scaffolding two frames of standards at a (a) Waterproofing of slab
distance of 1.5 m from the first one. Thus mason's (b) Strengthening the structural members
scaffolding is entirely independent of the stone wall. (c) Increasing bearing capacity of soil
35. What will be the suitable type of shoring which (d) Removing dampness
is having a maximum distance of about 9 m Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021
between the end-to-end parallel walls? Ans. (b) : Jacketing is a techniques used to increase the
(a) Vertical shore (b) Dead shore strength of existing structural member or strengthening
(c) Flying shore (d) Raking shore the structural members.
DSSSB JE Tier-I 28/06/2022 Shift-I 39. The depression or recess made in the door
Ans. (c) Type of shoring– There are three types of frame, to receive the door shutter is called as :
shoring, depending upon their supporting (a) Rebate (b) Hold fast
characteristics:
(c) Jamb (d) Reveal
(i) Raking shore or inclined shores
(ii) Dead or vertical shores ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
(iii) Flying or horizontal shores– Ans. (a) : Rebate– It is the depression or recess made
• When in a series of building one of the intermediate inside the door frame to receive the door shutter.
buildings is to be pulled down due to some reasons Transom– It is a horizontal member of a frame which
or the other, flying or horizontal shores are used. is employed to sub-divide a window opening
• The flying shores are generally not recommended horizontally.
when the distance between the wall is more than 9 m. 40. ............ window projecting beyond the walls of
36. According to IS : 10440(1983), the formwork room to provide additional space for light, air
for the RB and RBC floor or roof shall NOT be and for architectural purposes.
removed before _____ after laying. (a) Bay (b) Gable
(a) 28 (b) 7 (c) Casement (d) Clerestorey
(c) 14 (d) 21 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 Ans. (a) : bay windows are projects windows from wall
Ans. (c) : As Per IS 10440 : 1983, Clause 7.6 The which are provided to increases the area of opening.
formwork for the RB and RBC floor or roof shall not Which enables more ventilation and light from outside.
removed before 14 days after laying.
41. .......... doors are generally provided in interior
• As per IS 465 : 2000 Clause 11.3 minimum period wall openings or in hospitals, colleges etc. :
of formwork for various part.
(a) Louvered (b) Glazed
Minimum period (c) Flush (d) Wire Gauged
Types of formwork
of formwork
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Vertical formwork to columns, 16-24 hr
beams and walls Ans (b) : Glazed door or sash door– This type of door
Soffit formwork to slabs 3 days is used in residential as well as in public building like
(props to be refixed after hospitals, schools colleges, etc. It is provided where
removal of formwork) natural light is required to be admitted through the door,
Soffit formwork to beams 7 days or where the visibility of the interior of one room is
(props to be refixed immediately required from the adjacent one these doors do not
after of formwork) provide any security and also do not keep up the privacy
of the room.
Props to slabs
• It is type of casement window, but in this case panels
• Spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days are fully glazed.
• Spanning over 4.5 14 days
42. .......... is type of casement window, but in this
Props to beams case panels are fully glazed.
• Spanning upto 6 m 14 days (a) Metal windows
• Spanning over 6 m 21 days (b) Sash windows
Construction of Superstructure 70 YCT
 (c) Double hung windows
(d) Louvered windows
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans (b) : See the above explanation.
43. ............ windows consist of pair of shutters
attached to one frame.
(a) Double hung (b) Casement
(c) Louvered (d) Metal
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans (a) : Double hung window– This window has a
pair of shutters one above the other which can slide
within the grooves in the frame two metallic weights are
connected to each shutter by a cord or chain passing
over pulleys.
44. ____is the exposed vertical surface left on the
sides of an opening after the door or window
frame has been fitted in position.
(a) Jamb (b) Corbel 48. Minimum width of toilet door:
(c) Soffit (d) Reveal (a) 900 mm (b) 850 mm
UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023 (c) 750 mm (d) 915 mm
Ans. (d) : Reveals– There are the exposed vertical Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door or Ans. (c) : Standard size of interior doors–
window frame has been fitted in position. Door Size (mm)
Corbet– A corbet is a projecting stone which is usually Toilet door 750 to 762 mm × 2032 mm
provided to serve as support for joist, truss, weather Bathroom door 762 mm × 2032 mm
shed etc. Kitchen door 914 mm × 2032 mm
Jamb– The vertical sides of a finished opening of door, Main door 1067 mm × 2134 mm
window or fire place etc are termed as jambs.
49. The vertical member in the middle of the
45. Which of the following type of door commonly window frame which subdivides the window is
used in buildings? called :
(a) Flush door (b) Collapsible door (a) Mullion (b) Rebate
(c) Composite door (d) Rotating door (c) holdfast (d) Transom
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (a) : Flush door– The shutter of flushed doors are Ans. (a) : Technical terms of window/door–
made of plywood or block boards of uniform thickness. Mullion– Mullion is a vertical member which is
The shutters are available in various veneer finishes. employed to sub-divide a window or door opening
These doors are suitable for interior portions only, as vertically.
they are not resistant to moisture. These days, flushed Transom– It is horizontal member that is employed to
doors are commonly used in residential and office sub-divide a window opening horizontally.
buildings. Rebate– It is a recess in a door jamb that is provided as
46. In ........... doors, a solid or semi-solid or core a stop for the screen door.
portion is covered on both sides with plywood Hold fast– A member which project from the body of
or face veneer. door or window frame which holds the window or door
(a) Louvered (b) Sliding frame in walls.
(c) Glazed (d) Flush
50. ______ is the recommended size of door (in
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
mm) for public building like hospital, library.
Ans (d) : See the above explanation. (a) 900 × 1000 (b) 400 × 500
47. In____the glass panel or the glazed shutter is (c) 2200 × 2400 (d) 1200 × 2100
permanently fixed in the opening in the wall MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
(a) Casement window (b) Fixed window
Ans. (d) : Size of doors
(c) Pivoted window (d) Sliding window
Types of buildings Size of the door (in
GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
mm)
Ans. (b) : Fixed window–
1. The door of the
• In this windows the glazed shutter is permanently residential building
fixed in the windows.
(a) External door 1000 × 2000
• It is used when light and vision is only needed in the
room. (b) Internal door 900 × 2000
• No ventilation is possible through such windows. (c) Poor for bath or WC 800 × 2000

Construction of Superstructure 71 YCT

 2. Doors of public 55. Which of the following components of
buildings such as scaffolding are known as uprights?
(a) Schools, 1200 × 2000 (a) Couplers (b) Standards
(b) Hospital 1200 × 2100 (c) Ledgers (d) Transoms
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(c) Library 1200 × 2250
Ans (b) : Scaffolds are temporary structures that allow
3. Doors of garage 2250 × 2250 people to work at heights.
51. The frame work for door and windows is fixed • Upright, support and standard the vertical
to masonry wall providing horns of length. components of scaffolds.
(a) 12 cm (b) 15 cm
• The vertical parts are usually called the uprights,
(c) 20 cm (d) 10 cm supports or standards, if the upright rests on the
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I ground it is fitted with base plate.
Ans. (b) : Horn– It is a horizontal projection at the top
56. In the context of shoring, .......... is a system of
and bottom member of the frame to enable the fixing of
the frame in the wall opening. providing temporary support to the party walls
of two buildings where the intermediate
Length of the horn in door is kept between 10 to 15 cm
building is to be pulled down and rebuilt.
(generally 15 cm).
Holdfast– It is used to hold the frame in position. It is (a) flying shoring (b) needle shoring
fixed at one end of the frame and other end is inserted in (c) raking shoring (d) dead shoring
the wall. MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-III
• Horizontal length of hold fast = 20 cm. Ans. (a) : Flying shoring–Flying shores are also
• Generally minimum 3 holdfast on each side of the known as horizontal shores. These shores do not rest on
door are recommended. ground. Flying shores are used to provide lateral
support temporarily to the parallel walls of two
52. The vertical member used in the door frame is
called- buildings which have become unsafe due to the removal
(a) Lock Rail (b) Bottom Rail or collapse of the intermediate building.
(c) Hold Fast (d) Post
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (d) : The vertical member used in the door frame
is called post.
A door frame consists of two vertical members called
jambs and post
53. The type of door commonly used for garages
and godowns is
(a) Rolling shutter door (b) Swing door
(c) Revolving door (d) Flush door
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
Ans. (a) Rolling shutter door– A rolling shutter door
consists of a frame, a drum and shutter made of steel
plates. The width of the door may be 2-3m. The shutter,
which moves on steel guides provided on the sides can
easily roll up. For this, counterbalancing is done with
helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be pulled
down easily. This type of door used for additional safety
in shops, godown, office, bank and factories.
54. 'Putlogs' is one of the parts of scaffolding which
is described as :
(a) members used to bridge opening
(b) planks on which workmen stand
(c) horizontal members normal to the wall
(d) horizontal members parallel to the wall
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (c) : Putlogs– These are horizontal members which
are perpendicular to the walls. One end of the putlog is 57. A temporary structure, constructed to support
supported by the wall and the other by the ledger. an ancient structure, is called:
Standards– The vertical members of the framework are (a) Scaffolding (b) Jacking
called standard. (c) Shoring (d) Bracing
Braces– Diagonal members fixed on standards are RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
called braces. Ans. (c) : Shoring– The process of construction of
Ledgers– These are horizontal members which are temporary structure to support unsafe structure
parallel to the wall. temporarily. Shoring can be used when wall buldge out
Construction of Superstructure 72 YCT
or when walls crack due to unequal settlement of the Ans. (d) : Removal of centering– when the arch has
foundation. developed sufficient strength the centering can be
Jacking– It is a term used to described the application removed. No load should be placed on the arch unless
of force with the aim of pushing or lifting an object. the centering has been removed. For small spans, the
Scaffolding– Temporary elevated suspended work removal of centering is done by loosening the folding
surface used to support workers/materials. wedges.
Bracing– serves to stablize main girders during
construction. 62. The process of providing a new foundation
under an existing foundation is known as
58. __________ type of scaffolding is used when the
(a) Shoring (b) Underpinning
proper hard ground is not available for the
standards to rest. (c) Scaffolding (d) Raking
(a) Trestle scaffolding KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
(b) Cantilever scaffolding Ans. (b) : Underpinning– Underpinning is the process
(c) Steel scaffolding of strengthening the foundation of an existing structure
(d) Bricklayers scaffolding in different cases such as repairing, renewal, change soil
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 properties etc.
Ans. (b) : Cantilever or Needle scaffolding– Formwork– It is a temporary structure that is used to
Cantilever or Needle scaffolding the general formwork support wet concrete until it becomes hard.
may be of single or double type of scaffolding. Scaffolding– It is generally used for the temporary
This type of scaffolding is useful under the following structure used to support the concrete formwork or more
conditions. popularly for supporting the workman during the
(i) In situations where it has to be provided on a busy construction work.
street so as not to disturb the traffic. Shoring– Shoring is the construction of temporary
(ii) In situations where it is difficult to fix the standards structure required to support an unsafe building or
on the ground. existing structure.
(iii) In construction of tall buildings. 63. The underpinning is the process of :
59. A temporary rigid structure which is used by (a) strengthening the roof of building
masons to work at different stages of building, (b) strengthening the beams
is called: (c) Strengthening an existing foundation
(a) Scaffolding (b) Shoring (d) plastering the walls
(c) Dead shore (d) Underpinning ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 Ans. (c) : See the above expiation.
Ans. (a) : Scaffolding– It is a safe working platform 64. ............. of formwork should be carried out only
provided for the workers working at an elevation greater after the time when concrete has gained
than 1.5 m, and also the have limited space for storage strength, at least twice the stress to which the
of building materials. It is a temporary rigid structures
concrete may be subjected to when the
made of steel or bamboo.
formworks are removed.
Underpinning– It is placing of the new foundation
(a) Clipping (b) Stripping
below ground level process of strengthening the
existing foundation. (c) Strapping (d) Clamping
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
60. The loads considered for design of formwork
are ............ Ans. (b) Stripping time– Forms shall not be removed
(a) Live load due to labour untill the concrete has achieved a strength of at least
(b) Dead weight of wet concrete twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected
(c) Impact due to pouring concrete at the time of removal of formwork. The strength
(d) All the above referred to shall be that of concrete using the same
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 cement and aggregates and admixture, if any with the
same proportion and cured under conditions of
Ans. (d) : Formwork loads– Two types of gravity
temperature and moisture similar to those existing on
loads are considered in the design calculations, dead
the work.
loads and live loads, the weight of the form work and
the plastic concrete are considered dead loads, while 65. Chips of stones used to fill up the empty spaces
workers and equipment are considered as live load. in the stone masonry are known as
61. How is the removal of centering done for small (a) Spalls (b) Cornices
spans? (c) Quoins (d) Corbels
(a) Lowering the props gradually GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26/09/2021
(b) Using folding wedges Ans. (a) : Spall– Chips of stones used to fill up the
(c) Securing bottom of the prop in a sand box empty spaces in the stone masonry.
(d) Loosening the wedges slightly Corbel– A projection putting out from a wall to support
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 a structure above it.
Construction of Superstructure 73 YCT
 Cornice– It is a horizontal mounded projection stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are
provided near the top of a building. laid in cement or lime mortar.
Quoins : The exterior angle or corner of a wall is 2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-Expose faces of
known as quoin. The stones or bricks forming the stone has rough and uneven but corners and sides
quoins are known as stone quoins or quoins bricks. are perfect dressed.
66. Perpend 3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-Dressing and
(a) is the vertical joint separating the bricks in surface are same as above but edged around the
either length or cross direction exposed faces of stone is chamfered at 450.
(b) is the horizontal distance between the vertical 4. Ashlars Block-in- Course Masonry- This type of
joints in successive courses masonry is used in heavy structures such as
(c) is the horizontal layer of mortar upon which retaining walls, abutments, and piers of bridges
the bricks are laid which carry heavy loads. The depths of the courses
(d) is the edge formed by the intersection of may vary from 15cm to 25 cm.
plane surface of bricks 5. Ashlars Rock or Quarry- faced Masonry- The
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26/09/2021 exposed face at the stone are not dressed to give and
Ans. (a) : Perpend– It is a vertical joint on the face of original appearance of the natural rock surface.The
a wall directly over vertical joints in alternate course. thickness at the course generally vary between
15cm to 25 cm.
69. The uncoursed square rubble, masonry also
sometimes called as
(a) Random rubble masonry
(b) Square snecked rubble masonry
(c) Poly walling
(d) Flint square walling
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
67. ______ is a projecting stone which is provided Ans. (b) : Square rubble- uncoursed or square-
to serve as support for a roof truss, a beam or a snecked rubble Masonry- Square rubble masonry uses
weather shed. stones having straight bed and sides.
(a) Corbel (b) Cornice
(c) Sill (d) Lintel • The stones are usually squared and brought to
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III hammer dressed or straight cut finish.
Ans. (a) : Corbel -The term corbel refers to an • The uncoursed square rubble masonry, also
architectural member that projects out (1/3 part) from a sometimes known as square-snecked rubble
wall and acts as a type of bracket to carry weight. masonry.
Corbels are made of stone, timber or metal Plate. 70. In which of the following stone masonries are
Corbel provide support for joist, roof truss, weather the joints bevelled at a 45º angle to a depth of
shed. 25 mm rough tooled and will have chisel
dressing 2.5 mm wide all-round the edges?
(a) Rubble stone masonry
(b) Plain ashlar masonry
(c) Chamfered ashlar masonry
(d) Coursed stone masonry
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (c) : Types of stone masonry–
Rubble stone masonry– Blocks of stones that are used
either undressed or comparatively roughly dressed.
68. ................ is the type of stone masonry in which Chamfered ashlar masonry– It is a special form of
finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime rock faced ashlar masonry in which the strip provided
mortar. around the perimeter of the exposed face is chamfered
(a) Rubble masonry or beveled at an angle of 450 employing a chisel to a
(b) Ashlar masonry depth of 25 mm.
(c) Random rubble masonry Plain ashlar masonry– It is rough tooled ashlar
(d) Squared rubble masonry masonry will have a chisel dressing 2.5 mm wide all
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 1 around the edges and shall be roughly tooled between
Ans. (b) : Various type of ashlar masonry– the drafts.
1. Ashlar Fine Masonry- In this masonry the stones of Coursed Rubble Masonry– In this case, no portion of
the same height are used and the courses are also of the dressed surface should be more than 10 mm from
the same height. Ashlar fine masonry is the type of straight edge placed on it.
Construction of Superstructure 74 YCT
71. A ............ is a 45-degree bevel cut at an outside
Ans. (c) Rules for bonding–
corner of a building element, often seen in (i) The bricks should be uniform size and shape
wood, stone or brick. (ii) Use of brick bats should be minimum.
(a) Cornice (b) Chamfer (iii) The brick should be laid on a full bed mortar.
(c) Corinthian (d) Cupola (iv) The vertical joint, in the alternate courses should
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift I lie in the same perpend.
Ans. (b) A chamfer is a 450 bevel cut at an outside (v) All the joints should be properly filled with mortar
corner of a building element, often seen in wood, stone so that no cavity is left between.
or brick. 74. Which of the following statements is true
Note– Chamfered ashlar masonry – It is a special regarding the strength of brick masonry?
form of rock faced ashlar masonry in which the strip (a) Brick masonry is stronger than stone masonry
provided around the perimeter of the exposed face is (b) Brick masonry has the same strength as stone
chamfered or beveled at an angle of 450 employing a masonry
chisel to a depth of 25 mm. (c) Brick masonry is weaker than stone masonry
72. In the context of brick laying tool, ............... is a (d) None of the above
chisel having a blade slightly wider than an HSSC JE 18.02.2024
ordinary building brick. Ans. (c) : Comparison between stone masonry and
(a) brick hammer (b) brick trowel brick masonry-
(c) spirit level (d) bolster Stone Brick
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-I Properties
masonry masonry
Ans. (d) : Brick laying tools– Strength and durability More Less
Bolster–Bolster is a chisel having a blade slightly wider Construction Slow Quick
than an ordinary building brick this makes it easy to cut
the bricks without too many blows. It may also be used Cost Costly Cheaper
for cutting chases or channels in bricks or walls to Ease of construction Difficult Easy
receive pipes or electrical conduit. Type of laborer Skilled Unskilled
Brick trowel–Brick trowel is usually about 30 cm long required
with a steel blade and wooden handle. The common or Plastering Not required Required
soft bricks are usualy cut by this tool. Fire-resistance Less More
DPC is used as, A 25 to 50 mm thick layer of cement 75. What is the purpose of a queen closer in brick
concrete M-15 serve the purpose under the normal masonry?
condition. (a) To provide a pleasing appearance
(b) To break the continuity of vertical joints
(c) To provide additional strength to the wall
(d) None of the above
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (b) : Queen closer– It is the portion of brick
obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portion.
76. Which type of bond is useful for constructing
one brick thick walls?
(a) Stretcher bond (b) Header bond
(c) English bond (d) Flemish bond
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (b) : Header bond– This type of bond is useful
for the construction of one brick thick walls.
English bond– English bond is commonly used bond
for the walls of all thickness.
77. In order to keep the unequal stresses created
on account of the expansion and contraction
joints provided in Hollow Block Masonry
under control, controlled joints are introduced
a\t definite intervals of
73. For good bonding in bricks uniform in size (a) 5 to 10 m (b) 10 to 15 m
(a) all bricks need not be uniform in size (c) 15 to 20 m (d) 6 to 12 m
(b) bats must be used in alternate course only (e) Answer not known
(c) the vertical joints in alternate course should TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
fall in plumb Ans. (a) : For the unequal stresses created on account
(d) cement mortar used must have surkhi as of the expansion and contraction joints provided in
additive Hollow Block Masonry under control, controlled joints
HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022 are introduced at intervals of 5 to 10 m.
Construction of Superstructure 75 YCT
78. What is a groove provided on the underside of 82. ................... closer is obtained by cutting a
sill, cornice or coping for rainwater protection triangular portion of half the width but of full
called? length.
(a) Weathering (b) Grooving (a) King (b) Mitred
(c) Throating (d) Corbelling (c) Queen (d) Bevelled
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (c) : Random rubble masonry :- used of Ans. (d) : The type of closer used in masonry work
undressed, rough stone. In Random rubble masonry obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the brick
stones are laid without any regular courses. such that half a header and half a stretcher are obtained
Throating– A small groove is cut on the underside of on the adjoining cut faces is king closer.
projecting chhajjas, cornices, coping to discharge the
rain water without trickling down to the wall, is called
throating.
Weathering– A slope is provided to the top surface to
centre used for coping, cornice and sill to drain off the
water immediately. This is known as weathering. King Closer
79. Identify the wall bond which has 3 to 5 • The type of closer in a brick obtained by cutting the
stretcher courses to one header bond. brick longitudinally into two equal parts as shown in
(a) Flemish bond figure is called queen closer.
(b) English cross bond Bevelled closer : It is form of king closer in which the
(c) English bond whole length of the brick (stretcher face) is chamfered
(d) English garden wall bond or beveled in such way that half width is maintained at
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II one end and full width is maintained at the other end.
Ans. (d) : English Garden Wall Bond:- English
Garden wall bond constitutes three rows of stretchers
to one row of headers. It is very rarely found on
buildings outside the north of the UK, where it is
abundant and particularly prevalent on the east coast. It
was used from the late 18th Century onwards, and was
also used Occasionally for garden walls. It uses fewer Bevelled brick Queen closer
facing bricks than English bond.
80. Which of the following types of construction 83. The type of closer used in masonry work
offers comparatively better earthquake obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the
resistance based on its structural action? brick such that half a header and half a
Consider that the thickness and length of stretcher are obtained on the adjoining cut
member to be constructed is constant for any of faces is:
the following cases.
(a) Bevelled closer (b) King closer
(a) Brickwork with English bond
(c) Queen closer (d) Mitred closer
(b) Random rubble stone masonry
(c) Size stone masonry DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I
(d) Reinforced brickwork Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I 84. Which type of masonry brick bond has a
Ans. (d) : The reinforced brick masonry is totally course of headers followed by a course of
different from normal brick masonry which has steel stretchers?
reinforcement embedded in the mortar of cement and (a) Stack bond (b) English bond
coarse sand (in ratio 1:3, one part of cement and three (c) Flemish bond (d) Stretcher bond
parts of coarse sand). PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
• It offers comparatively better earthquake resistance Ans. (b) : English bond – In this type of bond alternate
based on its structural action. layers of headers & stretchers respectively which means
• Random rubble masonry in which stones are laid that one layer will be headers and other will be
either undressed or roughly dressed with suitable stretchers
mortar. It is suitable for the construction of walls of
low heights in common building.
81. In masonry, a projection built into the back of
the wall is ...............
(a) Corbel (b) Cornice
(c) Counterfort (d) Closer
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 85. Copings are provided to prevent
Ans. (c) : In masonry, a projection built into the back of (a) seepage of water
the wall is counterfort. (b) buckling in column
Construction of Superstructure 76 YCT
 (c) shrinkage of concrete 90. The termination of the wall in such a fashion
(d) cracks in wall that each alternate course at the end projects,
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 in order to provide adequate bond if the wall
Ans. (a) : Copings– It is a course of stone placed upon construction is continued at a later stage is
the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the generally termed as ..............
seepage of water. (a) Frog (b) Racking back
• Copings are provided to prevent seepage of water. (c) Toothing (d) Bevelled closer
86. In brick masonry, the short vertical joints in ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
the face of the wall that fall vertically over one Ans. (c) : Toothing– It is the termination of the wall in
another in the alternate courses are called: a such a fashion that each alternate course at the end
(a) arrises (b) reveals projects in order to provide adequate bond if the wall
(c) perpends (d) quoins construction is continued at a later stage is generally
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 termed as toothing.
Ans. (c) : Perpends– The short vertical joints in the 91. .......... junction is formed when two walls meet
face of the wall that fall vertically over one another in each other at angles other than right angles.
the alternate course is called as perpends. Instead of (a) Squaint (b) Cross
perpends a practical term frequently used is cross joints. (c) Tee (d) Oblique
Arises–The edge of the brick where its surfaces ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
intersect. Ans. (a) : Squaint junction is formed when two walls
Quoins– The stones used at the corners are quoins. meet each other at angles other than right angles.
Bat– Any portion of a brick cut or broken across its width. 92. Which of the below bond will you prefer to
87. The portion of bricks cut across the width in construct a 10 cm thick partition wall?
half is called (a) Single flemish bond (b) Header bond
(a) half split (b) half closer (c) Stretcher bond (d) English bond
(c) half bed (d) half bat KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
MH WRD CEA 31/12/2023 Shift-I Ans. (c) : Stretcher bond– The bond will be prefer to
Ans. (d) : Bat– The portion of a brick cut across the construct a 10 cm thick partition wall. It is laid with its
width is known as bat. Thus a bat is smaller in length length parallel to face of the wall generally used for
than the full brick. partition walls.
Header bond– All the bricks are laid as header or full
brick which is laid with it's width parallel to face the wall.
93. Minimum area for WC in a toilet according to
NBC:
(a) 1.1m2 (b) 1.3 m2
2
Half Bat (c) 1.5 m (d) 0.9 m2
Closer– The portion of a brick cut in such a way that its Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
one long face remain uncut, is known as closer. Ans. (a) : As per NBC the minimum areas or sizes
88. Which type of bond gives a more pleasing for individual rooms and apartments are listed below.
appearance but is not a strong as English bond? Type of room Minimum area
(a) Stretcher bond (b) Head bond Kitchen only 4.8 m2 (min-width 1.8 m)
(c) English bond (d) Flemish bond Kitchen with store 5.5 m2 (min-width 1.8 m)
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 room
Ans. (d) : Flemish bond– Flemish bond also known as Bathroom 1.8 m2
Dutch bond is created by laying alternate headers and Water closet (wc) 2
1.1 m of floor area
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is
land such that header lies in middle of the stretcher in Bathroom & water 2.8 m2
the course below, ie. the alternate headers of each closet combined
course are centered on the stretcher of course below. 94. ___________is a large open space located
Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts with within a building. It is often used to light a
header at the corner. central circulation or public area by daylight
89. Using one brick placed on a ledge, the thickness admitted through a glass roof or wall.
of a brick wall should be measured in how (a) Atrium (b) Solarium
many centimetres? (c) Translucent walls (d) Skylights
(a) 7.5 cm (b) 12.5 cm JKSSB Draftsman 24.09.2023
(c) 25 cm (d) 37.5 cm Ans. (a) Atrium is a large open space located within a
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 building. It is often used to light a central circulation or
Ans. (a) : Conventional sized of brick- public area by daylight admitted through a glass roof or
22.4 cm × 11.4 cm × 7.6 cm well. Atrium provide some daylight to adjacent working
• If one brick placed on a ledge, the thickness of a brick areas, but the amount is often small and does not
wall should be measured in 7.6 ⇒7.5 cm penetrate very far.

Construction of Superstructure 77 YCT

95. Kitchen should have an aspect of • Burnt clay hollow brick at present are being used on a
(a) North limited scale for walls and partitions. These bricks are
(b) East or North-East light in weight and being hollow, impart thermal
(c) South-West insulation to the building.
(d) West 99. Into how many types are hollow concrete
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022 bricks classified?
Ans. (b) : Aspect of various part of building- (a) Two (b) Five
Part Aspect (c) Three (d) Four
Kitchen, main entrance East or PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
north east
Ans (c) : Hollow concrete blocks (Open and closed
Dining room, overhead water tank West cavity types)– These blocks are classified by I.S. into
Porch, verndah, pooja place North-East the following three grades–
Balcony, living room North (i) Grade A– These blocks are used for load bearing
Toilets, staircase South walls. They should have a minimum density of
Note– For an ideal kitchen of all the aspects means 1500 kg/m3.
an ideal kitchen should be, faced towards east or (ii) Grade B– These are also used for load baring
north east easily get sunrays. walls and its density below 1500 kg/m3 but not less
96. In residential buildings, the height of all rooms than 1000 kg/m3.
for human habitation shall not be less than (iii) Grade C– These are used for non-load bearing
________ m measured from the surface of the walls and its density is not less than 1000 kg/m3.
floor to bottom of the ceiling slab.
100. What should be the quality of bricks used in
(a) 2.50 (b) 2.75
brick masonry construction?
(c) 3.00 (d) .30
(a) Bricks with non-uniform colour
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
(b) Bricks that are under-brunt
Ans. (b) : (c) Bricks that are over-sized
• For residential, business and mercantile buildings, (d) Bricks of good quality with uniform colour,
the height of all rooms for human habitation shall not
well burnt, with exact shape and size
be less than 2.75 m measured from the surface of the
floor to the lowest point of the ceiling (Bottom of HSSC JE 18.02.2024
slab) Ans. (d) : Property of Bricks–
• In case of Bathrooms, stores, water closet etc the • Bricks should be uniform in colour, shape and size.
height not less than 2.4 m measured from the surface Standard size of bricks should be maintained.
of the floor to lowest point of ceiling. • They should be sound and compact.
97. Minimum side of a kitchen in a residential • They should be free from cracks and other flows
building is such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc. with sharp and
(a) 0.8 m (b) 1.2 m square edges.
(c) 1.8 m (d) 2.4 m • Brick should neither over burnt nor under brunt.
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022 101. What is the advantages of using bricks instead
Ans. (c) : Height of kitchen– 2.75 m, except for the of stones in masonry?
portion to accommodate floor trap of the upper floor. (a) Bricks are heavier than stones
Size– Area of kitchen shall not be less than 5.0 m2 with (b) Bricks have better fire and weather resistance
a minimum width of 1.8 m. (c) Bricks are more expensive than stones
• For separate stone it is reduced to 4.5 m2. (d) Bricks are only available in certain regions
Note– Minimum side of kitchen in a residential
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
building is 1.8.
Ans. (b) : Brick work is cheaper at places where stones
98. Burnt clay hollow blocks (IS : 3952), is also
are not available.
known as______
(a) chuffs blocks • Generally brick masonry can be constructed with
less skilled masons.
(b) spots blocks
(c) perforated blocks • Bricks are easy to handle, no special lifting
(d) cellular blocks equipment is required.
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I • Brick masonry can be constructed in any type of
mortar.
Ans. (d) : Burnt clay hollow blocks is also known as
cellular blocks. Cellular block are masonry units that • The dead load of brick is much less.
contain one or more formed voids that do not fully • Bricks masonry have better fire and weather
penetrate the block. resistance than stone masonry.
Construction of Superstructure 78 YCT
 FLOORS The rigidity of the granite flooring is higher as
compared to the other flooring materials.
Floors are the horizontal units of a building structure
which divide the building into different levels. Granite flooring can be used in damp regions as it
The division of vertical occupation is called floors offers resistance to moisture.
and the exposed top surfaces of floors are formed as Granite flooring is difficult to install as compared to
flooring. other flooring materials.
A floor consists of two components i.e. base and
flooring or floor finish.

FLOOR FINISH
Kota Floor Finish Ceramic Tiles and Vitrified Tiles
As Kota stones are locally available and possess
Ceramic tiles are composed of clay. The clay mixed
sufficient strength, it is used as flooring material
with water is baked at a high temperature to
widely.
These are fine-grained sedimentary stones consisting manufacture the ceramic tiles.
the silica and calcium carbonate. These types of The tiles that are prepared by mixing 40% clay and
flooring are shiny as well as durable. 60% silica through the process of verification are
This type of flooring provides flexibility during known as vitrified tiles.
finishing. The vitrified clay consists of clay, feldspar, quartz,
and silica.
Ceramic tiles give a natural earthen appearance
while vitrified tiles give an artificial glassy
appearance.
The breaking strength of the ceramic tiles varies
from 700 N to 1000 N while the vitrified tiles have a
breaking strength of more than 1100 N.
The flexural strength of ceramic tiles is lesser than
vitrified tile.
Marble Floor Finish
Marble stones are white in color however blue, pink,
yellow, and black shades may also exist due to the
impurities present in the marble.
Marble is a naturally available stone with a very
high ability to get finished. It gives a smooth and
elegant appearance.
Marble flooring is highly durable. The floor remains Paver Blocks
stain free if maintained properly. The paver blocks are prepared by mixing the cement
Marble stone is a good choice for flooring material and sand in different rations. These blocks are
but it may remain slippery under moisture. prefabricated in the factories.
Granite Floor Finish The paver blocks are very durable and can last up to
It is composed of minerals like feldspar and quartz. 20 years.
It is nonporous in nature and durable as a flooring These can be interlocked with each other. Hence,
material. these are easy to install.
Building Finishes 79 YCT
 The paver blocks are easy to remove and reinstall. If PLASTERING (IS 2402-1963)
one block is damaged, it can be replaced.
Plastering is the process of covering rough and
uneven surfaces with a plastic material or mortar to
obtain an even, smooth and durable surface is called
plaster.
It protects the external surface of the building from
environmental effects such as rain and wind.
Cement, lime and mud are used as binding material.
It helps in protecting building surfaces from bugs or
insects.
Sand controls, strength, adhesive property, porosity
Concrete Flooring and shrinkage etc. of plasters.
Concrete flooring is widely used in residential and Generally the plastering is done with two coat
public buildings. (thickness > 15 mm) and its total thickness is taken
The concrete floors are strong, durable, and 12 mm, 15 mm and 20 mm.
relatively economical. Plaster thickness for CC and RCC surfaces as beam,
lintel, slab are taken 6 mm.
Procedure of Plastering
Surface preparation:
All mortar joints have to be cleaned up to a depth of
10 mm in the brick mortar and 15 mm in the stone
mortar for better plastering.
If plastering is to be done on an old wall surface, all
After the preparation of the base, the area is divided dust, paints, oil, grease, etc. should
into rectangles or squares with the help of wooden be removed.
panels. The size of the sides of the squares or Groundwork before plastering:
rectangles should not be more than 1.5 m. To get plastering of uniform thickness, the wall
M15 or M20 concrete mix is used for the surface is marked with dots. Dots refer to plastering
construction of the concrete floor. a small patch of size 15mm x 15mm with a thickness
The concrete floors have sufficient strength. These of 10 mm.
are durable in nature. These dots are fixed horizontally and vertically at a
The concrete flooring offers good resistance to distance of 2 m between them from center to center.
dampness. Base coat application:
The concrete floors can be used for any loading The thickness of base coat plastering in brick
conditions. masonry is kept around 12 mm and in concrete
PROCESS OF LAYING masonry, it is 9 mm.
The construction of the wall must be completed In base coat, the ratio of cement to sand is 1:3 to 1:6
before the beginning of the construction of the floor. Finish coating application:
The area of the floor is cleaned. The roots, The finishing coat thickness varies from 2 to 3 mm.
vegetation, and any other irrelevant material is The ratio of cement to sand is 1:4 to 1:6.
removed properly. Application is done from top to bottom and in one
The reference marks above 15 cm of the floor level single operation so that no cracks can be developed.
are marked on the walls. These marks are used as a Curing after plastering:
reference while constructing the floor. After finishing the coat, the water sprinkling is done
The soil spread on the floor according to the for at least 7 days to gain proper strength and
required slope. The soil is properly compacted to hardness.
avoid settlements. Plaster of Paris (POP)
The layer of lime concrete or cement concrete of a Plaster of Paris is made by heating finely powered
depth of 10 cm to 15 cm is placed on the floor. The gypsum at 160°C - 170°C. It is white in color.
concrete is compacted and rammed properly. It starts to get settle within 3 - 4 minutes of adding
The curing by sprinkling the water on the concrete is water. So, retarders are added in POP to delay the
done after setting the concrete. setting time.
After setting, the base layer is cleaned and flooring POP is used in combination with lime for repairing
is provided. The base must be cleaned properly potholes and cracking on the surface finish and for
before providing the topping. ornamentals work.
Building Finishes 80 YCT
 It is very light in weight. It acts as a sound insulator. POINTING
Its setting time is less and there is no change in
volume after set, so there is no shrinkage on drying. Pointing is the finishing of mortar joint in brick or
stone masonry construction.
Types of plastering - Pointing is the implementry of the joints to a depth
1. Cement Plastering of 10-20 mm while mortar is still soft and filling it
2. Lime Plastering with better quality of mortar in desired shape.
3. Mud Plastering Mortar for pointing-
4. Stucco Plastering 1. Cement mortar (1:2 - 1:3) cement : Sand
5. Barium Plaster 2. Lime mortar, 1 : 2 (Fat lime : Sand/Surkhi)
Stucco plaster is made of aggregates, water, and Types of pointing-
binder. The binder can be lime or cement. In
conventional times, the stucco plaster is created
from lime while in modern times it is prepared with
cement.
Sponge Finish
The sponge finish is also called sand finish. This is
done in two coats.
In the first layer, the cement sand is taken in the
ratio of 1:4. The first layer is provided with a
thickness of 12 mm.
The sponge helps in getting a smooth render finish

Pebble Finish
In the pebble finishing, the small pieces of stones
having diameters from 10 mm to 20 mm are dashed
on the surface of the wall. The mortar used in the
plastering has a cement-sand ratio of 1:3. The
pebbles should be washed with water properly to
remove the impurities
The pebble finish offers a rough surface
A pebble finish is used for the exterior walls.

1. Flush pointing- It is formed by removing the excess

mortar from the joint. This is the simplest type of
pointing and widely used in brick and stone masonry
face. It does not give good appearance but it is more
durable.
Steps of cement plastering- 2. Struck pointing- This is modification flush pointing
(i) Rendering Coat- It is the first coat of plaster (12 in which the face of the pointing is kept inclined
mm). with its upper edge pressed inside the face of
masonry by 10 mm. This pointing drains water
(ii) Under/Floating Coats- It is the second coat of
easily.
plaster done under the finishing coat (6 - 9 mm)
3. Tuck pointing-
This coat provides smooth, uniform and sound When the pressed mortar is in green state top and
surface for the final coat. bottom edge of the joint are cut parallel (in rectangle
(iii) Finishing/Final Setting Coat-These are final coat form 5 mm × 3 mm) so as to have uniformly raised
of plastering (2-3mm). band outside about 3 - 6 mm.
Building Finishes 81 YCT
4. Keyed or grooved or rubbed pointing- Requirements of a roof :
It is the modification of flush pointing in which It should have adequate slope to drain the rain and
grooves is formed at its mid height by a pointing snow.
tools. It should be strong, stable and durable to take the
5. Weathered pointing- external loads.
In this type of pointing the projection in the form of It should also provide good architectural appearance.
a vee-shapp is formed with outside projection. ROOFING MATERIALS
6. Beaded pointing- Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
In the beaded pointing, a semi-circular strip extends RCC slabs are widely used as roofs in residential
beyond the wall. and public buildings.
PAINTING If the span of the roof is more than 3 m, beams can
also be provided to support the slab.
Painting may be defined as an oily coating that is
RCC slabs offer sufficient resistance to fire and
provided on the surface of wood, masonry, iron, etc.
dampness. The RCC slabs are durable and long-
A good paint should have sufficient covering
lasting.
capacity. It should be cheap and must dry quickly.
RCC slabs are laid in the following three steps-
Some of the common paints in use are oil paint, 1. At the initial stage, the concrete requires support
cement paint, synthetic rubber paint and emulsion after poring. So, the formwork is erected in the first
paint. step.
• Preparation of surface : 2. The concrete is strong in compression but weak in
It is the process by which the surface is clean to take tension. So, the reinforcement is designed for the
an optimum paint. concrete. The steel bars are provided at the designed
In wood work knot should be avoided as there is a spacing in the second step.
possibility of resinous material coming out of them. 3. The concrete mix is designed according to the codal
In case of iron and steel works, the surface free from provisions. M 15 or M 20 concrete mix can be used
rust, greeze and seals before application of primary in the construction of roofs.
coat.
The surface is washed with solution of size, soft
soap and water in the proportion of 2 : 1 : 18.
Methods of Application
Brush: Paintbrush is widely used for the application
of paint.
Roller: The painting by paintbrush takes time. So,
the roller can be used. It consists of a cylinder that
rolls while painting the surface. The paint rollers can
Thatch -
cover a large area of painting in relatively lesser These are cheapest roof covering material used in
time. village but these are combustible. It is made of
bundles of reeds or straw. Minimum thickness of
thatch should be 15 cm.
Tiles -
Tiles is the oldest roofing material that is still now a
days is using for residential building and country
houses.
Galvanized Iron Corrugated Sheets (G.I.
Sheet)-
G.I. sheets are made of iron sheets which are
Spray gun: The painting of the surfaces can be done galvanized with zinc to protect them from rusting.
by the spray guns too. The spray guns spray the This is corrugated because of it provide additional
paint on the surface through the air.
strength for that thickness.
ROOFS End lap ≮ 15 cm.
Roof is defined as the upper most part of the
building which is being provided as structural 1
Side lap - 1 to 2 corrugation.
covering to protect building from weather, rain, 2
snow, humidity, wind, sun etc. Slope of sheet is not flatter than 1 in 4.
Building Finishes 82 YCT
 Asbestos Cement Sheet (A.C. sheets)- External angle between the intersection of two roof
These sheets are made of Portland cement and 15% surface is less than 1800.
asbestos fibers. This is fire resisting sheets. 8. Hip-
Width - 1.05 m, A ridge or line of intersection of sloping roof surface
Length - 1.5 m, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, having an exterior angle greater than 1800.
2.75 and 3.0m
Thickness - 6 - 7 mm
CLASSIFICATION OF ROOFS
1. Flat Roof-
A roof laid at an angle of less than 100 with
horizontal is called flat roof. This roof can be
conveniently used as terrace for various purpose like
play, sleep etc.
It is best suitable for a small span.
It is suitable for high temperature, low rain fall and
provides better resistance against earthquake shocks.

9. Gable-
A triangular shaped end portion of a pitched roof is
called gable end.
10. Verge-
Edge of roofing materials like sheets, tiles etc.
2. Sloping or Pitched Roof- running between the eaves and ridge and projecting
A roof that slopes downward in two parts at an angle beyond the gable end of the pitched roof is termed as
from a ridge. Pitched roof is laid at any angle of verge.
more than 100. Pitched roof is used in area of heavy
11. Purlin-
rainfall, snowfall and in coastal region.
A horizontal member of wood or steel parallel to
Pitch of roof truss is the ratio of its vertical rise to its
horizontal span. ridge and above the principal rafter to support the
common rafter is known as purlin. Purlins are the
Technical term related to pitched/sloping flexural member.
roof It is spanning between two adjacent roof trusses.
1. Span- Clear distance between the support of truss.
12. Rafter-
1 1 Rafters are those timber timber or steel inclined
Economical spacing of roof truss = to of span.
3 5 members normal to the ridge that supports covering
2. Rise- Vertical distance between the wall plate and material of a sloping roof.
top of the ridge.
3. Slope or Pitch-
Types of sloping roofs-
Inclination of the rafter/sides of roof to the • King Post Roof Truss-
horizontal line.
tan θ = Rise / Half Span
4. Eaves-
Bottom edge of the pitched roof surface which is
projected beyond the wall.
5. Ridge-
It is the top most apex line of slopy roof where both
slopes meet each other. Ridge is parallel to length of
roof.
6. Ridge board, Ridge piece or Ridge Beam-
These are horizontal beam that supports the ends of A roof truss with a central post (king post) joining
the rafters at the ridge and transfer the roof load to the ridge point to the tie beam is called king post
the gable ends or post. roof truss. King post supports the ridge and holds
7. Valley- both the principal rafter together at the ridge.
It is a acute or internal angle or a gutter formed by It provides support to the main tie and prevents it
the intersection of two sloping roof planes. from sagging.
Building Finishes 83 YCT
 To prevents the bend of principal rafter from the Questions Asked in Previous Years
middle a strut is provided.
Span adopted ≤5 m 1. Identify the type of roof shown in below figure.
Use - Garage, porch, sheds etc.
• Queen Post Truss-

(a) Lean to roof (b) Coupled roof

Queen post truss has two vertical tension member (c) Collar beam roof (d) Truss roof
called queen post. It is placed at one third distance CRIS JE 19/02/2023
from support. In this truss a horizontal beam Ans. (b) : Couple roof– This type of roof is formed by
(straining beam) connects the upper ends of queen couple or pair of rafters which slope to both the sides of
post and maintain them in position. Straining beam the ridge of the roof. Couple roof is used when the span
receive the thrust from the head of the principal is limited to 3.6 metres.
rafter.
Head of queen post is made wider to receive the two
member.
It is suitable for the span of 8 - 12 m.
• Mansard Roof-

Collar beam roof– This roof is suitable for spans up to

It is defined as the roof with slopes in all four 5 metres.
direction, but each slope has a break. This truss has
two pitches.
Mansard roof has two slopes on every side.
• Hip Roof -

Lean-to-roof– This is the simplest type of slopping

A roof whose all sides are slopes towards wall in all roof, provided either for a room of small span, or for the
four direction without break is called hip roof. verandah. It has slope only one side.
• Gable Roof -

This is a common type of pitched roof in which

slope is provided in only two direction from ridge to
supporting wall without any break.
End face of this roof formed a vertical triangle.
Building Finishes 84 YCT
2. Identify the type of roof truss shown in the 5. In a 3-coat lime plastering, the second coat is
figure. called _____.
(a) base coat
(b) rendering coat
(c) floating coat
(a) Warren (b) Howe (d) finishing coat
(c) Fink (d) King Post DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (c) : Application of plaster coats–
Ans. (b) : 1. First coat–It is also called rough coat of plastering.
2. Second coat–It is also called floating coat of
plastering.
3. Third coat–It is also known as final or finishing coat.
6. Which of the following is used as a finishing
coat for surfaces of X-ray rooms?
(a) Parian cement
(b) Barium plaster
(c) Snowcrete
(d) Colorcrete
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Barium plaster–This is made from barium
sulphate. It is use to apply as final coat on walls of X-
ray rooms, since it absorbs, X-rays and hence ensure
safety of people working in X-ray rooms.
• Snow crete and colorcrete cements–White and
3. Identify the roof truss shown in the figure. colored cement are used in plastering to get good
appearance to the surface plastered. They are usually
applied on external mass.
7. Chemical emulsion for anti-termite treatment
of floor consists of application of diluted
(a) Pratt truss (b) Kingpost truss
emulsion in holes until refusal or up to a
(c) French truss (d) Howe truss
maximum of ............. litres per hole.
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III (a) One-half (b) One
Ans. (c) See the above explanation. (c) Three (d) Two
4. The operation of racking out of masonry joints ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them Ans. (b) : Chemical emulsion shall be squirted into
up with rich (1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is these holes using a hand operated pressure pump untill
called
refusal or to a maximum of one litre per hole.
(a) Dressing (b) Pointing
• The holes shall be sealed.
(c) Hipping (d) Surfacing
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II 8. Depending upon the strength required and
importance of work, proportions of cement to
Ans. (b) The operation of racking out of masonry joints sand by volume varies from ........... or more.
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them up with (a) 1 : 1 to 1 : 6
rich (1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is called pointing.
(b) 1 : 3 to 1 : 6
Type of pointing–
(c) 1 : 2 to 1 : 6
• Struck pointing (d) None of the above
• Recessed pointing ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
• Beaded pointing
Ans. (c) : Cement mortar– Depends upon strength
• Tuck pointing requirement and importance of work, proportion of
• Weather pointing cement to sand by volume varies between 1:2 to 1 : 6 or
• Grooved pointing more.
• V-pointing • Surkhi and cinders should not be used to prepare
• Flush pointing cement mortar, only sand can be used.
Building Finishes 85 YCT
9. Which of the following materials can be used 12. A lower part of plastered wall where special
for damp proofing purpose in buildings? treatment is given to make it better resistant is
(a) Hot bitumen known as :
(b) Mastic asphalt (a) Dubbing coat
(c) Concrete (b) Finishing coat
(d) All of these (c) Under coat
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 (a) Dado
Ans. (d) : The following materials are commonly used UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023
for damp proofing– Ans. (d) : Dado– This is lower part of plastered wall,
• Flexible materials like hot bitumen, bituminous felts, where special treatment is given to make it better
plastic sheet of lead, copper etc. resistance.
• Semi rigid material like mastic asphalt and other 13. __________is the process of covering rough
combination of impervious material. walls and uneven surfaces in the construction
• Rigid materials like impervious brick, stones. of houses and other structures with a plastic
• Mortar with water proofing compounds. material,
• Cement concrete with water proofing compounds. (a) Taping (b) Masonry
10. The thickness of external plaster on brick (c) Plastering (d) Holstering
(boundary) wall is MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II
(a) 20 mm (b) 12 mm Ans. (c) : Plastering– It is the process of covering
(c) 10 mm (d) 8 m rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 houses and other structures with a plastic material.
Ans. (a) : Plastering– It gives smooth surface water Taping– Tapping is the process of cutting a thread
proofing, heat proofing, low cost smooth surface of inside a hole so that a cap screw or bolt can be threaded
interior wall and exterior wall. into the hole.
(i) Internal plastering– Thickness provided for Masonry– Masonry is the craft of building a structure
internal plastering is 10 mm to 15 mm and mixed with brick, stone or similar material, which are often
ratio is 1 : 6. laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry
(ii) External plastering– Its thickness = 15–20 mm can also refer to the building unit (stone, brick etc.)
(iii) Ceiling plaster– Thickness = 6 mm, mix ratio themselves.
=1:4 14. Which of the following materials is used for
11. The mortar for cement pointing is made by waterproofing during the construction of
mixing cement and sand in proportion ______. foundation and for protection of the structure
(a) 1 : 5 or 1 : 6 from seepage problems?
(b) 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 (a) Plaster of Paris
(c) 1 : 4 or 1 : 5 (b) Pitch
(d) 1 : 8 or 1 : 9 (c) Portland cement
TSPSC Architecture Engg.05/09/2023 Shift-II (d) Furnace slag
Ans. (b) The operation of racking out of masonry joints SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them up with Ans. (b) : Waterproofing building is the method of
rich (1 : 2 or 1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is called forming a barrier over surface of foundations, roofs,
pointing. walls and other structural members of building to
Type of pointing– prevent water penetrations through these surfaces.
The following types of waterproofing in building–
• Struck pointing
1. Cementitious waterproofing
• Recessed pointing
2. Bituminous coating waterproofing
• Beaded pointing
3. Bituminous membrane waterproofing
• Tuck pointing
4. Polyurethane membrane waterproofing
• Weather pointing 5. Liquid waterproofing membrane method.
• Grooved pointing • Pitch modified bitumen waterproofing systems utilize
• V-pointing bitumen as the primary material, modified with
• Flush pointing additives such as polymers and resins.

Building Finishes 86 YCT

15. Which of the following is the easiest method of Struck pointing– In struck pointing the face of
water proofing is construction? pointing is kept inclined, this joint dispose off water
(a) Bituminous Membrane easily.
(b) Cementitious Waterproofing Beaded pointing– This type of pointing is formed by a
(c) Bituminous Coating steel or iron rod with a concave edge. It is difficult to
(d) Liquid Waterproofing Membrane maintain.
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 V-pointing– In this pointing a V-shaped groove is
formed in the mortar joint.
Ans (b) : Cementitious Waterproofing– Cementitious
18. As per IS 1661 : 1972, the recommended
water proofing is a type of water proofing system that is
thickness of single-coat plaster for both
commonly used in construction to product structure
internal and external work situations is
from water damage. Cementations waterproofing
(a) 3 mm to 5 mm
materials involve applying a cement-based mixture to
(b) 8 mm to 10 mm
the surface of the building which acts as a barrier to
(c) 10 mm to 15 mm
present water from penetrating through the surface.
(d) 12 mm to 18 mm
16. The pointing done by pressing the mortar back Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
from the edges by 5 mm or more is called
Ans. (c) : As per the Indian standard 1661, the
(a) Recessed pointing following is the thickness required for internal walls-
(b) Flush pointing
No. of coats of plastic Thickness
(c) Tuck pointing
Single coat plaster (both 10 to 15 mm
(d) V-pointing
internal and external)
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Two cost plaster
Ans. (a) : Recessed pointing– This pointing is done by Backing coat 10 to 12 mm
pressing the mortar back from the edge by 5 mm or
Finishing coat 3 to 8 mm
more. It gives a good appearance.
Three coat plaster (for very rough surface)
Weather pointing– It is V-shaped projection outside
Base coat 10 to 15 mm
the wall surface is provided, is called weather pointing.
Second coat 3 to 8 mm
Tuck pointing– This pointing is formed by first
pressing the mortar in the racked joint and finishing Finishing coat 3 to 5 mm
flush with the face. While the pressed mortar is green, 19. Which of the following expression is correct to
groove or narrow channel, having 5 mm width and 3 find out the pigment volume concentration
mm depth is cut in the centre of the groove. number of paint?
where
17. In which of the following type of pointing, a
A = volume of pigment in the paint and
groove is formed at the centre of the height by
B = volume of non-volatile or carrier in the
a pointer?
paint
(a) Struck pointing
(b) Beaded pointing A A+B
(a) (b)
(c) Keyed pointing A−B A−B
(d) Recessed pointing B A
(c) (d)
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 A+B A+B
Ans. (c) : Pointing– Pointing is the finishing of mortar MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
joints in the construction of brick masonry GAIL Sr. Assoc. 13.05.2023
It is classified as following types– Ans. (d) : Pigment volume concentration–
Recessed pointing– In this case the face of the pointing PVC– It is the ratio of volume of pigment to the volume
is kept vertical and it is pressed inside the wall surface of total non-volatile material present in a coating.
by a suitable tool to depth of 5 mm or more A
PVC =
Keyed or rubbed or grooved pointing– In this type A+B
pointing, a groove is formed by a pointer at the centre of Where,
height. It gives better appearance and is generally A = volume of pigment in the paint
adopted. B = volume of non-volatile or carrier in the paint

Building Finishes 87 YCT

 CRACKS GUNITING
Cracks in concrete developed due to use of unsound Guniting is the process of repairing concrete work
material, bad workmanship, use of high W/C ratio. which has been damaged due to inferior work or
other reasons. It is also used for providing an
• Causes of cracks in concrete :
impervious layer.
Cracks in concrete may be plastic shrinkage cracks,
Cement gun is used for this process under a pressure
settlement cracks, cracks due to bleeding, cracks due of 10 - 30 N/cm2.
to delayed concrete costing and cracks due to Repair work completed in a short time in any
construction effects. condition by this process.
Type of cracks : Guniting is the mixture of cement and sand with
1. Shrinkage cracks : proportion of 1 : 3.
They are common in freshly poured concrete and Guniting is extensively used to retaliate concrete
result from the natural drying and curing process. bridge, dam, spillways, buildings etc.
As water evaporates, the concrete shrinks, leading to Distance of spraying should be about 0.6 - 1.5 m and
small, often fine cracks on the surface. angle is perpendicular from treatment surface.
2. Overloading cracks : Gunite is usually used for applying mortar of lesser
thickness, and shotcrete is used for placing concrete
It form in concrete when excessive weight is put on
of larger thickness.
a concrete slab.
The materials used for gunite are cement, sand and
3. Hairline cracks : water and those used for shotcrete are cement, sand,
It form due to concrete settling while it's curing. small aggregate and water.
They are usually very thin cracks, but they can run
very deep in the slab, as well. SETTLEMENT
4. Foundation settlement cracks : The vertical downward movement of the base of a
structure.
It is usually found around the corners or perimeter of
Settlement effect upon the structure depends on its
building in the form of a stair-step pattern within the magnitude, its uniformity the length of the time over
wall. which it take place and nature of structure itself.
5. Structural cracks :
Cause of settlement :
They are more serious and can compromise the
Elastic compression of the foundation and the
integrity of a concrete structure. underlying soil.
6. Settlement cracks : In elastic (or plastic) compression of the underlying
If there is any obstruction to uniform settlement due soils, which is much layer than the elastic
to reinforcement or large size of aggregate, then it compression.
creates some voids or cracks. Such types of cracks is Ground water lowering, the lowering of water level
called settlement crack. in fine grained soils cause consolidation settlement.
Grouting of concrete structures and repair : Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and
Grouting in concrete is an injection process to fill up oscillating machineries may cause settlement in
the cracks, voids and fissures with select grouting deposits of granular soils.
materials under specified controlled pressure to Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.
strengthen the structure. Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface
Grouting material will by plyable, plastic and non- erosion, slow creep or land slide.
shrink so that voids can be completely filled. Type of structure Allowable maximum
Repair of cracks by epoxy grouting : settlement (mm)
Epoxy is a polymer-based synthetic resin with Commercial and 25
balanced mechanical, chemical, and adhesive institutional building
strength properties. Industrial building 38
Epoxy is quick setting, experiences low shrinkage Warehouses 50
enjoys high strength and high adhesion, has a low Special machinery Less than 0.5 mm
viscosity and has good resistance to all chemicals. foundation

Building Maintenance 88 YCT

 Questions Asked in Previous Years Ans. (b) : The formation of cement paste at the top
surface of concrete when worked up with trowel and
1. Which of the following is not an ingredient of float is known as Laitance.
the Epoxy Mortar? 7. The type of floor preferred for maintaining
(a) Resin (b) Hardener 'clean room' condition is ............. flooring.
(c) Silica sand (d) Cement (a) Magnesite (b) IPS
GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022 (c) Linoleum (d) PVC vinyl
Ans. (d) : Cement is not an ingredient of the epoxy ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
mortar. Ans. (d) : The PVC vinyl flooring preferred for
• Preparation of epoxy mortar involves premixing maintaining 'clean room'.
proper quantities of epoxy resin and hardener and then
8. What is the thickness of the concrete base
mixing the resin system with sand to make the epoxy
course provided for ground floors?
mortar.
(a) 10 to 50 mm (b) 200 to 250 mm
2. Light plane is marked at an angle of (c) 150 to 200 mm (d) None of the above
(a) 30° (b) 45° HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(c) 60° (d) 90°
Ans. (c) : Preparation of base concrete– Usually over
GUJARAT RMC AE 15/05/2022 the sub-base a layer a layer of lime surkhi brick jelly
Ans. (c) : Light plane is marked at an angle of 600.
 1
3. In roof trusses, what is ridge line? concrete 1:1:3  or cement concrete (1 : 4 : 8 or 1 : 5 :
(a) A line drawn by meeting all points of same  2
pitch in the truss 10) with 38 mm aggregate is laid in one layer and
(b) A line drawn by meeting all the points of beaten down by wooden rammers to the required level
equal slope in truss and grade. The average depth of this layer should not be
(c) None of the given options less than 10 cm.
(d) A line drawn by meeting all the apex points • The thickness of concrete base course provided 100 to
of roof truss 150 mm.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I 9. What is the main reason for moisture rising
Ans. (d) : Ridge line – The ridge line is the line joining from the ground into the foundation, floor and
the vertices (apex point) of the trusses, special forms of walls?
ridges of roof covering material are usually available. (a) Rain water entering the building components
Rise – It is defined as the distance from the highest (b) Poor plaster coat on the external walls
point to the joining support. (c) Capillary action
Eaves – The bottom edge of the inclined roof surface is (d) Improper fixing of downtake pipes
called have. HSSC JE 18.02.2024
4. In a drawing__ are also known as pointer lines Ans. (c) : Rising damp from the Ground– The ground
(a) Leaders (b) Dimension lines around the foundations is always damp. Moisture rises
into the brick or stonework by capillary attraction and
(c) Extension lines (d) Break lines
unless a damp-proof.
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Course is provided above ground level the moisture will
Ans. (a) : In a drawing Dimension lines are also known rise causing considerable dampness to walls and floors.
as pointer lines.
10. The maximum size of the aggregate used in a
5. ________consists of a finishing coat of small damp proof course is about
pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or of (a) 6 mm (b) 10 mm
marble arranged in different patterns set in (c) 15 mm (d) 20 mm
lime-surkhi or cement mortar.
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
(a) Mosaic Flooring (b) Marble Flooring
(c) Tiles Flooring (d) Stone Flooring Ans. (b) : Damp proofing course in the form of 25-40
mm thick impervious concrete layer should be provided
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II
at the plinth level.
Ans. (a) : Mosaic flooring– It consist of a finishing
• This prevents the ingress of moisture from footing
coat of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of
and soil.
marble arranged in different pattern, set in lime-surkhi
or cement mortar. The base course is concrete flooring DPC concrete proportion should not be leaner than 1 :
and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is provided. 1.5 : 3 (cement : sand : course agg.)
6. The formation of cement paste at the top • The maximum size of aggregate is 10–12.5 mm.
surface of concrete when worked up with 11. Which of the following is NOT the source of
trowel and float is known as : dampness?
(a) Shrinkage (b) Laitance (a) Penetration of rain-water through unprotected
(c) Spalling (d) Segregation tops
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 (b) Foundation wall
Building Maintenance 89 YCT
 (c) DPC (Damp proof course) Ans. (a) : Terrazzo flooring– Terrazo is a composite
(d) Wet soil material, poured in place or precast, which is used for
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II floor and wall treatments. It consists of chips of marble,
Ans. (c) : Dampness in building, often referred as the quartz, granite, glass or other suitable material, poured
instruction of moisture into a structure through its walls, with a cementitious binder, polymeric or a combination
floors and other element. of both. It is constructed with the 4 to 6 mm marble
Sources of dampness– chips.
1. Leaking roof 16. Which of the following types of asphalt is
2. Plumbing leak commonly used for waterproofing and damp-
3. Rising damp proofing applications?
4. Penetration of rain water through unprotected tops (a) Cutback asphalt
5. Poor drainage
(b) Emulsified asphalt
6. Foundation wall
(c) Mastic asphalt
7. Wet soil.
(d) Modified asphalt
Note–Damp proof course is not the source of
dampness. MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
12. A type of flooring made with a special Ans. (c) : Mastic Asphalt- This is obtained by heating
aggregate of marble chips mixed wih white and the asphalt with sand and miner fillers. This is semi
coloured cement is called rigid material and forms an excellent impervious layer
(a) Granolithic flooring for damp proofing i.e. D.P.C.
(b) Terrazzo flooring A good mastic asphalt has many characteristic such as
(c) Mosaic flooring high durability, excellent water-proofing quality,
(d) Asphalt flooring reasonable elasticity etc.
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023 17. Which property of tar makes it suitable for
Ans. (b) Terrazzo flooring– Terrazo is a composite waterproofing applications?
material, poured in place or precast, which is used for (a) Very low permeability
floor and wall treatments. It consists of chips of marble, (b) Low viscosity
quartz, granite, glass or other suitable material, poured (c) Low adhesion
with a cementitious binder, polymeric or a combination (d) High porosity
of both. MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
13. Which of the following is the composition of Ans. (a) : Tar:- It is dark (deep black) viscous liquid
Terrazo flooring? (very low permeability) produced by destructive
(a) Chips, powder, cement distillation of organic material such a coal, oil lignite and
(b) Chips, powder, concrete wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified
(c) Chips, cement as coal tar and mineral tar. Tar is resistant to petroleum
(d) Chips, concrete based solvents. It has very low bitumen content.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
18. The addition of a small portion of granite
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. polishing waste in the design mix results in:
14. The most commonly used damp proofing (a) lighter concrete
material is (b) higher void ratio
(a) Bitumen (b) Cement concrete (c) decreased strength
(c) Paraffin way (d) Cement solution (d) improved packing density
WBPSC Sub Engg. 18/12/2022 SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (a) : DPC– Damp proofing course is provided to Ans. (d) : Granite polishing waste– It is the waste of
prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the building. granite stone generated during the cutting and polishing
• Common materials are used for damp proofing of granite stone in the production of stoneware.
include bitumen, polyethylene sheeting and plastic The granite polishing contribution mainly arises from
membrane. the resulting improvement in particle packing and also
• Bitumen is applied to the surface of concrete and improved packing density in the design mix.
masonry walls to create a water proof seal. 19. How much is the specified average minimum
15. A floor constructed with the 4 to 6 mm marble flexural strength of Class 3 flooring tile,
chips, is know as_______. according to IS 1478:1992?
(a) Terrazzo floor (a) 2.5 N/mm width
(b) Chips floor (b) 3 N/mm width
(c) Chips floor & Mortar floor (c) 3.5 N/mm width
(d) Mortar floor (d) 6 N/mm width
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II CSPHCL JE 14.02.2022
Building Maintenance 90 YCT
Ans. (a) : Classification of flooring tiles, as per IS : Gable roof– It is the triangular portion of the end wall
1478-1992. of a sloped roof formed by continuing the end wall up
Class Class Class within the roof. Thus the gable has two slopes with
Characteristics ridge in between.
A B C
Water absorption percent (max.) 10 19 24 24. Choose the option that best describes 'Gable'.
Flexural strength kg/cm width (a) The triangular upper part of a wall formed at
the end of a pitched roof
(Minimum)
(b) The angle formed at the intersection of two
(a) Average 6 3.5 2.5 roof slopes is known as hip
(b) Individual 5 3.0 2.0 (c) The wooden pieces which are placed
Impact maximum height in mm horizontally on principal rafters to carry the
of drop of steel balt common rafters
(a) 15 mm thick 25 20 15 (d) The lower edge of a roof which are resting
(b) 20 mm thick 60 50 40 upon or projecting beyond the supporting
(c) 25 mm thick 75 65 50 walls
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
(d) 30 mm thick 80 70 60
Ans. (a) : Gable roof– The term gable roof can be
20. Which of the following repair method is used confusing because a gable is not an actual roof shape.
for stopping leakages in dams, basements, Gables are the triangular areas created in the upper part
swimming pools? of a wall because of the juncture of the sloping ends of a
(a) Plastering (b) Injection double pitched roof.
(c) Placing (d) Sealant
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Injection repair method is used for stopping
leakages in dams, basements swimming pools.
• Sealants are substances used to seal, block, or close
gaps between building materials to prevent fluids, air
and pests from passing through.
21. In a composite roof truss, the tension members
are of .............. and compression member of 25. How many sides (sloping surface) in Hip Roof,
............... slides downward toward walls?
(a) Steel, timber (b) Timber, steel (a) Two (b) Four
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of (a) and (b) (c) Three (d) One
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (a) : Due to combination of two materials, this Ans. (b) : Hipped roof– It has slopes on all four sides.
truss known as composite roof truss. The sides are all equal length and come together at the
• In this roof the tension members are made from steel top to form a ridge.
and compression members are made from timber. Gable end roof– It is also known as pitched or peaked
22. A Queen Post roof is Suitable for span which of roof and is recognized by triangular shape.
the following span? Gambrel roof– It is also known as a barn roof. It is
(a) 3-7 m (b) 5-9 m similar to mansard, the difference is that the Gambrel
(c) 8-12 m (d) 2-5 m only has two sides, while the mansard has four.
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 26. The roof formed by four sloping surface in four
Ans. (c) : Various types of truss and its span– directions_______.
(a) Flat roof (b) Hip roof
Truss span
(c) Dutch roof (d) Cross roof
King post truss 5-8 m UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
Queen post truss 8-12 m Ans. (b) : Hip roof– This roof is formed by four
Howe truss 6-30 m sloping surfaces in four direction. At the end faces
Pratt truss 6-10 m sloped triangle are formed.
Combination of king and queen upto 18 m Flat roof– It is consideral suitable for building in plains
truss or, in hot regions, where rainfall is moderate, and where
23. A ............ roof is a single sloping surface or roof no snowfall occurs, flat roofs are equally applicable to
building of any size and shape.
plane angled in only one direction.
(a) oblique (b) gable 27. In roof trusses, pitch is defined as -
(a) None of the given options
(c) monopitched (d) saddle
(b) Difference between span and rise
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 (c) Span × rise
Ans (c) : Monopitched roof- The roofs that slope in (d) Ratio between span and rise
one direction only or a single sloping surface. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I
Building Maintenance 91 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Pitch– For a symmetrical, it is defined as the (c) GI sheets are thin; AC sheets are not as thin
ratio of rise to span. It is 1/4 to 1/6 of its slope for as GI sheets.
symmetrical trusses = 1/2 slope @ 45° (d) Chances of breaking during handling is more
Slope– Slope of a symmetrical truss is defined as the with AC sheets when compared to GI sheets.
ratio of its rise to half the span. It is expressed as 1 in or CRIS JE 19/02/2023
as degree. It is thus numerically double the pitch.
Ans. (b) : Comparison between GI and AC sheets
28. In roof trusses, the value of pitch is taken as -
GI Sheets AC Sheets
(a) 1/3 to 1/6 (b) 1/2 to 1/3
(c) 1/2 to 1/5 (d) 1/3 to 1/5 • These sheets are thin • They are not as thin
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I as GI sheets.
Ans. (a) : In roof trusses the value of pitch is taken as • Chances of corrosion • Corrosion resistant
1/3 to 1/6. • They have low fire • They have good fire
• The spacing of roof trusses is kept 1/3 to 1/5 of the resistance resistance
span. • They are unbreakable • chances of Breaking
Note– For symmetrical trusses, the pitch is equal to half and easy to handle.
the inclination of the top chord. • Low resistance to • more resistance to
29. A sloping beam is called: Acid Acid.
(a) Joist (b) Purlin • Initial cost is high • Initial cost is low.
(c) Rafter (d) Girder
32. King post truss is suitable for the span of
GETCO VS JE 04/01/2022 Shift-III
(a) 5 to 8 m (b) 12 to 15 m
Ans. (c) : Rafter– A rafter is defined as one of a series (c) 18 to 21 m (d) 24 to 27 m
of sloped structural pieces (typically wooden beams)
that extend from the hip or ridge to eave, wall plate or GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
downslope perimeter. Ans. (a) : Various types of truss and its span–
Purlin– Purlin is a horizontal beam or bar used for Truss span
structural support in structure most often below the roof. King post truss 5-8 m
30. Which of the following is a disadvantage of a Queen post truss 8-12 m
flat roof compared to a pitched roof? Howe truss 6-30 m
(a) Wind resistance Pratt truss 6-10 m
(b) Initial cost
Combination of king and queen truss upto 18 m
(c) Insulating properties
(d) Overall economy 33. Cement mortar of fluid consistency used to fill
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I the voids and joints in masonry and to repair
the cracks is known as:
Ans. (b) : Comparison between flat roofs and
(a) Guniting and permeability
pitched roofs:–
Advantage of flat roofs over pitched roofs are as (b) Guniting
following (c) Grout
• Terrace of flat roof is useful for assembly whereas (d) Permeability
top of sloping roof has no utility. UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
• Flat roof gives better thermal comfort to people Ans. (c) : Grout– Fluid consistency of cement mortar
living under is. used to fill the voids and joints in masonry and to repair
Flat roof has get the following disadvantages over the cracks is called as Grout. It is also used to increase
pitched roofs' the bearing capacity of soil by injection, Grouts finds
• Flat roofs are heavier. Hence their cost per unit area extensive use in dams to fill the cracks.
covered is more. The added weight makes column Guniting– Application of mortar or concrete under
and footings larger pneumatic pressure through a cement gun is known as
• It difficult to get large column-free areas under flat guniting. It is generally used for construction of thin
roofs whereas pitched roofs can be used to get over section like as lining of tunnels, swimming pools,
for large column free area. repairing of deteriorated concrete damaged by fire.
31. The comparison in the properties of • Thickness of gunite should not be less than 40 mm for
Galvanized Iron corrugated sheets (GI sheets) repairing structures.
and Asbestos Cement sheets (AC sheets) used 34. The application of mortar or concrete under
for roofing are given as answer options. Select pneumatic pressure through a cement gun is
the Incorrect one. known as_______.
(a) GI sheets are less fire resistant. Ac sheets are
(a) plastering (b) pointing
more fire resistant.
(c) guniting (d) moulding
(b) GI sheet are more resistant to acids and
fumes; Ac sheets are less resistant to acids SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
and fumes Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
Building Maintenance 92 YCT
 CONVENTIONS Dimension Lines :
Thin firm line is used in contrast with heavier visible
For building drawings, the BIS code IS 962-1967 is outlines to show dimension of the structure.
applicable. Conventions as per IS 962-1967 provide :
1. Scale of drawing and size of lettering.
2. Dimensioning methods, Symbols and abbreviations
3. Methods of Projections.
4. Units of measurements in drawings
The drawing of residential building and public Extension Line OR Light and thin lines :
building come under building drawing. These lines are drawn from the extremities of feature
TYPES OF LINES to which dimensions has to be given.
Visible Out Lines:
The visible out lines should be thick outlines Pointer Line :
according to the purpose, it can be 0.60,0.80, 1.00 or When space is insufficient to write a note or
1.30mm. dimension near the feature, pointer lines are drawn
These lines should be outstanding in appearance. from the note or dimension to show where it applies.
These lines are used to show wall thickness, plot
boundary, proposed structure etc.
Thickness may be 0.6mm to1.3mm.
Break Line OR Short break lines :
These are free hand drawn lines. To show continuity
Centre Lines : of the object, long break line or short break line is
These lines are marked on the drawings to show used.
centre of component it can be column, beam and
wall. Thickness 0.2mm to 0.3mm.

Arrow and Dots :

These are at the ends of dimension lines. The length
of the arrow is about 4 times the depth.

Hidden Lines :
These lines are shown when there is a hidden
surface or something is not visible on the surface
which is drawn.
These have to be shown in close and evenly spaced
dashes, thickness 0.4mm-0.5mm. Should be used to
represent hidden lines.
These lines in the drawings to show Loft, R.C.C
Chajja, Valley, Canopy etc.

Section Lines :
The plane on which the section has to be taken
section lines should be indicated in long dash and
two short dash alternately and evenly spaced out
also arrow to be shown in the direction of the section
to see and name of the section at the end in bold
letters.

Building Drawing 93 YCT

SYMBOLS
Different symbols are used for different construction
materials and fixtures as standards in BIS 962 like
different building components, water supply and its
fixtures, electrical appliances etc.
Materials Symbols
Brick work

Elevation Plan
Woodwork

Concrete

Earth work

Glass

Section Elevation
Stone work

Graphical Symbols for Doors and windows

Doors :
Symbols
Object Convention
Spot weld

Plug weld

Seem weld
(Continuous welding)
Ceiling fan
(Two blade)
Exhaust fan

Symbols for Sanitary Installations Regulator

Fuse

Building Drawing 94 YCT

 Conventional Representation of Breaks– Like to take maximum advantage of sunlight and
Object Convention wind, planning is required in positioning of windows
Rectangular and doors on the external walls different rooms in
section the building have different requirements and
function.
Round
section
Pipe

Tubing

Wood
rectangular
section
Rolled
section
Channel
section

Sizes of Various Standard Papers /Sheets

Sun path diagram
Prospect :
Prospect means one should take care of the
surroundings while designing the building and take
maximum advantage of the surroundings with
respect to views though openings in the building.
Openings can be windows, doors, balconies,
terraces. One can take advantage of natural
surroundings like sea, lake, garden, hill by giving
appropriate opening in the direction of these features
and if there are garbage dumping yard, slum area,
railway track cremation ground etc. which one does
not want to see from the opening can be hidden with
Designation Trimmed size Area, Sheet Name not providing any window in that particular
of Sheet (in mm) m2 direction.
A0 841×1189 1 Anti Quarian
A1 594×841 1/2 Double Elephant
A2 420×594 1/4 Imperial
A3 297×420 1/8 Half Imperial
A4 210×297 1/16 Quarter Imperial
A5 148×210 1/32 -

PLANNING OF BUILDING
Building planning is a rigorous planning process.
There are many aspects to be considered before
planning any building. Requirements of every
building is different. To plan any building like
residential, commercial or any public building
certain principles are followed, these are known as
principles of planning. Window position prospect
PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING Orientation :
Aspect : Orientation means to place the room or building
It is defined as the direction through which the room with respect to North direction.
receives natural light and ventilation from the Directions are very important aspect while planning
surrounding. any building. Like kitchen should have opening in

Building Drawing 95 YCT

 the east wall, to get the advantage of morning sun, Privacy means segregating one function from
same way the bedroom should face west or another. It can be external or internal.
southwest to get maximum advantage of wind or 1. External privacy :
breeze. • It means privacy from surrounding buildings as well
This aspect depends upon the movement of the sun, as privacy from noise and pollution from the road.
the wind, the rain, the climate, and the geographical • By good planning external privacy can be
position of the location. maintained like depending upon the location of the
Unit Aspect Remark opening, the heights of the sill can be decided.
Kitchen or E/NE/SE To take advantage of 2. Internal privacy :
Kitchen Morning sun • This aspect helps prevent direct view from other
cum room or passage.
Dining • Proper placement of door openings, placement or
Bedroom W/SW/NW Evening should door shutter or other screening like furniture
remove germs arrangements helps in maintaining internal privacy.
and dampness. Elegance :
Sunrays are cooler in Elegance is the aspect in the building which can be
the evening and to planned only by elevation like the front façade of the
take maximum building to make it appealing and pleasing.
advantage of wind.
Living SE/NE To take maximum
Room advantage of sunlight
for the whole day.
Study N Should have
room/ maximum natural
Storeroom light
Verandah N/S Should have Elegance in elevation
maximum natural Flexibility :
light and can be a In planning, if a space is planned for one function,
space to cut harsh and it can be converted to different function then
sunlight and rain for there is flexibility built in.
the outer walls of the In residential building planning flexibility aspect is
rooms not necessary however for some gatherings, one can
Toilet Can be located near convert small rooms into bigger by planning folding
kitchen and bedroom doors or partition as required.
Grouping : Circulation :
Grouping means arrangement of rooms and its Circulation means movement from one place to
relation to other space to run the function smoothly another it can be horizontal or vertical
and comfortable. 1. Horizontal circulation-
Planning of rooms with similar functions should be • It refers to movement of person from one room to
together as a group. another with the use of doors, corridors, passages,
This principle is more applicable in public buildings, etc. the ratio between circulation space to utilization
where the function of the space needs to be planned space should be around 1:4 for economic planning
according to their uses. for hostels, educational institutes, offices factories it
can be 1:3.
2. Vertical circulation-
• In multistory building, vertical circulation has to be
properly planned.
• It refers to movement of person from one floor to
another with the use staircase, lift, ramps, escalators,
etc.
• About 8-10 % of the floor area is adequate to plan
vertical circulation. For example, generally
staircases and lifts are provided in building for
Residential building groups vertical circulation.
Privacy : Furniture requirements :
Privacy is an important principle while planning all Furniture planning is one of the important
types of buildings whether public or residential. requirements while planning the space.
Building Drawing 96 YCT
 The room size can be decided on number of users, • Area, Minimum width, Ceiling heights
furniture requirement, equipment, arrangement of
furniture and space for circulation needs to be Room Minimum Minimum Minimum
planned efficiently. Area in width Height
2
Sanitation : m
Sanitation means to take care of light, ventilation, air Habitable 9.5m2 2.4m 2.75 m
conditioning, thermal comfort, facilities for general room (for single
cleaning and sanitary conveniences. Sanitary room)
conveniences include water closets (WC), Kitchen 5.5 m2 1.8 m 2.75 m
bathrooms, lavatories, latrines, urinals etc. Bathrooms, 1.1 m2 0.9 m 2.2 m
Water
Closets,
combined
Bath & WC
Assembly 3.6m 6.0m
halls,
residential
hotels of all
types,
institutional,
educational,
IT buildings, 2.75m 4.2m
office
buildings,

RULES AND BYELAWS

Building bye laws are the rules laid down for
construction and planning of different types of
buildings by municipal corporation, town planning
authorities or revenue authorities. These rules can be
different for different places.
Necessity of Building Bye laws
To reduce the haphazard growth of the city and
town, to control land development and to check the
Sanitary pipes arrangement un-authorized constructions.
To define the rules for new structures to be built.
SPACE REQUIREMENT AS PER IS 962 To specify the type of materials for construction to
be used.
For Residential Buildings
To provide for widening of roads and other
• Staircase
development for future.
Riser and Tread in Residential Building:
Riser : 175-185 mm, Tread : 250-270 mm By providing hygienic environment and also reduce
• Standard height the pollution by restricting population density in the
Plinth Height 0.60 – 0.75m town.
Windowsill 0.60m To provide for every citizen to get basic facilities
Windowsill for WC and 1.20m like water supply, drainage, electricity, proper light
Bath and ventilation etc.
Window height 1.5m To provide for open spaces, and safety against fire,
Door Height 2.1m noise, smoke etc.
Floor to ceiling height 3-3.5m
Head room for staircase 3.00m
DRAWING
Slab Thickness 100-120mm Engineering Drawing-
Kitchen platform 0.80m Language of an engineer by which he/she can represent
Riser of the steps and 150 -180mm his/her imagination on paper with proper dimensioning
staircase and precision is known as engineering drawing.
Building Drawing 97 YCT
Types of Engineering Drawing- Mostly imperial size (D2) drawing board is used in
1. Geometrical drawing • Plain geometrical engineering drawing.
Drawing. (plane - 2D) 2. T-Square-
• Solid geometrical Made of hard-quality wood such as teak or
Drawing. (solid - 3D)
mahogany etc.
2. Mechanical Engg. Drawing of parts of
drawing machine Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
3. Civil Engg. drawing Drawing of parts of It is used horizontal and parallel lines.
structure
4. Electrical Engg. Drawing of circuits,
drawing electrical parts etc.

DRAWING INSTRUMENT
Drawing instrument is used to prepare drawing
easily and accurately.
Following Instruments are used in engineering drawing-
1. Drawing Board 2. T-Square T-square is not used to draw inclined lines.
3.. Mini-Drafter (MD) 4. Protractor T-square is named by blade length.
5. Pencil 6. Set square Designation Length of Blade (in mm)
7. Scale 8. French curve T0 1500
9. Drawing Sheet 10. Eraser (Rubber) T1 1000
11. Divider 12. Compass T2 700
13. Drawing board pins, 14. Clinograph
Clips or Cello tape T3 500
15. Pencil cutter and sand T4 350
paper
1. Drawing Board
Drawing board is in rectangular shape and made of
well-seasoned softwood strip.
I-strip protect drawing board from warping.
One of the edges of the board is used as working
edge, on which the T-square is made to slide.

3. Mini-Drafter-
All the advantages of T-square, set-square, scale
and the protractor are available in mini-drafter.
Mini-drafter are used to draw horizontal, vertical
and inclined parallel lines on the sheet with saving
of time.
Sizes of drawing board-
• According to IS:1944-1989, drawing board is
represented by 'D'.
• According to IS:1946-1988, drawing board is
represented by 'B'.
Standard size and designation of drawing board-
Designation of Size (in mm) :
drawing board (Length × Width × Thickness)
D0 1500×1000×25
D1 1000×700×25 4. Protractor
D2 700×500×15 It is made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic
D3 500×350×15 material.
D4 350×250×15 These are circular semi-circular or flat in shape.

Building Drawing 98 YCT

 Protractor are used to measure angles and to draw 6. Set-Square
angles with L.C. = 1o. Triangular in shape & are made of celluloid or
plastic materials.
It is used for drawing all straight lines except the
horizontal lines which are usually drawn with the
T-square.
Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and
set-square.
The angle which is divisible by 150 are made with
the help of set square.
Ex.-150, 300, 1050, 1200, 1650 etc.
They are following two type –
(a) 45o - 45o - 90o set square
(b) 30o - 60o - 90o set square

5. Pencil
Lead of pencil is made of graphite powder or
kaolin or clay.
Drawing pencils are graded according to increase in 7. Rule or Scale
relative hardness. Scales are made of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic.
Grades of pencil and its use- It is used to draw straight lines.
Grade of pencil Uses Edges of the scale are marked with division of
Hard grade Used to draw light and centimeters which are sub-divided into millimeters.
(9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, fine lines
4H)
Medium grade Used for lettering and
(3H, 2H, H, HB, B) dimensioning
Soft grade Used to draw thick and
(2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, shiny lines
7B)
9H Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)
8. French Curve
7B Very soft grade pencil (Graphite
French curves is a flexible curve consists of a lead
content↑) bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to
2H Use to draw thin line, outer lines, draw a smooth curve through any set of points.
dimension line, dotted line and arrow Used to draw curve which can not be drawn with
head. compass (for irregular curve)
HB Used to draw thick line.
3H or 4H Used to draw to center line and section
line.
Generally 20 grade of pencils are used.
9. Rubber or Eraser
It is made of rubber and used to erase extra or
wrong pencil work.

B = Black
HB = Mid grade
H = Hard
F = Fine
Building Drawing 99 YCT
10. Divider Layout of drawing sheets-
Divider is used to divide straight or curved lines
into desired number of equal parts.

(a) Margins or border lines-

Left side - 20 mm
Other three side - 5 mm
11. Compass
(b) Title block Location
It is used to draw circles and arcs of circles of
Right side & lower most of the drawing sheet.
required diameter.
Size - 185 mm × 65 mm
Title block-

12. Drawing clips or drawing pins

These are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in
their position to the drawing board.

All dimensions in mm
Drawing of Framed Structure
PLAN

First floor plan

Building Drawing 100 YCT
 Ground floor plan

ELEVATION

Building Drawing 101 YCT

SECTION

SITE PLAN

Building Drawing 102 YCT

FOUNDATON PLAN OF FRAMED STRUCTURE

WORKING DRAWING OF STAIRCASE

Building Drawing 103 YCT

 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING TERMS USED IN MAKING PERSPECTIVE
Picture Plane :
Perspective is a three-dimensional view of any
It is a two-dimensional plane on which three-
object seen by an observer.
dimensional building is drawn. It is an imaginary,
Types of Perspective transparent vertical plane erected between the object
1. One Point Perspective : and the observer, very near to, or touching or cutting
In this perspective there is only one vanishing point. one corner of the object.
The perspective is also called as parallel perspective.
In this type of perspective two sets of lines i.e.,
horizontal, and vertical lines are parallel to picture
plane.

Eye Point or Station Point :

It is the position of the observer in the Plan. It is
station point S or Spectator Point in the Plan,
whereas in elevation it is eye level. It is a point from
which object is viewed.
2. Two Point Perspective: Eye Level :
In two-point perspective the object is inclined to the It is a horizontal line and plane at eye-level of the
picture plane. That is why only vertical lines remain observer and is represented by a straight line called
parallel to picture plane whereas other sets of two Horizon Line (HL).
lines are inclined to picture plane. Hence there are Ground Line :
two vanishing points one for each set of horizontal It is a straight horizontal line represents ground
lines. level. This is line a ground on which observer is
standing and visualizing.
Horizon Line :
It is a line represents eye level and drawn at observer
height above ground level. The objects convergence
occurs at a point on this line.

3. Three Point Perspective :

In three Point perspective there are three vanishing
points and all lines of one set converge to one
vanishing point. This is used to make tall buildings
or multi storied view because two point perspective
for tall buildings give a distorted perspective view.

Centre of vision :
Vertical sight lines and horizontal sight lines are
always at right angles to each other and the point
where they cross is the centre of vision (CV), the
point towards infinity which is dead in line with the
observer’s eye.

Building Drawing 104 YCT

 Angle of Vision : Types of pictorial projection-
One can see clearly only a certain portion. Angle (a) Oblique projection-
subtended by a horizontal plane and vertical One dimension of object is parallel to H.P. and
direction in which someone can visualize the things second is vertical to the horizontal or parallel to V.P.
clearly is called angle of vision. and the third is at an angle of 30º or 45º to the H.P.

Vanishing point and Vanishing Lines :

The main feature of the perspective drawing is Types of oblique projection-
vanishing of all parallel lines of object to a point to
Cavalier • Projection lines make an angle of
an infinite distance. The apparent convergence of the
projection 30º, 45º or 60º with the plane of
parallel lines is called vanish. The imaginary points
projection.
where all rays vanish are called vanishing point and
all imaginary lines which appear to be converging • Reading line are drawn to full
are called vanishing lines. size scale.

PROJECTION AND VIEW

Principle of Projection-
If straight lines are drawn from various points on
the contour of an object to meet a plane, the object
is said to be projected on that plane and that plane
are called plane of projection.
The image of object on the plane of projection is Cabinet • Projection lines make an angle
called projection of the object.
projection with the projection plane, it
becomes about ½ both the axes
by decreasing scale.
• Difference b/w cavalier and
cabinet projection is how the
depth of the object.

Classification of Projection-

Cliongraphic • In cavalier and cabinet

projection projections, the main face of the
object is made parallel to the
projection plane. In some cases,
when the object is rotated at an
angle, the plane of projection is
called cliongrahic plane.
(b) Perspective projection-
Linear projection where three dimensional objects
1. Pictorial Projection- are projected on a picture plane is known as
Pictorial view shows all three dimensions in one perspective projection.
view. In this projection the image of object is greater than
It provides a realistic view of a 3D object. the original object. Ex.- Projector.
Building Drawing 105 YCT
(c) Axonometric projection- Note-
Isometric All the three The line at which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called
projection faces of cube Reference line (XY).
make equal • Projection on the V.P. - Front view or elevation
angles with the • Projection on the H.P. - Top view or plan
plane. • Projection on the A.V.P. - Side view
Diametric Two faces of Quadrants system of orthographic projection-
projection cube make equal
angles with
plane.

Trimetric All three faces

projection of cube make
unequal angles
with plane.

Remember-
In Isometric view shape conversion
Quadrant Object position
Circle ⇒ Ellipse
First In front of V.P. and above the H.P.
Square ⇒ Rhombus
Second Behind the V.P. and above the H.P.
Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram Third Behind the V.P. and below the H.P.
Methods of projection used in Engg. Drawing- Fourth In front of V.P. and below the H.P.
1. Orthographic projection 2. Isometric projection Difference between first angle and third angle
3. Oblique projection 4. Perspective projection projection-
2. Orthographic Projection- First angle projection Third angle projection
When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called
orthographic projection.

● Object lies between the ● Plane of projection lies

observer and the plane of between observer and
projection. object.
● Plane of projection is ● Plane of projection is
assumed to be non- assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
● H.P. and V.P. is located ● H.P. and V.P. is
below and above the located respectively
In orthographic projection methods, an object is reference line (X-Y lines) above and below the
represented by two or three view on an respectively. reference line.
perpendicular projection planes. ● Projection is drawn ● Projection is drawn
Each projection view represents two dimension of apposite to the viewer same side to the viewer
an object. side
For the complete description of the three
dimensional object in this projection, at least two
or three views are required.
Planes of orthographic projection-
Two planes employed for purpose of orthographic
projection are called principal planes (i.e. H.P. and
V.P.)
They intersect each other at right angles (90º).

Building Drawing 106 YCT

 Front view- Front view- Types of auxiliary plane –
Above X-Y line Below X-Y line 1. Profile plane-
Top view- Top view- It is vertical to the H.P. and V.P. both.
Below X-Y line Above X-Y line
Right view- Right view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel
to V.P. and in left of to V.P. and in right of
elevation. elevation.
Left view- Left view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel
to V.P. and in right of to V.P. and in left of
elevation. elevation.
2. Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
This method of projection ● This method of 3. Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)
is used in India and projection is used in
Europe. U.S.A.

Difference between Perspective and Parallel

Projection (i.e. Orthographic Projection)–
Orthographic Perspective Projection
Projection
A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to
the V.P.
A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to
the H.P.
Projection of side view of the object is drawn on
auxiliary plane.
Miter line-
Miter line is used to construct side view.
• Observer is situated at • Observer is situated at
This line is drawn at 45o to the horizontal.
infinite distance from finite distance from the
the object. object.
• Projection rays (or • Projection rays are
projectors) are intersect at view point.
parallel.
• Projection has same • Objects appear smaller
size of original object. the farther away they
are.
Application– Application–
Architecture, computer Animation, visual
aided design etc. simulation etc.
3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane
Auxiliary plane -
i.Line perpendicular to Top view- A point
Sometimes two views of object (front view & top horizontal plane Front view-
view) are not sufficient to convey all information (H.P.) A line of true length
regarding the object. In this condition the perpendicular to XY-
additional view, called auxiliary view and line .
projected on that plane known as auxiliary plane.
Auxiliary view may also be used for determining–
(a) The true length of a line
(b) The point view of a line
(c) The edge view of a plane
(d) The true size and form of a plane.

Building Drawing 107 YCT

 ii. Line perpendicular Top view- 2. What is the another name for 'sub-divisional
to vertical plane A line of true length plan'?
(V.P.) perpendicular to XY (a) Sanctioned plan (b) Layout plan
line (c) Sanctioned plan (d) Approved plan
(e) Answer not known
Front view- A point
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
Ans. (b) : Sub-divisional or layout plan means division
of a plot or parcel of land, with or without
amalgamation of revenue plots into two or more final
plots after providing for streets, roads and drains as per
development plan, right of way for utilities, common
plot, open space etc. as per norms specified in these
4. Line inclined to both planes (H.P. and V.P.)– rules.
Top view- 3. The main aim of maintaining any structure is to
A line smaller than (a) improve its appearance
true length inclined to (b) utilise the funds provided
XY-line (c) stabilise the structure to enable it to carry the
Front view- functions for which it is constructed
A line smaller than (d) utilise services of incharge maintenance
true length inclined to PPSC JE 06/03/2022
XY-line. Ans. (c) : The main aim of maintaining any structure is
to stabilize the structure to enable it to carry the
function for which it is constructed.
4. A soft storey of multi-story building is an
example of
(a) Mass irregularity
(b) Geometric irregularity
(c) Stiffness irregularity
When a line is parallel to a plane , its projection on (d) None of the above
that plane will show its true length and true GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
inclination with the other plane. Ans. (c) : The presence of masonry infill’s is the cause-
(i) Unequal distribution of lateral forces in the
Questions Asked in Previous Years difference frames of a building-over stripping of some
1. Which of the following components of a fire alarm frames.
system are the circuits which connect initiating (ii) Vertical irregularities in strength and stiffness-soft
devices such as smoke detectors, heat detectors. storey or weak storey as a result higher inter-story drifts
Manual pull stations and water flow alarms? and higher ductility diamonds of RC element of the soft
(a) Alarm Initiating Device Circuits storey in comparison to remaining stories.
(b) Alarm Indicating Appliance Circuits (iii) Horizontal irregularities– Significant amount of
(c) Primary Power Supply unexpected, torsional forces since the centre of rigidity
(d) Fire Alarm Control Panel is mould forwards the stiffer in filled frames of
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 increased stiffness and at a result occurrence of very
Ans. (a) : The circuits which connect initiating devices large rotation and large displacement, in the extreme
such as smoke detectors, heat detectors. Manual pull bare frames.
stations and water flow alarms are called alarm 5. Building orientation is the _______ of a
initiating device circuits. building on a site.
Additionally, many system monitor devices important (a) design (b) heating
to overall safety of the building also tie into initiating (c) positioning (d) none of these
circuits. RPSC ACF & FRO 24/02/2021
• Audible and visible alarm indicating appliances tie Ans. (c) : Building orientation is the positioning of a
into these circuits to provide warning to the building building on a site. It is means fixing the direction of
occupants devices which send a signal off premises building for maximum benefit from sun, air and nature.
also can be connected to these circuits. 6. Which one of the following is Not a land use
• The fire alarm control panel contains the electronics zone?
that supervise and monitor the fire alarm system. (a) Residential Zone (b) Commercial Zone
The initiating and indicating circuits or connected (c) Industrial Zone (d) Heritage Zone
directly into the panel. PPSC Building Inspector 27/11/2022
Building Drawing 108 YCT
Ans. (d) : In general, a comprehensive zoning program (ii) The life shall have a floor area of net less than
might consist of the following categories- 1.4 m2. It shall have loading capacity of not less
(i) Open land than 545 kg (8 persons lift) with automatic
(ii) Residential land closing doors of minimum 0.8 m width.
(iii) Commercial land (iii) Fire lift should be provided with a ceiling hatch for
use, in case of emergency, so that when the car
(iv) Industrial land gets stuck up, it shall be easily openable.
(v) Combined planned units
9. Identify the incorrect statement related to
7. According to the National Building Code trenchers.
(NBC) of India, which of the following is an (a) Work speed of trenchers is higher than
essential requirement for the design and manual work.
construction of exits in terms of fire safety and (b) Quantity of work done by trenchers per day is
protection? higher than manual work.
(a) All exit staircases must be enclosed with fire- (c) Trenchers are suitable for any type of soil.
resisting materials of a minimum 2- hour fire (d) Trenchers are more suitable for small works.
rating. Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021
(b) Only one means of egress (exit) is necessary Ans. (d) : Trenches are dug manually or with the help
for a building under 15 meters in height. of trenching machines (backhoes, excuvators or
(c) Every exit doorway shall open into an internal trenchers)
corridor open space. • The work speed of the trenchers is higher than
(d) The exits must be designed to accommodate manual work
all people within the building in 6 minutes. • Quantity of work done by trenchers per day is higher
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 than manual work.
Ans. (a) : According to the national building code • Trenchers are suitable for any type of soil.
(NBC) of India an essential requirement for the design • Trenchers are more suitable for large works.
and construction of exists in terms of fire safety and 10. Which of the following earth moving machine
protection following step are used- has the shortest cycle time?
C-1.1 All materials of construction in load bearing (a) Drag line (b) Hoe
elements, stairways, carridors and facades shall be non- (c) Calm shell (d) Dipper shovel
combustible. UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
C-1.2 The interior finish materials shall not have a Ans. (d) : A dipper shovel is a type of earth moving
flame spreadability rating exceeding class 1. machine that uses a bucket to dig and move material. It
C-1.3 The internal wall of staircase shall be of brick or has a short cycle time because the bucket can be quickly
reinforced concrete with a minimum of 2 hr. fire rating. raised and lowered and the machine can be easily
C-1.4 The staircase shall be ventilated to the maneuvered.
atmosphere at each landing with a vent at the top. The • A drag line is a type of earth moving machine that
vent opening shall be of 0.5 m2 in the external wall and uses a cable to drag a bucket along the ground. It has
the top. If the staircase cannot be ventilated, because of a longer cycle time than a dipper shovel.
location or other reasons, a positive pressure 50 Pa shall • A hoe is a type of earth moving machine that uses a
be maintained inside. blade to push material. It has a longer cycle time than
• The authority may insist on suitable protection a dipper shovel.
measures in a building 15 m in height or above. • A clam shell is a type of earth moving machine that
uses a pair of jaws to open and close. It has a longer
8. In the context of the National Building Code cycle time than a dipper shovel.
(NBC) for fire and safety, which of the
following statements accurately the 11. Which of the following is NOT a factor
requirements for provision of fire lifts in a affecting the planning and orientation of
multi-storeyed building? buildings?
(a) Topography of the site
(a) Fire lifts must have a minimum carrying
(b) Climate conditions
capacity of 8 persons or 545 kg.
(c) Cost of construction materials
(b) Fire lifts are not required in residential (d) Prevailing wind direction
buildings with a height less than 15 meters. PGCIL JE 05.12.2023
(c) All floors above ground level must be served
by at least two fire lifts for evacuation Ans. (c) : The factor affecting the planning and
purposes. orientation of buildings.
(d) If more than 1 lifts are installed the partition • Topography of the site.
wall should be of minimum 60 minutes fire • Climate conditions
resistance. • Prevailing wind direction
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 • Building bylaws.
Ans. (a): Following details shall apply for a fire lift- These factors influence decisions related to building
(i) To enable fire service personnel to reach the layout, design and orientation to optimize environment
upper floors with the minimum delay, one fire lift conditions, energy efficiency and comfort for
per 1200 m2 of floor area shall be provided. occupants.
Building Drawing 109 YCT
12. The plan which is sanctioned and approved by 16. What is the difference between gross floor area
the competent authority is called as: and net floor area in building measurement?
(a) Key plan (b) Site plan (a) Gross floor area includes all the enclosed
(c) Sanctioned plan (d) Approved plan spaces within the building, while net floor
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 area includes only the usable space.
Ans. (c) : Sanctioned plan– Before starting any (b) Gross floor area and net floor area are the
building construction, the building plan should be same thing.
submitted to the municipality or any other complement (c) Net floor area includes all enclosed space
authority of the area. The building plan should be within the building, while gross floor area
prepared by a licensed architect or consulting engineer, includes only the usable space.
who can prepare it without violating the bylaws. Once (d) Gross floor area includes only the exterior
the plan is approved, it becomes a sanctioned plan. The
dimensions of the building, while net floor
owner has to build the house as per the sanctioned plan.
area includes the interior dimensions.
13. General layout of a new colony or town PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
showing roads, market, hospital, river, etc is
called as ______. Ans. (a) : The gross floor area is the sum of the plan
(a) Index plan (b) Key plan area of all levels (without usable roof are, measured
(c) Site plan (d) Site map between the external dimensions of the surrounding
NWDA JE (Civil) 01/08/2021 building elements at flow hinge. It is included all the
Ans. (a): General layout of a new colony or town enclosed space.
showing roads, market, hospital, river, etc is called as • Net floor area is the usable floor area between the
index plan. building element measures at floor level. It is includes
Site plans- It is used to locate position of buildings in only the usable space.
relation to setting out points, means of access, the 17. Which of the following basic principles of a
general layout of the site. These plans may also contain building is the overall effect produced by elevation
information of services, drainage network etc. and general layout of the plan of a building?
14. In India, according to the classification of (a) Prospect (b) Grouping
buildings based on occupancy, the building or (c) Aspect (d) Elegance
part of a building, where groups of people Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II
congregate or gather for amusement,
Ans. (d) : Elegance–It is the overall effect produced by
recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil,
travel and similar purposes are known elevation and general layout of the plan of a building.
(a) Mercantile buildings To get good elegance of building it is better if elevation
(b) Business buildings is developed first and then the plan is adjusted
(c) Assembly buildings accordingly.
(d) Institutional buildings Prospect–It is dictated by surrounding peculiarities
DSSSB JE Tier-I 29/06/2022 Shift-III good or bad of the selected site like a flower garden or
garbage dumps.
Ans. (c) : Group D- Assembly building– These shall
include any building or part of a building where group Aspect–The positioning of rooms in building in such a
of people congregate or gather for amusement, way that natural comforts like sunshine and air can
recreation social, religion, patriotic, civil, travel and enter inside the building to the maximum possible
similar purpose, e.g. Theatres, assembly hall, audition, extent.
exhibition, hall, museums, staking rinks, dance hall, 18. Which of the following represents the
club rooms, etc. dimensions for an A2 drawing sheet?
15. All of the following are the features of a site (a) 42 × 59.4 cm
layout plan EXCEPT: (b) 29.7 × 42 cm
(a) cost of property (c) 59.4 × 84.1 cm
(b) north arrow (d) 21 × 29.7 cm
(c) property line and setback NHPC Supervisor Survey 2023
(d) easements Ans. (a) : Dimension in mm for different sizes of
MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II drawing sheets area as follows–
Ans. (a) : Site layout plan– It is the plan drawn for a Paper size Dimension
particular construction showing its position with the (mm × mm)
wages of different categories of labour should be A0 841 × 1189
available for preparing an estimate.
A1 594 × 841
Features of a site plan–
(i) North arrow A2 420× 594 or
(ii) Property line and set back (42 cm × 59.4 cm)
(iii) Easement (transportation and service) A3 297 × 420
(iv) Weather (environment) A4 210× 297
(v) Legal constraints A5 148 × 210

Building Drawing 110 YCT

 CEMENT High lime content generally increases the setting
time and strength.
It is adhesive and cohesive material which are
It react with other ingredient and participate the
obtained by burning and grinding of calcareous and
argillaceous material at very high temperature and formation of Bogue compounds.
grinding the clinker. The presence of excess un-burnt or free lime is
Cement is commonly used as binding material. harmful since it results in delayed hydration causing
Range of cement particle size- 75-150µ. expansion (unsoundness) and deterioration of mortar
General ingredients of cement- and concrete.
(i) Calcareous rocks - 65%. Deficiency of lime in cement reduces it strength and
(ii) Argillaceous rocks- 35%. causes it to set quickly.
Chemical Composition of Cement- Silica (SiO2)-
It is responsible for strength.
Oxide/Composition Function
High silica content prolongs the setting time.
/Average
Responsible to make C3S and C2S compound.
composition
Alumina [Al2O3]-
Lime (CaO) Strength & soundness control,
It is responsible for quick setting.
60-65% ≈ 63% deficiency reduce strength
In excess quantity causes lower the strength.
Silica (SiO2) Due to excess reduces strength Iron Oxide [Fe2O3]-
17-25% ≈ 20% and slow setting It is responsible for colour.
Alumina (Al2O3) Responsible for quick setting if It act as flux.
3-8% » 6% in excess then lowers strength Magnesia (MgO)-
Iron oxide(Fe2O3) Used as flux It is responsible for colour and hardness.
0.5-6% ≈ 3% If present in excess quantity it causes unsoundness
Magnesia (MgO) Imparts colour & hardness Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)-
0.5- 4% ≈ 1% If SO3 is present in larger quantities it increases the
Gypsum Used as retarder setting time and causes of unsoundness.
2-5% ≈ 4% Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4 . 2H2O)-
Sulphur (SO3) Impart soundness It is added in the form of gypsum during grinding of
1-3% ≈ 1% clinker to increase the setting time of cement.
Alkalies Used as flux & It acts as a retarder.
0.2-1% ≈ < 1% Imparts efflorescence Alkalis-
The quantity of Sulphur trioxide (SO3) in OPC It causes Efflorescence.
cement should not be more than 3%. Alkalis accelerate setting of cement paste.
Function of Ingredients of Cement- Composition of Cement Clinker-
Lime [CaO]- It is also known as Bogue compound and formed
It is major ingredient of cement and act as binder. during clinkering Process.

Name of Compound Percentage Other Heat of Function

Name Hydration
Tri-calcium, Silicate 25 - 50% = 40% Alite 500 J/g 7 Days hardness and
[C3S] strength
Di-calcium Silicate [C2S] 25 - 40% = 32% Belite 260 J/g Ultimate strength
Tri-calcium Aluminate 5 - 11% = 10.5% Celite 865 J/g Flash set
[C3A]
Tetra-calcium Alumino 8 - 14% = 9% Felite 420 J/g Poorest cementing
Ferrite [C4AF] value

Concrete Technology 111 YCT

 Note- • No effect on setting time.
C3 A  • Rate of gain of strength increases.
L  Responsible for initial setting time (mainly C3A) • Value of shrinkage/contraction increases.
C 4 AF 
% Value of C3A is increases then-
C3S  • Initial setting time is decrease.
 Responsible for strength (mainly C3S) • Rate of hydration is increase.
C 2S 
• The value of total heat of hydration is increase.
Tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)-
• There is no effect on strength.
It help (render) the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to fre
If C3S content raising to beyond the specified limit If % value of C2S is increases and C3S is
increase the heat of hydration and solubility of decreases then-
cement in water. • Increase the ultimate strength.
Di-calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2)- • The value of 28 day's strength is decreases.
It hydrates and harden slowly and take long time to • Increase the capacity to resist chemical attack.
imparts strength. • Value of total heat of hydration is decreases.
It imparts resistance to chemical attack. • This type of cement is prefer in the construction of
It is responsible for ultimate strength. hydraulic structure.
Tri-calcium Aluminate [3CaO.Al2O3]- Hydration of cement-
C3A is responsible for higher heat of hydration, If water is added to cement a chemical reaction
initial setting, low resistance to sulphate attacks, heat between water and cement starts so that, heat
of hydration, and lowers the ultimate strength. produces, this is called heat of hydration and the
Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite process of reaction with water is called hydration of
[4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3]- cement.
As increase the C4AF content the strength reduces Water requirement for hydration of cement-
slightly. Bound water - 23% of cement weight
C3A is start the hydration but C4AF has highest rate Gel water- 15% of cement weight
of hydration. So minimum water required for complete hydration
Order of rate of hydration- is 38% of cement weight.
C 4 AF > C3 A > C3S > C 2S Chemical reaction of cement with water is an
exothermic process.
Order of rate of heat of
hydration/hardening-
Manufacture of cement-
1. Mixing 2. Burning 3. Grinding
C3 A > C3S > C 4 AF > C 2S ❖ Tools used in Production of Cement-
Name of Use
Order of strength- Tools
C3S > C 2S > C3 A > C 4 AF Rotary kiln It is used for burning of slurry.
Length It has following three chambers-
Reaction with water- 90 - 120 m (i) Drying Zone
C3 A > C 4 AF > C3S > C 2S Diameter Temp. 2500C to 5000C
The above sequence is valid when all compound are 1-2m In this chamber moisture of slurry
taken in equal quantity. is evaporate.
If quantity of C3S is increase and C2S is (ii) Calcinations Zone–
Temp. 7000C to 12000C.
decrease then- The calcinations of lime is
• Increase the rate of hardening. complete in this chamber.
• Increase the rate of heat of hydration. (iii) Clinker Zone-
• Increase the total heat of hydration. Temp. 15000C to 17000C.
• Increase 28 day's strength. Clinker (size- 5 to 10mm) is
• Decrease the ultimate strength. formed in this chamber.
• Decrease the capability to resist the chemical and Bogue compound are formed in
this chamber.
Sulphur attack.
Ball mill It is used for coarse grinding of clinker.
If fineness of cement is increases then- Tube mill It is used for fine grinding of clinker.
• Strength of cement is increases. Gypsum is added in cement during the grinding of
• Rate of hydration increases. cement.
• Rate of heat of hydration increases. The production cost of cement in dry process is
• No effect on total heat of hydration. more than that of wet process.
Concrete Technology 112 YCT
 The dry process is adopted when the raw material (c) Sedimentation Method or Wagner Turbidity
are quite hard. This process is slow and production Meter Method-
cost is high. In this method surface area one gram of cement is
measure. Reading are expressed in square cm per gram.
Quality of cement is good in wet process while poor
Factors affecting the fineness of Cement-
in dry process. • Chemical Composition.
TEST OF CEMENT • Degree of Calcinations.
• High Iron and silica content in clinker.
Lab test/physical test- • Time of grinding.
1. Fineness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-I)]- • Character of the pulverizing machine.
This is used to check proper grinding which has 2. Normal/Standard Consistency Test [IS:5513-
direct impact on rate of hydration, rate of gain of 1976, IS : 4031 (Part-4 1988)]-
strength and evolution of heat. The standard consistency of the cement paste is
There are three methods for testing fineness. defined as percentage of water added in 300 g
(a) Sieve Method- weight of cement which will permit a vicat plunger
to penetrate in cement paste to a depth of 33 to 35
• In this method particle size of cement is measured mm from the top of the mould or rest from bottom 5
• Size of sieve- 90 micron (Sieve No. 9) to 7 mm.
• Sieving time- 15 minutes
• Weight of cement sample - 100 gm
Result-
The residue should not exceed the limits specified
below (after sieving).
Types of cement Percentage of
Residue by weight
Ordinary Portland Cement 10
(OPC)
Rapid Hardening Cement 5
(RHC)
• Weight of cement 300 gm
Portland Puzzolana Cement 5 sample
(PPC)
• Size of mould Diameter - 80 mm,
(b) Air Permeability Method or Nurse & Blains Height - 40 mm
Method- • Size of plunger Diameter -10 mm,
Fineness is represented in terms of specific surface area (cm2/gm) Height - 50 mm
This test is based on relationship between flow of air • Depth of 33 to 35 mm from the top
through cement bed and surface area of cement penetration 5 to 7 mm from the bottom.
particles forming the bed. The value of normal consistency is depends upon the
In this method surface area of the cement is compound composition and fineness of cement.
measured. The water requirement for various test of cement
depend on the normal consistency of the cement, so
❖ Minimum specific surface area of cement- this test is perform before than other test of cement.
Types of cement Specific Surface area Normal consistency of OPC is - 26 to 33%
≮ cm2/gm
3. Initial and Final Setting Time [IS : 4031
Ordinary Portland 2250
(Part-5), IS : 5513-1976]-
Cement (OPC)
High Alumina Cement 2250 (a) Initial Setting Time (IST) Test-
(HAC) This test is perform by vicat apparatus with the help
of needle.
Portland Puzzolana 3000 I.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that
Cement (PPC) the water is added to the cement, to the time that
Low Heat Cement 3200 paste starts losing its plasticity.
(LHC) • Quantity of water 0.85 P
Rapid Hardening 3250 • Weight of Cement sample 400 gm
Cement (RHC) • Weight of movable rod 300 gm
Hydrophobic Cement 3500 • Diameter of needle 1 mm
(H.C.) • Penetration of needle 33 to 35 mm
Super Sulphate Cement 4000 (from top of the
(SSC) mould)
Concrete Technology 113 YCT
(b) Final setting Time (FST) Test– 1 - 2% SO3 makes cement soundness.
This test is done by vicat apparatus with the help of 5. Compressive Strength Test- [IS : 4031 (Part-
needle with collar. VII)]
F.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that No. of cube sample- 6 with cement mortar 1:3
the water is added to the cement and the time when (Cement : Ennore sand)
cement paste losses its plasticity completely and has
attain sufficient firmness to resist certain defined
Size of cube 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm
pressure at this time the mark of needle is left on the Surface Area 5000 mm2
surface of sample but the mark of the collar is not Water required P 
formed.  + 3.5  % weight of
4 
• Weight of cement sample - 400 gm cement and sand
• Quantity of water - 0.85 P Rate of loading 35 N/mm2/min or 350
4. Soundness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-III)]- kg/cm2/min.
Soundness means the ability to resist volume Strengths-
expansion. At 3 days - 50% (strength of 28 days)
This test is conducted to detect change in volume At 7 days - 2/3 (strength of 28 days)
after setting.
At 28 days - 33 N/mm2
This test is done with the help of Le - chatelier
apparatus and Autoclave test. ❖ Average Compressive Strength of Cement in
(i) Le - chatelier's Method (IS : 4031 Part 3-1988)- N/mm2 -
• Unsoundness of cement is due to free lime only. Types of Compressive Strength After in
• Weight of cement sample = 100 gm. cement day's (N/mm2)
• Quantity of water = 0.78 P. 1 3 7 28
• Result is given in 'mm'. O.P.C.
33 grade –– 16 22 33
• Temperature - 27 ± 2 C, humidity 65 ± 5%.
0
43 grade –– 23 23 43
53 grade –– 27 37 53
L.H.C. –– 10 16 35