Review of Constitutive Equations:

Elasticity, Plasticity and Damage

 Review of Constitutive Equations

1. Introduction

2. Constitutive equation

3. Linear elasticity

4. Nonlinear elasticity

5. Inelasticity
a) Plasticity

b) Damage
 Review of Constitutive Equations
1. Introduction
The boundary value problem (BVP) in Continuum Mechanics
We need to solve:
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝑻 𝒕 at 𝜕 𝑇 Ω

Stresses 𝜎= 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧

𝑠𝑦𝑚 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜕Ω

𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧

𝛀
Strains 𝜀= 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑧
𝑠𝑦𝑚 𝜀𝑧𝑧

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑧 𝒖 𝒕 at 𝜕 𝑢 Ω
Displacements

…15 unknowns in 3D!

 Review of Constitutive Equations
1. Introduction
Solving the boundary value problem (BVP) in 3D requires 15 equations.

• Equilibrium equations body forces (weight…)

𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧
+ + = 𝑏𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 Div 𝝈 = 𝒃
+ + = 𝑏𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧 (3 equations)
+ + = 𝑏𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• Kinematic equations
𝜕𝑢𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦 1 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑧
+ +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑢𝑦 1 𝜕𝑢𝑦 𝜕𝑢𝑧 Boundary conditions (BC)
𝜺= ∇𝒔 𝒖 = (∇𝒖 + ∇𝒖𝑇 ) 𝜀= +
2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝒖(𝜕 𝑢 Ω) = 𝒖𝑩𝑪
(6 equations) 𝜕𝑢𝑧
𝑠𝑦𝑚
𝜕𝑧 𝑻(𝜕 𝑇 Ω) = 𝑻𝑩𝑪
 Review of Constitutive Equations
1. Introduction
Solving the boundary value problem (BVP) in 3D requires 15 equations.

• Equilibrium equations (3 eqs.) Div 𝝈 = 𝒃

• Kinematic equations (6 eqs) 𝜺 = ∇𝒔 𝒖
• Boundary conditions 𝒖 𝜕𝑢Ω & 𝑻(𝜕 𝑇 Ω)

• Constitutive equations (6 eqs)

Relationship between stresses and strains (material)

𝝈 = ℱ(𝜀)
3 + 6 + 6 = 15 equations to calculate 15 unknowns
 Review of Constitutive Equations
2. Constitutive equations
The constitutive equation represents the mechanical behaviour of the material.

State variables
𝝈 = ℱ(𝜀) (plastic strain…)

small strain 𝚫𝝈 = ℱ(Δ𝜀)

state 𝚫𝝈 = ℱ(Δ𝜀, 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 … )

In the most general case, stresses depend on strains and some

additional variables that depend on the strain history (state variables)
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 𝜀 𝑡
 Review of Constitutive Equations
3. Linear elasticity
A material is elastic when it recovers the initial shape after unloading.
Linear assumes proportionality between stress and strain.
𝓕 is a linear relation which is known as “Hooke’s Law” and is summarized into the stiffness matrix (𝑪).

𝝈=𝐶𝜀 𝚫𝝈 = 𝐶 Δ𝜀
𝐶 is constant!

• Includes both: isotropic (e.g. metals, ceramics…) and anisotropic behaviour (e.g. composites)
• Most solids exhibit this behaviour at small strains
• Brittle materials present this regime before final failure: ceramics, some long-fiber composites…
• Structural components design is often based on linear elastic assumption.
 Review of Constitutive Equations
4. Nonlinear elasticity File:[Link]

These materials are elastic as well, the stress-strain

relation is path-independent (no state variables).
The stress-strain relation is nonlinear and are commonly
known as “hyperelastic materials”.

𝜕𝑾
𝝈= 𝐶 is not constant!
𝜕𝜀

• Constitutive laws based on a potential energy 𝑾

• The formulation of 𝑊 leads to different models:
Mooney-Rivlin, Neo-Hookean, Yeoh, Gent…
• Application on rubbers, biological tissue, etc.
 Review of Constitutive Equations
5. Inelasticity
a) Plasticity
The stress-strain relation in plastic materials is path-dependent (dependence on strain history).
When load is released, original shape may not be recovered → Plastic strains

𝝈 = ℱ(𝜀, 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 … ) 𝐶 is not constant!

Initial Load Unload

Physical mechanisms responsible for plastic strains:

• Shear deformation of the crystal lattice from dislocation
movements in metals and other crystalline materials.
• In polymers, irreversible sliding between polymeric
macromolecules.
 Review of Constitutive Equations
5. Inelasticity
a) Plasticity
Plasticity (1D) – General behaviour of plastic material under uniaxial loading:

3
𝜎
1) Elastic regime If 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑌 ⟹ Elastic response
2) Elastic limit (yield stress, 𝝈𝒀 ) 2
4 If 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑌 ⟹ Plastic response
3) Strain hardening (↑ 𝝈𝒀 )
1
4) Elastic unloading Hardening: 𝜎𝑌 = 𝜎𝑌 𝜀𝑝
5) Permanent deformation (𝜀𝑝 ) 𝐸 𝐸 Plastic strain: 𝜀𝑝 = ‫𝑝𝜀 ׬‬ሶ 𝑑𝑡
5
𝜀𝑝 𝜀
 Review of Constitutive Equations
5. Inelasticity
a) Plasticity
Plasticity (3D) – Definition of an equivalent stress from the stress tensor, 𝜎𝑒𝑞 𝝈 .
1
In metals, plastic strain is determined by deviatoric stress (𝒔). 𝐽2 =
2
𝒔: 𝒔

𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧

𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝑝 𝜎𝑦𝑧 Von Mises: 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 3𝐽2
𝒔 = 𝝈 − 𝑝𝑰 𝒔=
𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝 Tresca: 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝐼 − 𝜎𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑡𝑟 𝜎
𝑝=
3
hydrostatic pressure

If 𝜙 𝝈 < 0 ⟹ Elastic response

Yield criterion: 𝜙 𝝈 = 𝜎𝑒𝑞 − 𝜎𝑌
If 𝜙 𝝈 = 0 ⟹ Plastic response

𝜕𝜙
Flow rule: directions of the plastic strain, 𝜺ሶ 𝑝 = 𝜆
𝜕𝝈
 Review of Constitutive Equations
5. Inelasticity
b) Damage
Many materials suffer damage, or stiffness degradation, before final failure:
o Voids nucleation in ductile metals decreases strength until final failure due to voids coalescence.
o Brittle materials like fiber-reinforced composites suffer cracking, degrading stiffness and strength.

𝝈 = ℱ(𝜺, 𝑑) 𝐶 is not constant!

𝜎
• Continuum damage models (CDM) employ damage state
variables (𝑑): 0 (undamaged) to 1 (fully damaged).
• Damage variables represent porosity levels, cracking… 𝐸0 𝐸 = 𝐸0 1 − 𝑑
Accounting for the strain history of the material.
• Review of CDM for composites will be done later.
𝜀