ANAPHY AND PHYSIOLOGY -Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate

the relatedness of body structures, such as how

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other
structures work together to serve a particular
body region.
Human anatomy -A significant goal of those learning regional
anatomy is to build a three-dimensional
- is the scientific study of the body's structures. understanding of the placement and relationships
among structures in their minds so that, when
(microscopic anatomy)
presented with images taken from a various
-Some of anatomy structures are very small and perspectives or while performing surgery or
can only be observed and analyzed with the dissection, anatomists are able to understand the
assistance of a microscope images.

(gross anatomy) Systemic anatomy

-Larger structures can readily be seen, -is the study of the structures that make up a
manipulated, measured, and weighed through discrete body system that is, a group of
structures that work together to perform a unique
-the brain considers structures visible with the body function.
naked eye
-For example, a systemic anatomical study of the
muscular system would consider all of the
skeletal muscles of the body.
X-ray
Human physiology
- imaging is best for hard structures such as
bones and teeth -is the scientific study of the chemistry and
physics of the structures of the body and the
-notice that we cannot visualize the brain ways in which they work together to support the
through the cranium using an X-ray functions of life

CT scans Structure and Function

-is an imaging technique that uses multiple Form

angles of X-rays at once to produce a more
detailed image -is closely related to function in all living things.

Microscopic anatomy -The harmony between form and function can be

seen in every aspect of human life from
-can only be done on cells and tissues removed molecular structure to physical traits of the
from the body (which isn't optimal when it whole organism.
comes to brain tissue!).
Protein structure
Microscopic anatomy
-is intimately tied to protein function, and
-includes cytology (the study of cells), and changes in protein shape alter the function of
histology, (the study of tissues). those proteins.

Phosphorylated

Anatomists take two general approaches to the -A classic example of these changes can be seen
study of the body's structures: regional and when proteins are
systemic.
-(a negatively charged phosphate group is added
Regional anatomy onto a protein).

-is the study of the interrelationships of all the -The addition of this negative charge typically
structures in a specific body region, such as changes the shape of the entire protein by
abdomen. drawing positively charged regions of the
molecule toward the new addition.
Phosphorylation melanin

-is the most common form of molecular -skin pigment

regulation in animal cells.

-Using --- , we can turn on or off the activity of

enzymes, signaling molecules, or transcription Physiological variation
factors
-is much more diverse and widespread.
One gross anatomical example that is unique to
humans is the shape of our pelvises. Physiological variables

Humans -will differ not just from one individual to

another, but also between children and adults,
-are the only adult mammals that walk women and men, and depending on age.
predominately on two feet (bipedalism).
-is very important to understand and remember
- When early humans evolved to move primarily as it can lead to grave consequences in
as bipeds instead of as our tree-dwelling primate recognition and treatment of disease.
ancestors,

-we evolved a restructured pelvis, one that could

support the weight of our abdominal organs as Three types of gradients that drive flow in
well as accommodate the much larger gluteal physics
(buttock) muscles that were required for
stabilization of our torso and efficient forward -concentration gradients
motion.
-electrical gradients
-If we had not needed the function of the pelvis
-pressure gradients
to accommodate bipedalism, we would not have
observed the structural change of the perlvis
over time.
Pressure Gradients
Evolution
-derived the flow of fluids and gasses
-is a change in gene expression that occurs from
generation to generation -the pressure generated by the pumping of the
heart drives the flow of blood.
-specifically entails genetic changes and does
not occur within one's lifetime but across the Concentration gradients
lifetimes of generations of humans or other
organisms. -derived the flow (here called diffusion) of
individual molecules.
Genetic changes
-for example sodium ions will flow from areas
-occur randomly and with relative frequency, but where they are more concentrated to areas where
they become more common among the they are less concentrated.
individuals of a population when they confer an
advantage in a particular environment. Electrical Gradients

vitamin D -will influence the flow of charged particles

including ions.
-a nutrient that is central to the structure of our
Bones -we can summarize the rate of flow as being
determined by the size of the gradient divided by
the resistance.
Folate

-is essential for sperm production and embryonic

development
 adult it may be 195 beats per minute or even
higher! This wide variation is because the heart
Homeostasis can (within limits) beat as fast or slow as the
body needs it to in order to maintain homeostatic
-is the state of dynamic stability of the body's levels of blood pressure and oxygenation for
internal conditions. healthy cells.
-While our bodies are able to withstand a variety
of external conditions, many internal condi nons
must stay stable for the health of our cells. Homeostatic Model

Parameters -includes a set point for the regulated variable a

sensor control center and effector.
-such as oxygen levels, pH, qutrient availability,
and temperature must remain constant for our
molecules and cells to be able to survive and
perform their functions. Student Study Tip

Negative feedback

Homeostasis -is explained by an air conditioner set to a

specific temperature: once it has been running
-requires that the body continuously monitor its for a while, it turns itself off once the setpoint is
internal conditions. reachieved!

-From body temperature to blood pressure to

levels of certain nutrients, each physiological
condition has a particular setpoint. Negative feedback

-is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from

the setpoint.
setpoint
-Therefore, negative feedback maintains body
-is the physiological value around which the parameters within their normal range.
normal range fluctuates.
-The maintenance of homeostasis by negative
For example, the setpoint for normal human feedback goes on throughout the body at all
body temperature is approximately 37°C times,
(98.6°F). Of course, humans are diverse and so
setpoints are diverse too. Temperature setpoints, -In a negative feedback pattern, the action of the
for example, appear to vary widely based on effectors "turns off" the action of the sensor.
metabolic rate, body mass, age, and biological
sex. E.g. In this example, the levels of sugar in the
blood fall in an individual who is between meals.
hypothermia This decrease in circulating blood sugar could
compromise the function of the body's cells,
-or dangerously cold, when their body particularly the brain. The decrease is sensed by
temperature falls below 35°C (95°F) the pancreas, which releases a hormone called
glucagon to alert the body of this dangerous
fever decrease in nutrients. Upon receiving the
glucagon signal, the liver begins to break down
- a person is considered to have a when their glycogen, a storage carbohydrate, and releas ing
body temperature registers above 38°C the resulting sugars into the blood. Blood sugar
(100.4°F) levels rise, and the sensors in the pancreas stop
sending signal
While 37°C is the average, the range is 35°C to
38°C. parallel system
The one in this list that is not homeostatically -works to control blood glucose levels from
regulated is heart rate going too high.
Heart rate in a resting adult can be as low as 60
or even 50 beats per minute, and in an exercising
-After a meal or glycogen breakdown, blood -organ level
glucose levels rise. The pancreas releases a
hormone known as insulin. -system level

-organism level

Insulin Atom

-helps cells all over the body to take glucose out -The smallest unit of any of these pure
of the blood, bringing the blood glucose levels substances
back within the homeostatic range.
Atoms
positive feedback system
-are made up of subatomic particles such as the
-în contrast, intensifies a change in the body's proton, electron, and neutron.
physiological condition rather than reversing it.
molecule
-A deviation from the normal range results in
more change, and the system moves farther -Two or more atoms combine to form a , such as
away from the normal range. the water molecules, proteins, and sugars found
in living things.
-A positive feedback cycle within the body will
continue and intensify until there is an interrup - are the chemical building blocks of all body
tion. structures.

Childbirth is one example of a positive feedback Cell

loop that is healthy, but does not work to
maintain homeostasis. Enormous changes in the -is the smallest independently functioning unit of
mother's body are required to expel the fetus at a living organism.
the end of pregnancy. The events of childbirth,
-Even bacteria, which are extremely small,
once begun, progress rapidly toward a
unicellular organisms, have a cellular structure.
conclusion at which the cycle finally comes to a
stop once the fetus and placenta are outside the -All living structures of human anatomy contain
mother's body. The extreme muscular work of cells, and almost all functions of human
labor and delivery are the result of a positive physiology are performed in cells or are initiated
feedback system . by cells.
cervix organelles
-(the lowest part of the uterus). -A human cell functions as its own tiny world
encased in a protective membrane that encloses a
-contains nerve cells that monitor the degree of
variety of tiny functioning units called .
stretching (the sensors).
-In humans, as in all organisms, cells perform all
Oxytocin
functions of life.
-causes stronger contractions of the smooth
Tissue
muscles in the uterus (the effectors).
-is a group of many cells that work together to
Positive Feedback Loop
perform a specific function.
-continuous on its own until the stimulus is
Organ
removed or halted , this loops do not result in a
return to homeostasis. -is a structure of the body that is composed of
two or more tissue types; each organ performs
Six levels of increasing complexity
one or more specific physiological functions.
-Chemical Level
Organ system
-cellular level
-is a group of organs that work together to
-tissue level perform major functions or meet physiological
needs of the body.
 Respiratory system

-Exchanges air with the atmosphere

Integumentary system -Provides surface area for the diffusion of

oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood
-Createe a barrier that protects the body from
pathogens and fluid loss

-sensory reception Digestive system

-Breaks down food and absortie nutrients into

the body
Skeletal system
Urinary system
-Supports and protects the body
-Contributes to blood pressure and pH
homeostasis

Muscular system -Removes waste products from the body

-Creates the movement of the body

-Contribules to body temperature homeostasis Reproductive System

-Produce and exchange gametes

Nervous systerm -House the fetus until birth

-Acts as the sensor for homeostasis - Lactation

-Connects the brain to every part of the body

Organism

Endocrine system -highest level of organization

-Secretes the hormones that regulate many -is a living being that has a cellular structure and
bodily processes that can independently perform all physiologic
functions necessary for life.

Cardiovascular system
Student Study Tip
-Delivers oxygen nutrierits, hormones and waste
producta throughout the body Anatomical position is important so no two
bones are crossed and you can use anatomical
-Contributes to temperature regulation directional terms without confusion!

Organ systems For example, in the disorder hypotension, the

prefix "hypo-" means "low" or "under", you will
-Organs that work together toward one or a set see this root attached to many terms.
of functions can be grouped into
Hypodermis
Lymphatic system
-is the layer of skin under the dermis
-Regulates fuid balance in the body
Hypoglycemia
-Houses some of the immune cells that defend
the body from pathogens -is low blood sugar (gly- is a root for sugar),
Hyposecretion

-refers to an endocrine gland that is secreting

less than its typical levels of hormone,
Medial
For precision, anatomists standardize
-describes the middle or direction towards the
-standard position-anatomical position-when middle of the body. Hallux is the most medial
describing the relative position of one structure toe.
to another.
Superficial

-Describes a position closer to the surface of the

Anatomical position body. The skin is superfi- cial to the bones.

- is that of the body standing upright, with the Deep

feet shoulder width apart and parallel, toes
forward. The upper limbs are held out to each -Describes a position farther from the surface of
side, and the palms of the hands face forward the body, The brain is deep to the skull.
with thumbs out to the sides.
Proximal

-Describes a position on a limb that is nearer to

Body position can be described as prone or the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
supine. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.

Prone Distal

-describes a face-down orientation -Describes a position in a limb that is farther

from the point of attachment or the trunk of the
Supine body. The crus is distal to the femur.

-describes a face-up orientation. toward the

middle of the body.
Section
Hallux
-is a slice of a three-dimensional structure that
-is the most medial toe has been cut

Anterior Plane

-Describes the front (belly) of the body. The toes -is an imaginary slice through the body used in
are anterior to the foot imaging.

Posterior Frontal plane

-Describes the back of the body. The spine is -sepadates the anterior and posterior body
posterior to the stomach. Superior

-Describes a position above or higher than

another part of the body proper. The neck is Latitude
superior to the shoulders.
-has the Latin root "lat-," which means side.
Inferior
Lateral
-Describes a position below or lower than
another part of the body, The pelvin is inferior to -is farther out to the sides compared to medial,
the abdomen. which has root medi- means middle.

Lateral Anterior (ventral)

-Describes a structure toward the side of the Posterior(dorsal)

body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
Superior(cranial) The posterior cavity and the anterior cavity

Inferior (caudal) - both contain and protect delicate internal

organs. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines
Branchium (upper arm)
Subdivisions of the Posterior and Anterior
Antebanchium ( lower arm) Cavities

Femur(thigh) The posterior and anterior cavities

-are each subdivided into smaller cavities.

There are 3 types of planes in anatomy: The -In the posterior cavity, the cranial cavity houses
sagittal plane, frontal plane, transverse plane the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral
cavity) encloses the spinal cord.
The sagittal plane
The anterior cavity
-is the plane that divides the body or an organ
vertically into right and left sides. -has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity
and the abdomino- pelvic cavity
Midsagittal or median plane
The thoracic cavity
-If this vertical plane runs directly down the
middle of the body, it is called the. -is the more superior subdivision of the anterior
cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage.
Parasagittal plane
The thoracic cavity
-If it divides the body into unequal right and left
sides, it is called a or, less commonly, a -contains the lungs and the heart. The thoracic
longitudinal section. cavity can be further subdivided into two pleural
cavities, and one mediastinum.
Frontal plane
The right and left pleural cavities
-is the plane that divides the body or an organ
into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior -contain the right and left lungs, respectively.
(rear) portion.
The mediastinum
-often referred to as a coronal plane. ("Corona"
is Latin for "crown.") -found between the pleural cavities, contains the
heart, along with the thymus and portions of the
esophagus and trachea.

Transverse plane The diaphragm

-is the plane that divides the body or organ -forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and
horizontally into upper and lower portions. separates it from the more inferior
abdominopelvic cavity.
-produce images referred to as cross sections.
The abdominopelvic cavity is
40 trillion human Cells
-the largest cavity in the body.
-A human body consists of approximately cells.
-no membrane physically subdivides the
100 trillion microbial cells. abdominopelvic cavity
-Your body is also home to approximately -it can be useful to distinguish between the
abdominal cavity, the division that houses the
cell membrane digestive organs,
-(also referred to as the plasma membrane) that pelvic cavity
keeps the intracellular environment-the fluids
and organelles-separate from the extracellular -the division that houses the organs of
environment. reproduction.
The anterior cavity The pleura

-includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic -is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs
cavities and their subdivisions. in the pleural cavity;

The posterior cavity the pericardium

-includes the cranial and spinal cavities. -is the serous membrane that surrounds the heart
in the pericardial cavity,
Posterior cavity (dorsal cavity) Anterior Cavity
(ventral cavity) Spinal Cavity (vertebral cavity) and the peritoneum
Abdominopelvic cavity(peritoneal cavity)
-is the serous membrane that surrounds several
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants Clinically, organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
healthcare
The serous membranes
-providers typically divide up the cavity into
either nine regions or four quadrants -form fluid-filled sacs, or cavities, that are meant
to cushion and reduce friction on internal organs
- These terms are used most often in describing when they move, such as when the lungs inflate
the location of a patient's abdominal pain or a or the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral
suspi- cious mass layers of the serous membrane secrete the thin,
slippery serous fluid that fills the cavity and
Membranes of the Anterior Body Cavity A lubricates the membranes.
serous membrane (also referred to as a serosa)
The pericardial and peritoneal cavity fluids
-is one of the thin membranes that cover the
walls and organs in the thoracic and -reduce friction between the organs and the body
abdominopelvic cavities. or pericardial walls.

-The parietal layers of the membranes line the The pleural cavity fluid
walls of the body cavity (pariet-refers to a cavity
wall). -provides another function There- fore, serous
membranes provide additional protection to the
-The visceral layer of the membrane covers the viscera they enclose by reducing friction that
organs (the viscera). could lead to inflammation of the organs.

Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very Computer tomography ( CT) (CT scans
thin, fluid- filled serous space, or cavity (Figure
2.16). -are sometimes called "cat scans")

Serous Membranes X-Rays

-A double-layered serous membrane covers the -The X-ray is a form of high-energy

heart. electromagnetic radiation capable of penetrating
solids
-Serous membranes are composed of a visceral
and parietal layer with fluid between them. -As they are used in medicine, X-rays are
amitted from an X-ray machine and directed
-These membranes develop as a fluid-filled sac toward a specially treated metallic plate placed
and the organ develops onto the membrane, behind the patient's body The beam of radiation
causing it to reflect back to cover the heart-much results in darken ing of the X-ray plate
the same way that an underinflated balloon
would form two layers surrounding a fist. -Whereas X-rays are slightly impeted by soft
tissues, which show up as gray on the X-ray
-The abdominopelvic cavities can be divided plate, hard tissues such as bone
into A)Nine regions (abdominopelvic regions) or
B ) four quadrants (abdominopelvic quadrants Computed Tomography

Each of the body's three serous cavities has its -largely block the rays, producing a whiter
own associated membrane. structure.

X-rays
-are best used to visualize hard body structures -is a medical imaging technique involving the
such as teeth and bones use of so-called radiopharmaceuticals,

Tomography -substances that emit radi fion that is short-lived

and theretore relatively sale to administer to the
-refers to imaging by planes body.

Computed tomography (CT) -The main advantage is Itur PET canillinorate

physiologic activity-including Ultrasonography
is a nominvasive imaging technique that uses mutnerit metabolism and blood flow of the organ
computers to analyze several cross-sectional X- or organs being targeted, while GT and MRI
rays in order to reveal minute details about scans can only show static images
structures in the body Like many lorins of high-
energy radiation, X-rays and PET

-CT scans are capable of damaging cells and -is widely used to dug nose a mullitude of
initiating changes thar can lead to cancer conditions, such as heart disease, the spread of
cancer, certain forms of infection, bran
-These types of imaging must be used sparingly abnormalities, bone disease and virus disease
to decrease this risk.
Ultrasonography
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
-is an imaging technique that uses the
-is a noninvasive medical imaging technique transmission of high-frequency sound waves into
based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics in the body to generate an echo signal that is
which matter exposed to magnetic fields and converted by a computer into a real-time image
radio waves was found to emit radio signats. of anatomy and physiology.
-MRI offers very precise imaging, especially to -Ultrasonography is the least invasive of all
discover tumors, and also has the major Imaging tecn niques, and it is therefore used
advantage of not exposing patients to radiation more freely in sensitive situations such as
pregnancy.
-Drawbacks of MRI scans inchide their much
higher cost and pattent discomfort with the
procedure

-The MRI scanner subjects the patient to such

powerful electromagnets that the scan room
must be shielded The patient must be enclosed in
a metal tube-like device for the duration of the
scan (sometimes for as long as 30 minutes,
which can be uncomfortable and impractical for
ill patients).

-The device is also so noisy that. even with

earplugs, patients can become anxious or even
feartul. Patients with iron-containing metallic
implants (internal sutures, some pros thetic
devices, and so on) cannot undergo MRI
scanning because it can dislodge these imptants
Functional MRIs (IMRis), which detect the
concentration of piood flow in certain parts of
the body, are increasingly being used to starly
the activily in parts of the brain during various
body activities.

-This nas helped scientists learn more about the

iocations of different brain functions and more
about brain abnormalities and diseases.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

 ACTIVITY 1 ANSWER

What categories of anatomy or physiology can

you think of that we haven’t mentioned?

-Categories of human anatomy and physiology

PPT CHAPTER 2 include pathology, endocrinology,cardiology,
and neurology among others.
Anatomy
What aspects of the human body do these
-The study of the body’s structure categories of anatomy describe?
-Gross anatomy (larger structures) -Pathology refers to the study of the changes
associated with disease.
-Microscopic anatomy (smaller structures)
-Endocrinology refers to the study of the
-Subcategories endocrine system. Cardiology refers to the study
of the heart.
Regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, histology,
cytology, and others -Neurology refers to the study of the nervous
system.

What functions of the human body do these

Anatomical Structures in a Variety of
categories of physiology describe?
Imaging Techniques
-Endocrinology and neurology discuss how the
body maintains control of homeostasis.

X-rays -Cardiology discusses how the heart helps

circulate blood throughout the body.
-can be used to show hard structures like
What subspecialty of anatomy studies the
bone structure and function of cells?

ANSWER: Cytology

CT scans

-can be used toshow soft tissues Structure and Function

-Structure and function are closely related

Physiology -Structure determines function

-The study of function of the human body -Changes in protein shape can change their

-Helps to understand the chemistry and physics function

of the anatomical structures of the body and -Human pelvis evolved to support abdominal
and thoracic organs
how they work
-Branching structures in living organisms
increase surface area for molecular absorption
and exchange
Categories of physiology

-Neurophysiology
Phosphorylation Causes Changes in Protein
-Cardiovascular physiology
Shape
-Renal physiology
-This illustrates how form is related to function -Physiological variation can be based on age or
gender
-Adding a phosphate group to aprotein changes
the shape of the protein -Necessitates diversity when health studies are
conducted
-Common form of molecular regulation

Flow

-The movement of a substance or molecule

Dependent on a gradient

-Examples of gradients in nature : Electrical,

Branching maximizes surface area pressure, and concentration gradients

-E.g., Respiratory tubes increase surface area -Flow is directly proportional to size of a
available for gas exchange gradient

-Branching increases speed of molecular

transport
Resistance

-opposes or stops flow

Evolution and Human Variation
-Flow is inversely proportional to resistance
Evolution
-An increase in resistance will decrease flow
-Caused by random changes in gene expression
that occur from generation to generation

-Leads to variation among a species Anatomy of Flow

-Becomes more frequent when the variation Gradients

offers an advantage
determine the direction of flow
-Variation less likely to be seen in traits that
-Molecules flow down their concentration
affect the ability to reproduce
gradients

-Pressure gradients move food, blood, and air

Anatomical variation through the body

-occurs more frequently than represented in most

texts
Homeostasis
-Does not affect the function
-The dynamic stability of the body’s internal
-For example, the number of pulmonary veins environment
and lumbar vertebrae can vary from person to
-The body’s parameters, or variables, are kept
person
near a normal setpoint
Physiological Variation
-pH, temperature, blood pressure, oxygen levels,
-More diverse and widespread than anatomical nutrient levels, and electrolyte levels are
variation constantly monitored

-Affects function of an organ, organ system, or -Receptors monitor and send information to a
organism control center
-Control center determines if changes are that a decrease in the external temperature can
necessary decrease the internal temperature of the body.

-Changes made by effectors keep parameters, or How will the body respond to maintain
variables, near setpoint homeostasis?

For example, body temperature homeostasis: -The body’s response will vary depending on the
condition. For example, an increased demand for
Sensors in the skin detect increase in ATP can lead to increased release of hormones
temperature that regulate ATP production. Additionally, in
response to a low body temperature shivering
Control center receives sensory information to may occur.
maintain body temperature setpoint (37°C)

Control center communicates with effector to

change body temperature (e.g., sweating) Feedback Loops

-The method of control for many variables of the

human body

-Most variables are controlled through negative

feedback The body’s response is to decrease the
original stimulus

-Positive feedback occurs when the original

stimulus is enhanced or increased

Control of Blood Sugar Levels

-Negative feedback loop to control blood sugar

levels:

-A decrease in blood sugar levels leads to release

of glucagon from the pancreas

-Glucagon will then promote an increase in

blood sugar levels

Breakout Group Activity 1

What are some situations that may lead to a

disruption in the homeostasis of the human
body?

-Situations that may lead to disruption of

homeostasis include illnesses or changes in
environmental conditions such as temperature.

How will those situations disrupt homeostasis?

-These situations disrupt homeostasis by causing

deviation from the homeostatic range of the
body. For example, an illness can lead to
decreased ATP production. Another example is
 Structural Organization of the Human Body

Maintaining Blood Sugar Levels Near a Setpoint -The human body has several levels of
organization
-Physiological processes help maintain blood
sugar levels near a setpoint

-Eating increases blood sugar levels and insulin -From the simplest to the most complex these
is secreted to lower them include:

-Fasting decreases blood sugar levels and -CHEMICAL

glucagon is secreted to increase them
-CELL

-TISSUE
Positive Feedback Loop Involved in Childbirth
-ORGAN
-Childbirth involves a positive feedback loop
-ORGAN SYSTEM
-Stretching of the cervix leads to release of
oxytocin -ORGANISM

-Oxytocin strengthens contractions of the uterus

-Cervix stretches more as labor continues

Breakout Group Activity 2

What evolutionary changes have occurred to the

human body?

-Evolutionary changes that have occurred to the

human body include changes in the shape of the
pelvis, oppositional thumbs, and development of
branching airways. Organ Systems of the Human Body
How have these changes offered humans an Integumentary system
increased chance of survival?
-Createe a barrier that protects the body from
-The changes in the shape of the pelvis allow for pathogens and fluid loss
bipedal movement. Oppositional thumbs allow
humans to grasp objects with one hand. -sensory reception
Branching airways allow for increased surface
area for gas exchange. Skeletal system

Does geography play a role in evolutionary -Supports and protects the body
changes? Why or why not?
Muscular system
-Yes, geography plays a role in evolutionary
changes. Different geographies expose the -Creates the movement of the body
human body to different environmental
conditions. Since evolution occurs in response to -Contribules to body temperature homeostasis
these conditions, the difference in geography can
lead to different evolutionary changes. Nervous systerm

What component of a feedback loop is -Acts as the sensor for homeostasis

responsible for directly making changes to
-Connects the brain to every part of the body
maintain homeostasis?
Endocrine system
ANSWER:Effector
-Secretes the hormones that regulate many
bodily processes
Cardiovascular system ANSWER: RESPIRATORY

-Delivers oxygen nutrierits, hormones and waste

producta throughout the body
Anatomical Terminology
-Contributes to temperature regulation
Anatomical Position

-The body is standing upright

Organ systems
-Feet are parallel and shoulder-width apart
-Organs that work together toward one or a set
of functions can be grouped into -Toes pointed forward

Lymphatic system -Upper limbs are held out to each side with
palms facing forward
-Regulates fuid balance in the body
Body position can be described as prone or
-Houses some of the immune cells that defend supine.
the body from pathogens
Prone -describes a face-down orientation
Respiratory system
Supine-describes a face-up orientation. toward
-Exchanges air with the atmosphere the middle of the body.

-Provides surface area for the diffusion of

oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood

Digestive system

-Breaks down food and absortie nutrients into

the body

Urinary system

-Contributes to blood pressure and pH

homeostasis

-Removes waste products from the body

Reproductive System

-Produce and exchange gametes

-House the fetus until birth

- Lactation

Knowledge Check 3

A structure that is composed of two or more

types of tissues and performs a specific function
belongs to which level of organization?

ANSWER: ORGAN

Which system is responsible for maintaining

acid-base balance and gas exchange between the There are 3 types of planes in anatomy: The
blood and atmosphere? sagittal plane, frontal plane, transverse plane
The sagittal plane -It is important to understand the plane or
section being presented
-is the plane that divides the body or an organ
vertically into right and left sides. -This information can be used to build a 3-D
understanding of body structures
Midsagittal or median plane

-If this vertical plane runs directly down the

middle of the body, it is called the. Organization and Compartmentalization of the
Human Body

Internal compartments organize the body’s

internal space

-Separated by membranes

-Referred to as cavities

Posterior, or dorsal, body cavity

-Consists of cranial and spinal (or vertebral)

cavities

Anterior body cavity

-Consists of thoracic and abdominopelvic

cavities

Parasagittal plane

-If it divides the body into unequal right and left

sides, it is called a or, less commonly, a
longitudinal section.
Posterior, or dorsal, body cavity
Frontal plane
Cranial cavity
-is the plane that divides the body or an organ
into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior -E.G Brain
(rear) portion.
Spinal (or vertebral) cavity
-often referred to as a coronal plane. ("Corona"
is Latin for "crown.") -E.G Spinal cord, beginning of spinal nerves

-Planes and sections can illustrate the same Anterior Body Cavity and Subdivisions
structures, but from different perspectives
Thoracic cavity -are sheets of tissue that cover organs in the
anterior body cavity
-Pleural cavity
-reduce rubbing and friction as internal organs
-Lungs move

Mediastinum Serous membranes

-Thymus -have two layers

-Esophagus -parietal layer lines the wall of the body cavity

-Trachea -visceral layer lies directly on the surface of the

organ
-Pericardial cavity
-cavity between the layers contains serous fluid
*Heart

Layers of a Serous Membrane

Abdominopelvic cavity
-Serous membrane layers develop as the organ
-Abdominal cavity develops into the membrane
-Stomach -This is similar to the way that an underinflated
balloon forms two separate layers around a fist
-Spleen

-Liver
Knowledge Check 5
-Small intestine
Which cavity of the human body contains the
brain?
Pelvic cavity ANSWER: Cranial cavity
-Urinary bladder

-Ovaries CASE ACTIVITY 1

If a patient presents with right lower quadrant

pain in an Emergency Department, what are
some potential causes of the patient’s pain?

(Hint: Think of organs located in the right lower

quadrant of the abdomen.)

ANSWER: Think of organs located in the right

lower quadrant of the abdomen. Since this is
where the patient’s pain is, those organs are most
likely to be the cause of the pain.

These organs include the appendix, part of the

urinary bladder, ascending colon, and sections of
the small intestine.
Serous Membranes of the Anterior Body Cavity
Medical Imaging
Serous membranes
-Medical imaging provides an internal
-view of the human body

-Aids in diagnosing disease

X-rays

-are best used to view teeth and Bone

Computed Tomography Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

-Uses computers and a series of x-rays to Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of
visualize internal structures in planes Matter

-Provides more detail than x-rays alone Matter

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -anything that occupies space and has mass

-Uses radio signals emitted by internal structures -Mass—the amount of matter contained in an
to provide very precise details object

-Expensive -Mass is not the same as weight

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) -Mass is the same regardless of where the object
is
-Uses small amounts of radiation to detect
metabolic activity -Weight can vary because it depends on gravity

-Useful in diagnosing cancers, heart disease, and POLLING ACTIVITY 1:

strokes
Consider a couch on planet Earth and the same
Ultrasonography couch on the moon. Where would the couch
have more mass? Where would the couch weigh
-Uses sound waves to yield a real time image of more?
internal anatomy
ANSWER:The mass should remain the same in
-Used in sensitive situations like pregnancy both places. Weight and mass are not the same.
While the weight would be different due to
Discussion Activity 2 differences in gravity, the mass in both locations
would remain the same. The couch would weigh
If a patient were suspected to have a tumor in the more on the Earth.
abdominal cavity, which imaging technique
would be ideal to use? Explain your answer. Elements—pure substances that are made
ANSWER: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of a single type of atom
would be the preferred imaging technique for
suspected abdominal masses. The MRI would Atom—smallest unit of an element that
offer greater detail in comparison to the CT
when evaluating the mass and that is why it retains properties of that element
would be preferred.
Molecule—two or more atoms chemically

bound together

Compound—two or more elements joined

by chemical bonds

Subatomic particles make up atoms

Proton—positively charged

Neutron—no charge (neutral)

Electron—negatively charged Atomic weight—equals number of protons,
neutrons, and small amount of weight from
electrons

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Mass number—roughly equal to the number of

protons and neutrons in the atom
-Elements are organized in the periodic
Isotopes
table
-the different forms of an element
-Each element has its own box with its
-Differ in the number of neutrons and atomic
atomic number, atomic weight, element weight
name, and symbol’ -Isotopes differ in their number of neutrons

-Number of protons remains the same

Protium – 1 proton, 1 electron, 0 neutrons

Deuterium – 1 proton, 1 electron, 1 neutron

Tritium – 1 proton, 1 electron, 2 neutrons

Radioactive isotopes are unstable and shed

subatomic particles

Ion

-an atom with an electrical charge

-Can be positive or negative

-Ions are formed when atoms donate or accept

electrons

Cation—positively charged ion

Anion—negatively charged ion

The Behavior of Electrons

Electron shells

-Regions around an atom’s nucleus that contain

electrons

Knowledge Check Activity 1 -Can hold from two to eight electrons

Which of the following subatomic particles are Valence shell

represented by the atomic number?
-The outermost electron shell of an atom
ANSWER: PROTONS
Atoms
Atomic number—number of protons within an
atom -react in a manner to completely fill their
valence shell
-They may share, accept or donate electrons to -The cation is sodium (Na+) and the anion
do so
is chloride (Cl−)
-The first electron shell can hold up to 2
electrons Covalent Bonds

-The second electron shell can hold up to 8 -Formed when electrons are shared by atoms
electrons
-Benefits both atoms by stabilizing the valence
-Atoms with more than 10 electrons require shell
additional electron shells
Polar covalent bonds
Forming Bonds and Ions
-Electrons are more attracted to certain atoms,
Atoms react with other atoms to try and fill their leading to unequal sharing
valence shell
-Occur when electrons are not shared equally
Ex. potassium is likely to donate its single
electron in its valence shell to become a stable -Electrons are attracted to one atom more than
ion (positive) the other(s)

Ex. fluorine is likely to gain an additional -In water, the electrons are attracted more to
electron to achieve stability in its valence shell oxygen than hydrogen
(negative)
-Atoms form polar molecules where one end is
more negative and the other more positive

Determining Valence Electrons Nonpolar covalent bonds

Elements in each column of theperiodic table -Electrons are shared equally

share the same number of electrons in their
valence shells Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

-Occur when electrons are equally shared

between atoms
Types of Bonds
-Atoms form nonpolar molecules where no
Bond—an electrical attraction that holds atoms region is more positive or negative (i.e., neutral)
together
-Atoms can share multiple electrons
The number of electrons in the valence shell
determines the likelihood that an atom will form -Multiple atoms can form single, double, or
a chemical bond triple covalent bonds

Three types of bonds are important within the Hydrogen Bonds

human body:
-Occur when molecules are attracted to one
-Ionic bonds another

-Covalent bonds -Commonly occur between water molecules

-Hydrogen bonds -Negatively charged region of a water molecule

is attracted to the positively charged region of
anotherwater molecule

Ionic Bonds -This creates surface tension between water

molecules
Formed between ions with opposite charges
Forming Solutions
-Think “opposites attract”
-Water molecules are attracted to other water
Table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is a common molecules and polar molecules
example
-Polar molecules and charged molecules dissolve Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
to form solutions
Chemical energy is the energy stored in
-Water molecules repel nonpolar molecules like
lipids, fats, and oils chemical bonds

Breakout Group Activity 1 Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions

Recall that water molecules are attracted by -Energy can be stored in chemical bonds
hydrogen bonding. Can you think of any
situations where the hydrogen bonding of water -ATP is a common form of cellular energy
molecules plays a role in your everyday life?
-Endergonic reactions require energy and
ANSWER:
store it in bonds
Students may suggest situations such as:
-Exergonic reactions release energy by
-Making lemonade due to the hydrogen bonds
dissolving sugar breaking chemical bonds

-Diving into a swimming pool due to the bonds

creating surface tension

-Using water to clean a surface due to the

Knowledge Check Activity 2
hydrogen bonds disrupting the bonds in the
materials being cleaned Many chemical reactions within the body release
heat as a product. Which of the following terms
Think, Pair, Share Activity 1
describes these heat-releasing reactions?
Which type of bond would require more energy
ANSWER: EXERGONIC
to break: the ionic bonds found in table salt, or
the hydrogen bonds that occur between water
molecules?
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
ANSWER:The ionic bonds in table salt due to
ionic bonds being stronger Reactants or substrates—the substances that
enter into the reaction
Chemical Reactions
Products—the substances produced by the
Energy is the ability to do work reaction
Potential energy—stored energy that can be Three types of reactions
released
Synthesis reaction—atoms, molecules, or ions
Kinetic energy—the energy of motion combine to form new molecules
Chemical energy—potential energy that is stored Decomposition reaction—larger molecules are
in bonds broken down into smaller atoms,ion, or
molecules
Exergonic reactions—release energy
Exchange reaction—the combination of both
Endergonic reactions—absorb energy
synthesis and decomposition reactions
Energy-can be converted from one form to
another through chemical reactions
Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reactions join monomers (or reactants)

Forms of Energy
that were previously separated
Potential energy is stored energy
-An endergonic reaction
 ANSWER: The human body can influence
reaction rates by increasing the amount of
Decomposition breaks molecules down into their available enzyme, reactants, and temperature.
constituent parts

-An exergonic reaction

Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human
Functioning

Exchange reactions involve both synthesis and Inorganic compounds

decomposition reactions
-Substances that do not contain both carbon and
-Both endergonic and exergonic reactions hydrogen

-Water, salts, acids and bases, carbon dioxide

Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Organic compounds

Reactions
-Substances that contain both carbon and
Properties of reactants—atomic weight, phase of hydrogen
the reactants (solid, liquid, or gas)
-Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Temperature—reactions occur faster at higher
temperatures

Concentration and pressure—higher Common Chemical Formulas in A&P

concentration of reactants and higher pressure
increase rate of reaction -Common chemical compounds important in
A&P
Enzymes and other catalysts—increase the rate
of reactions by lowering activation energy -Inorganic compounds do not contain both

carbon and hydrogen

-Organic compounds contain both carbon

Enzymes and Activation Energy and hydrogen

-Enzymes lower activation energy to increase

rate ofreactions

-Reactants are held together close enough and

long enough by enzymes during synthesis
reactions

-Enzymes are unchanged by reactions Activation

energy = the minimal energy required for the
reaction to occur

Think, Pair, Share Activity 2

What conditions would allow a chemical

reaction to occur at a faster rate? Water

ANSWER: Increases in temperature, pressure, -50–70% of an adult body

reactant concentration, and enzymatic activity
would allow a reaction to occur faster. -Functions of water in the body include:

Describe how the parameters of the human body -Provides lubrication for joints
influence the rate of the reactions that occur
within the body. -Provides cushioning for cells and tissues
-Aids in temperature regulation Examples = milk and cream

-Is a solvent for ions and nutrients needed by

cells
Suspension = a liquid mixture in which heavier
-Involved in dehydration synthesis and substance is suspended temporarily and settles
hydrolysis reactions out over time

Solutions Sedimentation = separation of particles

The nutrients required by cells within the body Occurs if blood is left in the air for a period of
are typically dissolved in water. time

A nutrient dissolved in water makes up a

solution:
Role of Water in Chemical Reactions (Figure
Solution—a mixture where one substance is 3.16)
dissolved in another
-Dehydration synthesis forms new molecules
Solvent—the substance that dissolves another while creating water at the same time
substance in a solution
-Hydrolysis reactions break covalent bonds
Solutes—the substances dissolved in the solvent using water

Water as a Solvent Discussion Activity 1

-Solution consists of solvent and solute What is the reasoning for keeping a patient with
a fever well hydrated, making sure they are
-Solvent is the substance that dissolves drinking enough water?

-Solute is the substance that is dissolved Discussion Activity 1 Answer

The higher temperature that occurs with a fever

will lead to greater evaporation of water. That
Water is the universal solvent because many water loss needs to be replaced by water intake.
Additionally, water helps distribute heat so
molecules dissolve in water having adequate hydration helps dissipate the
heat of a fever.
-Because of polarity of molecules

Salts
Concentrations of Solutes
-Formed when ions bond through ionic bonding
-Solute concentration refers to the number of the
solute particles in a specific matter (e.g., air, -Dissolve into separate ions when placed in
water, etc.) water
-It can be expressed in a variety of ways: -The ions cannot be hydrogen ions (H+) or
hydroxide ions (OH−)
Oxygen is 21% of atmospheric air
-These ions are referred to as electrolytes
Blood glucose is expressed in mg/dL
-Capable of allowing the body to conduct
Molarity is moles of the molecule per L
electrical currents

-Important in nerve impulses and muscle

Different Types of Solutions contraction

Colloid = a mixture that is a heavy solution

Solute molecules make mixture opaque Acids and Bases (Figure 3.17)
Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) when -Carbohydrates

dissolved in solution. -Lipids

Bases release hydroxyl ions (OH−) when -Proteins

dissolved in solution or bind hydrogen -Nucleic acids

ions in solution.

The Chemistry of Carbon

pH and Buffers (Figure 3.18) -Organic molecules contain carbon bonded to

hydrogen atoms
pH scale from 0 to 14 indicates the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution -They can form chains or ring structures

pH of 7 is neutral -Carbon is represented by the symbol C or by

using lines and angles in diagrams
The closer to 0, the more acidic the solution

The closer to 14, the more alkaline the solution

Functional Groups (Table 3.3)

Buffers are used to prevent rapid changes in the
pH of a solution -Carbon atoms can bind to functional groups

-A functional group is a group of atoms linked

by covalent bonds that function as a unit
Knowledge Check Activity 3
-They can have predictable behaviors in
Consider two solutions chemical reactions

Solution A has a pH of 7.5 -Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and

methyl functional groups are important in human
Solution B has a pH of 7.9 physiology

Which of the two solutions is more acidic? Monomers

Answer 3
Monomers
Solution A
-Individual units that make up organic molecules

-Monomers bond together to form polymers

Organic Compounds Essential to

Human Functioning
Monomers of major organic molecules

Carbohydrates—monosaccharides
Organic Biological Macromolecules
Lipids—fatty acids and glycerol
Organic biological macromolecules contain
carbon atoms that generally bond to hydrogen Proteins—amino acids
atoms
Nucleic acids—nucleotides
Oxygen and other elements may be incorporated
as well

Four major organic macromolecules are Carbohydrates

important within the human body:
-Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Functions of Carbohydrates

Ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is usually 2:1 -Primary source of cellular energy

Monosaccharides—simple individual sugar *Used to produce ATP

molecules like glucose
-Help maintain cellular structure
Disaccharides—sugars like lactose that are made
of two monosaccharides *Component of plant cells walls

Polysaccharides—multiple monosaccharides -Can bond with lipids and proteins to form

bound together to form large, more complex glycolipids or glycoproteins
carbohydrates
*Help form cell membrane and aid in cell
-Main source of chemical energy in the human signaling
body

Lipids
Important Monosaccharides (Figure 3.20)
Made mostly of hydrocarbons
Monosaccharides can be used to form
disaccharides or polysaccharides *Are nonpolar, hydrophobic molecule

Monosaccharides include: -Triglyceride is the most common form of lipid

in our diet
-Glucose
-Major energy source for cells
-Fructose
-Provides insulation
-Galactose

-Ribose
Triglycerides
-Deoxyribose
-Most common lipid in human diet

-Contain a 3-carbon glycerol molecule

Important Polysaccharides
-3 fatty acids are attached to the glycerol
Polysaccharides contain from a few to thousands
of monosaccharides *Each fatty acid is a long chain of hydrocarbons

Important polysaccharides include:

Starches – glucose storage in plants Fatty Acid Shapes

Glycogen – glucose storage in animals Saturated fats = Lipids that have the maximal
number of hydrogen atoms bound to carbon
Cellulose – cell walls of plants
*Solid or semisolid at room temperature

Important Disaccharides ]
Unsaturated fats = lipids that contain double
Disaccharides are common in the human diet bonds

Sucrose – table sugar *Fatty acid tails zig zag as a result

Lactose – milk sugar *Liquid at room temperature

Maltose – malt sugar

Other Types of Lipids

Phospholipids -Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to
form proteins
-Important in cellular membranes

Cholesterol

-Precursor used to make several hormones and

provides stability to the cell membrane Peptide Bonds

Prostaglandins -Peptide bonds link amino acids

-Play a role in inflammation -Formed through dehydration synthesis-

*Carboxyl and amine groups of neighboring

amino acids react
Phospholipids, Sterols, and Prostaglandins
(Figure

-Phospholipids contain a phosphorus The Shape of Proteins

“head” -Primary structure

-Sterols contain hydrocarbons in a ring structure -Secondary structure

-Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated -Tertiary structure

fatty acids
-Quaternary structure
Proteins
-Denaturation is a change in the shape and will
-Composed of amino acids linked together by no longer carry out the function
peptide bonds

-Function to provide cellular structure, transport

substances, and catalyze reactions Amino Acid Interactions Determine Protein
Shape

-Interactions between amino acids determine

The shape of proteins: shape of protein

Primary structure—the sequence of amino acids -Amino acids may form hydrogen bonds

Secondary structure—folding of amino acid -Hydrophobic amino acids may huddle together
chains into alpha-helix or beta-pleated sheet while hydrophilic amino acids surround them

Tertiary structure—additional folding that

occurs between different regions of the same
amino acid chain Enzymes

Quaternary structure—interactions between 2+ -Biological catalysts speed up the rate of

proteins, each with its own tertiary structure chemical reactions

-Reduce the energy of activation to increase the

speed of a reaction
Structure of Amino Acids
-Most enzymes are proteins
-Amino acids are the monomers of proteins
-Highly specific for substrate due to active site
-20 amino acids in total
-Active site = the location on the enzyme where
-Each consists of an amino group, carboxyl the substrate binds
group, and an R group
-Shape of the active site depends on the structure
of the protein
Enzymes Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Enzymes increase the reaction rate by -A modified nucleotide

lowering activation energy -Energy currency of the cell

-Covalent bonds between phosphate groups store

energy
Steps of an Enzymatic Reaction
-Energy is released when bonds are broken
-Substrates bind to enzyme at the active site

-The active site for each enzyme is specific for a

particular substrate Breakout Group Activity 2 Answer

-Forms enzyme-substrate complex Which of the four organic molecule categories

can yield the most energy for a cell?
-Enzyme catalyzes the reaction, forming the
product Explain your answer using your knowledge of
chemical bonds.
-The enzyme is unchanged by reaction and can
be reused The most energy comes from lipids due to the
higher number of covalent bonds found in lipid
Nucleic Acids molecules.

Two types of nucleic acids:

-Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Matching Activity 1

Monomer bases = adenine, cytosine, guanine, Match the organic macromolecule to one of its
thymine associated

-Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions.

Monomer bases = adenine, cytosine, guanine, 1 Protein

uracil
2 Carbohydrate
-DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose; RNA
contains the sugar ribose 3 Nucleic acid

-Store the genetic code of the cells (DNA) and 4 Lipid

participate in protein synthesis (RNA)
a-Increases rate of chemical reactions

b-Stores genetic information in cell

The Nucleotides of DNA and RNA
C -Insulation
-Nucleotides are composed of one or more
phosphate groups, a sugar, and a nitrogen base d-Guide for protein synthesis

-Adenine and guanine are purines e-Energy storage for the body

-Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines F -Transport of molecules

DNA versus RNA Matching Activity 1 Answer

-DNA is a double-stranded, helical molecule Match the organic macromolecule to one of its
associated functions.
-RNA is a single stranded molecule
1. Protein—A, F
2. Carbohydrate—none The resulting buildup of H₂O, could also be
harmful; however, peroxisomes contain enzymes
3. Nucleic acid—B, D that further convert H₂O, to H₂O and O, (water
and oxygen)! These byproducts are safely
4. Lipid—C, E released into the cytoplasm. Like miniature
sewage treatment plants, peroxisomes neutralize
harmful toxins so that they do not wreak havoc
in the cells. The liver is the organ primarily
CHAPTER 4
responsible for detoxifying the blood before it
Lysosomes As important as it is for a cell to travels throughout the body, and liver cells
produce new molecules, it is equally important contain an exceptionally high number of
for cells to be able to break down and recycle peroxisomes.
molecules that are nonfunc. tional or no longer
Mitochondria A that is the energy transformer"
needed. Some of the proteins made by the RER
of the cell. Mitochondria consist of two lipid
and packaged by the Golgi are digestive
bilayers, outer and one inner (Figure 4.18). The
enzymes that function within the cell in
inner membrane is highly folded with a great
digestion and recycling These enzymes could be
dest of surface area, the folds of the inner
dangerous to the cell, and so they are stored
membrane are called cristae. It is along this inner
within dedicated organelles called lysosomes.
membrane that a series of proteins, enzymes, and
Lysosomes are organelles that digest unneeded
other molecules perform the biochemi reactions
cellular components, such as a damaged
of cellular respiration. These reactions convert
organelle. They do so by packing a variety of
energy stored in nutrient mulecules (such
enzymes that digest different complex molecules
cellular energy to the cell, discussed further in
into a small pocket of membrane. Lysosomes are
Chapter 24. You can think of mitochondria form
also important for breaking down material taken
it from energy in sunlight to chemical energy
in from the outside of the cell in phagocytosis.
stored in batteries used to, for example charge
For example, when certain immune cells
your cell phone. Cells use ATP constantly, and
phagocytize bacteria, the vesicle containing the
so the mitochondria are constantly at work
bacterial cell merges with a lysosome and the
converting the energy in our nutrients into usable
bacterial cell is digested by the enzymes. As we
ATP. Oxygen required during cellular
have seen with other organelles, the number of
respiration, which is why you must constantly
lysosomes within a cell will vary with the cells
breathe it in. wind cells of the body that have the
function. Phagocytic immune cells have many
highest demand for energy, such as muscle cell
more lyso somes than other cells.
and nerve cells, have the highest concentration
Under certain circumstances, lysosomes perform of mitochondria. On the other hand, a bone cell,
a more grand and dire function. In the case of which is not nearly as metabolically active,
damaged or unhealthy cells, lysosomes can be contains only a fraction of the mitochondria
triggered to open up and release their digestive found in a nerve cell. molecules are
enzymes into the cytoplasm of the cell, killing
4.2c The Cytoskeleton
the cell. This "self destruct" mechanism is called
autolysis, and is one form of spoptosis Much like the bony skeleton structurally
(purposeful cellular death). This cellular self- supports the human body, the cytoskeleton helps
destruction is sometimes healthy and necessary the cells to maintain their structure. The
during human development when certain cells cytoskeleton is made up of fibrous proteins that
must be destroyed to accommodate sew ones or provide structural support for cells. These fibers
form the body plan. are also critical for cell motility, cell
reproduction, and transportation of substances
Peroxisomes Like lysosomes, a peroxisome is a
and organelles within the cell
membrane-bound cellular organelle that contains
mostly enzymes. In function, peroxisomes are The cytoskeleton forms a complex, threadlike
most similar to smooth ER, performing both network throughout the cell consist ing of three
lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification. In different kinds of protein-based filaments:
contrast to the digestive enzymes found in microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes microtubules (Figure 4.19). The thickest of the
serve to trans- fer hydrogen atorms from various three is the microtubule (Figure 4.19A), a
molecules to oxygen, producing hydrogen structural filament composed of subunits of a
peroxide (H,O,). In this way, peroxisomes protein called tubulin. Microtubules maintain
neutralize poisons such as alcohol. cell shape and structure, help resist compression
of the cell, and play a role in positioning the a rope. Intermediate filaments, in concert with
organelles within the cell. One very important the microtubules, are important for maintaining
function of microtubules is to provide the tracks cell shape and structure. Intermediate filaments
along which vesicles and genetic material can be resist any force that could pull cells apart. There
pulled within the cell. Earlier in this section we are many cases in which cells are prone to
discussed how the organelles of the tension, such as when epithelial cells of the skin
endomembrane system work together to are tugged in different directions. Intermediate
manufacture cellular provesicles hese produc filaments help anchor organelles together within
move within the cell (for example, from the RER a cell and also link cells to other cells by
to the Golgi) in vesicles that glide along forming special cell-to-cell junctions.
microtubules (Figure 4.20).
Cell Surface Specializations There are three
While the term cytoskeleton makes these types of appendages of note on human cells:
structures sound like fixed, static scaffolds, microvilli, cilia, and flagella. Microvilli are tiny
microtubules are actually remarkably dynamic. and numerous projections on the surface of cells
Two short, identical microtubule structures that serve a function of expanding surface area
called centrioles are found near the nucleus of (Figure 4.21A). They are anchored to the
cells. A centriole can serve as the cellular cytoskeleton through actin filaments, but they
origination point for microtubules extending are not capable of move- ment. Microvilli are
outward as cilia or flagella or can assist with the found wherever a need for a great amount of
separation of DNA during cell division. surface area to accom- plish membrane transport
Microtubules can elongate og from the centrioles is required, such as the cells of the small
as more tubulin subunits are added, like adding intestine, which need to absorb the nutrients
additional links to from our diet across the cells and into the
bloodstream. Cilla are found on many cells of
Vesicles and Intracellular Transport the body, including the epithelial cells that line
the airways of the respiratory system. Cilia
Vesicles move around the cell, for example from resemble microvilli, in that there are typically
the ER to the Golgi apparatus, along
microtubules carried by motor proteins, such as Figure 4.21 Cellular Appendages
kinesins an dyneins
There are three types of human cell surface
chain: microtubules can also he quickly appendages: (A) Microvilli are associated with
shortened as necessary. Through the dynamic microfilaments, but incapable of movement.
charges in microtubule length, objects such as Their purpose is to expand the surface area of
chromosomes can be moved about the cell. the cell. (B) Cilla are composed of microtubules
and are capable of movement. Their function is
In contrast with microtubules, microfilaments to sweep material off the surface of the cell. (C)
are the thinner of cytoskeletal Alaments (Figure Flagella are very long; the only human cell with
4.188) composed primarily of the protein actin. a flagellum is a sperm cell. Its function is to
Like microtubules, actin filaments are long propel the sperm toward the egg.
chains of single subunits (called actin mbunits).
Unlike macro tubules, which primarily function The Three Components of the Cytoskeleton
to move material within the cell, microfilaments
primarily function to move the whole cell. The cytoskeleton functions to maintain cellular
Microfilaments also play an important role shape and enable movement Three major classes
during cell replication. When a cell undergoing of cytoskeletal fiber (8) encoronamin, con cells
cell division is about to split in half to form two (A) microtubules, compe majo y of fubulin
new cells, actin microfilaments work with protein, microfilaments, composed primarily
another protein to create a cleavage furrow that primarily of (C) intermediate filaments,
eventually splits the cell down the middle into composed primarily of keratin protein of actin
two new cells. protein, and

The final type of cytoskeletal filament is the

intermediate filament. As its name would
suggest, an intermediate filament is a filament
intermediate in thickness between the
microtubules and microfilaments (Figure 4.190).
Intermediate filaments are made up of long
fibrous subunits of a protein called keratin that
are wound together like the threads that compose
 • Gap junctions-passageways that allow
movement of certain substances between the
cells

Cellular Connections (Figure 5.3)

• Cells can be connected by:

Anaphy Chapter 5 • Tight junctions - fuse membranes of adjacent

cells
Types and Components of Tissues
• Desmosomes provide strong, flexible
Tissues are groups of cells that function together connections between cells
in the body
Hemidesmosomes connect cells to ECM
• Histology = microscopic study of the
appearance, function, and organization of tissues • Gap junctions - allow for intercellular
passageways between cells
Pathology study of changes that occur with
disease

Think, Pair, Share Activity 1 Answer

Tissue Types (Figure 5.2) • Identify locations where each of the cellular
connections may be found based on the function
• The four types of tissue in the body are: of a tissue or organ.
• Epithelial tissue-form coverings, linings, and • Tight junctions occur within epithelial tissues
glands of the bladder and digestive tract.
• Connective tissue-protection and support • Desmosomes and gap junctions can be found
between cardiac muscle fibers.
• Muscle tissue-provides movement

• Nervous tissue-allows communication

Preparing Tissues for Examination

• Tissues must be carefully prepared for

General Features of Tissues examination
• Extracellular matrix (ECM) - material found • Multiple factors influence the appearance of a
outside of a tissue tissue
• Cellular connections-attachments between cells • Plane of section
• Major components: • Stain used during preparation
• Collagen-tough, protective protein fibers

• Proteoglycans-negatively charged Planes Influence Appearance

protein/carbohydrate molecules
• Same structure may appear differently
• Tight junctions-allow no movement of depending on the plane of the section
substances between cells
• Sagittal plane

• Transverse plane
• Desmosomes-flexible connections that allow
some movement of substances between cells • Oblique plane
Cutting Tissues for Examination The Epithelial Cell (Figure 5.4)

• Special blade is used to cut tissues • Apical and basal membranes may have
different functions
• Cut into thin slices for examination
• Apical surface modifications

• Cilia surface move materials across

Tissues Placed on Slides
• Microvilli increase surface area
• Thin slices of tissue are placed on slides
Cells of Epithelia (Figure 5.5)

• Epithelial tissue is named after its shape and

Tissues are Stained for Examination number of layers of cells on the apical surface

• Many tissues are stained prior to examination

Based on shape:

Results of Various Stains • Squamous-flat cells

Tissues may have different appearances and -Cuboidal-box-shaped cells

colors depending on the stain used
-Columnar-column-like cells

Epithelial Tissue 5.2

Based on number of layers:

-Simple-one layer of cells

Characteristics of Epithelia
• Stratified-two or more layers of cells
• Form coverings, linings, and glands
• Pseudostratified-one layer of cells that appears
• Basement membrane anchors epithelia to ECM like more
(extracellular matrix)

• Two surfaces of epithelia:

Epithelia That Defy Naming Convention (Figure
• Basal surface-attached to basement membrane 5.6)

• Apical surface-exposed to external • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

environment or internal space
• May appear stratified
• Avascular
• All cells touch basement membrane because
• Highly regenerative there is only a single layer

• Transitional epithelium

Epithelia are: • Stratified tissue

• Highly cellular • Cells stretch and change shape

• Polar (apical and basal surface)

• Avascular

• Innervated Goblet Cells (Figure 5.7)

• Bound to basement membrane • Common feature of simple and pseudostratified

epithelia
• Secrete mucus Stratified Squamous, Stratified Cuboidal, and
Stratified Columnar Epithelia (Table 5.1, 3 of 4)

Stratified squamous epithelium

Simple Squamous Epithelium (Table 5.1, 1 of 4)
• Lines esophagus, mouth, vagina
• Consists of a single layer of flat cells
• Protects against abrasion
• Found in the air sacs of lungs, the lining of the
heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

• Allows materials to pass through by diffusion Stratified cuboidal epithelium

and filtration
• Found in sweat glands, salivary glands
• Secretes lubricating substances
• Secretes and protects

Simple Cuboidal, Simple Columnar,

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia Stratified columnar epithelium

• Found in male urethra

Simple cuboidal epithelium -Secretes and protects

• Lines kidney tubules Transitional Epithelium (Table 5.1, 4 of 4)

• Secretes and absorbs substances (Na+, K+, Transitional epithelium

glucose, etc.)
• Lines bladder, urethra, and ureters

• Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch

Simple columnar epithelium

• Lines digestive and reproductive tracts

Glands of Epithelia
• Secretes and absorbs various materials
Endocrine glands

-secrete hormones into the blood

• Examples: Thymus, pituitary gland, adrenal

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium glands

-Lines trachea and respiratory tract • Are ductless

-Secretes and moves mucus

Exocrine glands

Stratified Epithelia (Figure 5.8) -secrete substances locally through a duct

• Contain more than one layer of cells • Examples: Sweat glands and glands of
digestive system
• Cells of basal layer are stem cells that
regenerate cells into apical layers • Secrete mucus, sweat, saliva, and breastmilk

• Basal layer cells may be different in shape

from apical layer cells
Exocrine Gland Structure (Figure 5.9)
• Tissue is named based on shape of cells in
apical layer • Unicellular - single cells
• Multicellular - single layer of cells that fold • Match the term to the correct description.
into surrounding tissue
1. Squamous-B
• Tubular glands form tubes
2. Cuboidal-D
• Acinar glands form pockets
3. Stratified-none
• Simple glands have one duct
4. Columnar-none
• Compound glands combine formats
5. Simple-A

6. Transitional-C

Exocrine Secretions (Figure 5.10)

Connective Tissue
• Merocrine secretion: accomplished by
exocytosis Section 5.3

• Apocrine secretion: material accumulates near

apical surface of gland
Anatomy of Connective Tissue
• Holocrine secretion: involves rupture
Connective tissue consists of cells and the
and destruction of entire gland cell extracellular matrix (ECM)

• Serous glands produce watery secretions • Cells rarely touch each other

• Mucous glands produce watery to thick • ECM consists of ground substance and fibers
secretions
• Ground substance is between fibers

• Vascularized
Matching Activity 1
Classification of Connective Tissues
• Match the term to the correct description.
• Twelve types of connective tissues are
1. Squamous separated into three categories:

2. Cuboidal

3. Stratified

4. Columnar Connective tissue proper

5. Simple • Areolar, adipose, reticular, dense regular, and

dense irregular connective tissue
6. Transitional
Supportive connective tissue

• Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic

A. A tissue with one layer of cells cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone

B. Cells that are flat Fluid connective tissue

C. Epithelia found lining the bladder • Blood and lymph

D. Cells that are shaped like a box

Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissues

Matching Activity 1 Answer Fibroblasts produce fibers in the ECM

• Collagen-strongest fibers • Lymph

• Elastic-provide elasticity

• Reticular-branching fibers that support internal Areolar connective tissue

organs
-Subcutaneous layer

-Supports nearby tissues

Adipocytes-store energy and provide cushioning

• White blood cells-provide immune function

• Red blood cells-carry gases such as oxygen and

carbon dioxide

Connective Tissue Types Adipose tissue

Connective tissue proper -Subcutaneous layer

•Loose connective tissue • Energy storage, cushioning

-areolar

Reticular Loose Connective Tissues (2 of 2) (Figure 5.13)

• Reticular connective tissue

• Framework of internal organs

Supportive connective tissue • Lymphatic tissues, spleen, liver

• Hyaline cartilage

• Fibrocartilage Dense Connective Tissues (Figure 5.14 and

5.15)
• Elastic cartilage
• Dense regular connective tissue

• Tendons, ligament
Fluid connective tissue
• Dense irregular connective tissue
•Blood
• Skin

Connective tissue proper

Dense Regular Tissues
• Dense regular connective tissue
• Contains a high number of collagen fibers
• Dense irregular connective tissue

• Adipose tissue
Collagen fibers oriented parallel to each other

• Allows tissue to withstand force in the

Supportive connective tissue direction of the orientation of the fibers

• Bone • Found in ligaments and tendons

Fluid connective tissue

Catilage • Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Hyaline cartilage • Lymph is primarily acellular

• Located within joints, ribs

• Most abundant cartilage Lymph is a fluid connective tissue

• Unlike blood, lymph is mainly acellular

Fibrocartilage

• Located in intervertebral discs Anatomy of Muscle Tissue

• Strongest cartilage • Muscle tissue is responsible for movement

• Shortens to generate pulling force

Elastic cartilage • Cells are tightly packed

• Located in external ear • Differs in location and manner of control

• Most flexible type of cartilage • Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth

muscle

The Perichondrium (Figure 5.18)

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
• Made of dense irregular connective tissue that
often surrounds a mass of cartilage in the body. • The major function of muscle tissue is
movement
• Encapsulates cartilage within the body

• Contracts in response to stimuli

Bone (Figure 5.19)
Voluntary muscle-conscious control
• The most rigid of the connective tissues
• Skeletal muscle
-Provides protection and support for internal
organs Involuntary muscle-unconscious control

• Cardiac and smooth muscle

Compact bone

• Solid with greater strength than spongy bone Skeletal Muscle

Spongy bone • Attached to bone

• Empty spaces contain red bone marrow • Allows body movement and maintains posture

• Contains striations-alternating light and dark

bands under light microscope
Fluid Connective Tissues (Figure 5.20)
• Voluntarily controlled
Blood and lymph
• Cells are multinucleated
• Transport molecules and cells throughout the
body

Cardiac Muscle

Blood contains cells: • Found in the walls of the heart

• Contains striations

• Involuntarily controlled Glial Cells

• Cells attached by intercalated discs • There are various types of glial cells associated
with nervous tissue
Smooth Muscle
• Many perform support functions for neurons
• Found within internal organs
• Some form myelin that insulates axons
• Associated with digestive, respiratory, urinary,
and reproductive systems • Allows for faster movement of action
potentials
• Lacks striations

• Involuntarily controlled

Discussion Activity 1
Tissue Membranes (Figure 5.23)
• As infants age, they no longer have to wear
diapers. Can you think of a role muscle tissue • Mucous membranes line body cavities that are
plays in the ability of an infant to stop wearing open to the outside
diapers?
• Serous membranes line body cavities and
Answer: • During infancy, the nervous pathways surround some organs
to control skeletal muscles are not fully
developed. As we age, these pathways mature • Cutaneous membrane is the skin and covers the
including the pathway to control the skeletal body
muscles that regulate urination and defecation.
• Synovial membranes line joints

Nervous Tissue
Mucous Membranes
Anatomy of Nervous Tissue
• Line body cavities that are exposed to the
• Nervous tissue makes up the brain, spinal cord, external environment
and peripheral nerves
• Usually contain goblet cells that secrete mucus
• Neurons conduct action potentials to
communicate with other cells

• Glial cells support neuronal functioning • Associated with:

1. Digestive tract

Neurons and Nervous Tissue (Figure 5.22) 2. Respiratory tract

• Neurons generate action potentials 3. Urinary tract

• Anatomical structure of neurons: 4. Reproductive tract

• Dendrites-short branches that receive signals Serous Membranes

• Cell body-houses nucleus and organelles • Cover and line internal organs

Schwann cell (forming myelin sheath) • Reduce friction created as organs move

• Axon-long projection used to send action

potentials
• Examples include:
• Synapse-gap between neuron and its target cell
• Pericardium of the heart
• Pleura of the lungs • Scar tissue may form due to rapid repair and
replacement of collagen fibers
• Peritoneum of the abdominal cavity

Tissue and Aging

Cutaneous Membrane
• Tissue changes as the body ages
• Essentially the skin
• Rate of mitosis slows down
• Protects body from desiccation and pathogens
• Leads to slower tissue healing
• Made of stratified squamous epithelium and
connective tissue • Number of elastic fibers decreases

• Keratin provides a thick barrier for protection • Structures are less elastic
against pathogens
• Contributes to wrinkles, joint stiffness, and
Synovial Membrane high blood pressure

• Found inside freely moveable joints like the Tissues and Cancer
elbow, hip, and knee
• Mutations may alter the regulatory signals cell
receives

• Cells secrete synovial fluid • Altered signals lead to uncontrolled replication

of cells
• Helps lubricate and nourish the cartilage at the
joint • Mass of cells is a tumor

• Reduces friction as bones move

• Malignant tumors are cancerous, cause disease,

and can spread to other areas of the body
Tissue Growth and Healing
• Benign tumors do not cause disease in the body
Section 5.7 or metastasize (spread to other areas of the body)

Inflammation (Figure 5.24) Tumor Growth

• The body's initial response to injury • Tumor growth is typically limited by

physiological constraints
• Limits extent of injury and begins the repair
process • Tumors that grow "trick" tissues into
supporting their growth
• Acute inflammation is short-term

• Chronic inflammation persists for long periods

of time Breast Density and Breast Cancer

• Increased collagen density is correlated with

increased breast cancer risk
Tissue Healing (Figure 5.25)

• Begins with removal of debris and toxins

Discussion Activity 2 Answer
• Clotting stops the bleeding
• Can you think of reasons why some cancers
• Granulation tissue forms to allow epithelial would be benign and others malignant? Can a
cells to regenerate lost tissue benign cancer become a malignant cancer?
• Due to the variations of the mutations that can Layers of the Epidermis (1 of 2)
lead to cancer and the cellular changes that come
with them, some cancers may be benign and There are four to five layers in the epidermis.
others malignant. A benign cancer can become
malignant if it begins to affect the surrounding Thick skin contains one additional layer.
tissues.

Cells are produced in the deepest layer and

migrate from deepest layer to the superficial
layer.

Mature cells are called keratinocytes.

Keratin makes cells tough and water-resistant.

CHAPTER 6 ANAPHY
• From superficial to deep:
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
1. Stratum corneum

2. Stratum granulosum
Integumentary System Functions
3. Stratum spinosum
The integumentary system is responsible for
protection of internal organs 4. Stratum basale

• It also aids in: Stratum Basale

-Sensory function Deepest of the epidermal layers

-Thermoregulation • Single layer of cells

-Vitamin D synthesis Actively divide to replace cells in superficial

layers

Additional cells found in stratum basale:

Epidermis
Merkel cells-sensory receptors used for
-Most superficial layer of the skin discriminatory touch

-Made of keratinized stratified squamous Melanocytes-produce melanin to protect cells

epithelium from UV radiation

-Avascular

-Contains four to five layers depending on Stratum Spinosum

location
• Eight to ten cell layers thick
-Thick skin (five layers)-found on palms of
hands and soles of feet • Keratinocytes are shaped like footballs

• Thin skin (four layers)-found in all other -Pointed ends that look like spines give rise to
locations the name "spinosum"

-Langerhans (dendritic) cells provide immune

protection
Cells are continually pushed toward the stratum
granulosum
Dermal Papillae (Figure 6.6)

Fingerlike projections of the dermis into the

Stratum Granulosum epidermis

-Named for its granular appearanc Helps to anchor the epidermis to the dermis

-Cells begin to flatten and accumulate more Prevents the two layers from separating
keratin
Noticeable as fingerprints
-Melanin can travel to cells within this layer

-Contained in melanosomes

-Cells begin to die at the most superficial layers

of the stratum granulosum

Melanosomes (Figure 6.5) Dermis

-Melanin produced by melanocytes in stratum • Lies deep to the epidermis

basale
• Forms projections that extend into the
-Long extensions transfer melanin to cells in epidermis
stratum granulosum
Composed mainly of connective tissue
-Melanin stored in granules called melanosomes
• Also contains:

1. Blood vessels
Stratum Corneum
2. Hair follicles
-Most superficial layer of the epidermis
3. Glands
-About 15 to 30 layers of dead keratinocytes

-Cells are shed and lost due to mechanical forces

Supports the epidermis with nutrients, strength,
-Cells are replaced by cells in deeper layers and elasticity
migrating into the stratum corneum
Layers of the Dermis (Figure 6.7)

Collagen fibers provide strength and structure

Thin Versus Thick Skin (Figure 6.4)
Elastic fibers provide elasticity
• Thin skin covers most of the body
• The dermis has two layers:
Has four layers of epidermis

Papillary layer
• Thick skin is found on the soles of the feet and
palms of the hands - More superficial layer

Has five layers of epidermis Reticular layer

Contains additional stratum lucidum not found -Deeper layer

in thin skin

Thick skin also has higher number of sensory

receptors Papillary Layer
-Superficial layer of the dermis 1. Hair

-Composed of loose areolar connective tissue 2. Nails

and Contains dermal papillae that project up into
the stratum basale of the epidermis. 3. Sweat glands

4. Sebaceous glands

Dermal papillae contain:

Blood vessels Hair

Nerve fibers Found on most body surfaces

Tactile (Meissner's) - corpuscles *Exceptions include palms of hands and soles of

feet (thick skin)
Used to detect light pressure
Composed of dead, keratinized cells from
epidermis

Reticular Layer Structures associated with hair:

Deeper layer of the dermis *Sebaceous (oil) glands-secrete sebum

Much thicker than papillary layer *Arrector pili muscles-contract to make hair
"stand up"
Made of dense irregular connective tissue

Contains hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerves

Functions of hair include:
Pacinian corpuscles-cells that sense deep
pressure -Physical protection

-Sensory input

Hypodermis -Thermoregulation

Also known as the subcutaneous layer -UV protection

Lies deep to the dermis

Composed of adipose and loose areolar Anatomy of Hair

connective tissue
Components of hair from deep to superficial:
Provides insulation and cushioning
Hair papilla-blood supply to hair follicle
Highly vascularized
Hair bulb-deepest portion of follicle
Contains brown fat in infants.
Hair root-between bulb and shaft
Aids in thermoregulation in infants
Hair shaft-visible portion above skin

Medulla-center of hair shaft

Accessory Structures of the Skin
Cortex-surrounds medulla
Section 6.2
Cuticle-surrounds cortex
Structures Associated with Skin

Hair Growth (Figure 6.8)

Accessory structures of the skin include:
HAIR GROWTH CYCLE
Hair growth is not continuous. Sweat Glands (2 of 2)

Follicles alternate between growth and rest Apocrine sweat glands secrete a viscous sweat
cycles. within hair follicles

New growth pushes old hair out of follicle. Associated with pubic hair

Not active till puberty

Nails (Figure 6.9)

Composed of keratinized epidermal cells Eccrine sweat glands secrete a less viscous sweat
onto surface of skin
Nail bed living component of nail

Produces nail body

Nail body visible hard portion of nail

Acne (Figure 6.11)
Nail root proximal side of nail body
Accumulation of sebum, keratin and dead cells
Nail cuticle (eponychium) thin layer of skin at can block hair follicle
base of nail
Bacteria feed on sebum and sweat to grow
Lunula crescent-shaped region of nail bed
This leads to inflammation of the skin called
Sweat Glands (1 of 2) acne

Also known as sudoriferous glands

Produce sweat (perspiration) to aid in Sensory Receptors of the Skin (Figure 6.12)
temperature regulation
-Thermoreceptors detect heat or cold

-Nociceptors detect pain

Two types of sweat glands:
-Tactile corpuscles detect touch
1. Eccrine sweat glands
-Lamellated corpuscles detect pressure and
2. Apocrine sweat glands vibration

Comparison of Sweat Glands Vitamin D Synthesis

Eccrine sweat glands Ultraviolet (UV) rays activate the precursor

molecule to initiate vitamin D synthesis
-Found all over body
Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium
-Less viscous sweat from foods in the gastrointestinal tract
-Involved in thermoregulation Necessary for bone growth and immune function

Apocrine sweat glands Application: Rickets (Figure 6.14)

- Found in groin and axilla (armpit) Misshaped bones due to calcium deficiency in
children
-More viscous secretion
Bones are weak due to lack of calcium
-May be involved in pheromone release
May develop into osteomalacia in adults
 The loss/destruction of nerve endings in the
dermis would lead to a loss of the sensation of
Injuries pain.

• Skin is highly vulnerable to injury

• Examples include abrasions, cuts, burns Wound Healing (Figure 6.15)

• Skin is highly regenerative Multi-step process:

1. Blood clotting

2. Fibroblasts produce new collagen (granulation

tissue)

3. Regeneration of epidermis

Scar may form after healing

Wound healing may lead to scars
Application: Skin Cancer
• Loss of accessory structures (hair, glands)
Associated with overexposure to UV radiation
-Repaired tissue may have a different texture or
consistency • UV radiation causes mutations in DNA,
leading to increased cancer risk

Skin cancers vary depending on cell where the

Estimating the Size of a Burn (Figure 6.16) cancer originated
Size of burn is important in determining
treatment
Three forms of skin cancer:
"Rule of nines" is used for estimation
• Basal cell carcinoma cause by cells of stratum
Head and neck - 9% basale
• Upper limbs - 9% each Squamous cell carcinoma spinosum caused by
keratinocytes of stratum
Trunk 36%
Melanoma caused by melanocytes
Genitalia 1%
Basal Cell Carcinoma (Table 6.1A)
Lower limbs 18% each.
Affects cells of stratum basale

Most common cancer in United States

Breakout Group Activity 1 Answer

• In a small group, briefly sketch the structure of

the epidermis and dermis. Be sure to include the Table 6.1 Skin Cancer
location of sensory receptors. Next, sketch the
layers after damage is done by a third-degree Basal cell carcinuma
burn.
Description

Basal cell carcinoma is a form of cancer that

Which layers are affected? affects the mitotically active stem calis in the
stratum basale of the epidermis. It is the most
• The epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis would common of all cancers that occar in the United
be affected. States and occurs frequently in areas that are
most susceptible to long-term sun exposure. Like
Why would a patient experience very little pain most cancers, basal cell carcinomas respond best
at the site of a third- degree burn? to treatment when caught early
 Hyaline cartilage is found at the ends of bones
where they form joints
Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Melanoma
(Table 6.1B) -Helps bones glide past one another

Squamous cell carcinoma is less common than -Loss of hyaline cartilage leads to osteoarthritis
basal
• Fibrocartilage is found between vertebrae,
cell carcinoma within the knee, and the pubic symphysis

More aggressive and can metastasize

Melanoma usually begins as a mole Anatomy of a Typical Bone

Difficult to detect and highly metastation -Periosteum covers the surface of the bone

-Outer shell of compact bone protects entire

bone
CHAPTER 7
-Spongy bone contains red bone marrow
CHAPTER 7
-Medullary cavity contains yellow bone marrow
Bone is a solid connective tissue.
-Articular cartilage made of hyaline cartilage is
The major function of bone is protection. found at the joints

-Ligaments attach bones to each other

Functions of the Skeletal System

• The skeletal system is made of bone and Yellow bone marrow is adipose tissue. As the
cartilage skeleton increases in size during childhood and
adolescence, it gains yellow bone marrow.

Red bone marrow is the site of generation of

• Functions include: blood cells.
• Providing rigid support framework of the
human body
Classes of Bones
• Allowing movement as muscles pull on bones
Bones are classified primarily accordingly to
• Providing protection for soft internal organs shape
• Storing minerals in the bone extracellular -long bones
matrix
-Short bones
• Storing energy in the form of adipose in yellow
bone marrow -Flat Bones

Production of blood cells -Irregular bones

-Sesamoid bones

Cartilage

• Cartilage contributes to skeletal system Bone Classifications (Table 7.1)

• Bone classifications include:

Elastic cartilage is not found in the skeletal

system (Auricle, Epiglottis, Eustachian Tube,
etc) Table 7.1 Bone Classifications
-Long bones Features: Small and round; embedded in tendons

-Short bones Functions: Protect tendons from compressive

forces
-Flat Bones
Examples: Patellae
-Irregular Bones

-sesamoid Bones
Common Structures of a Long Bone (1 of 3)
(Figure 7.4)

Long • Epiphysis-end of long bone

Features: Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is • Diaphysis-shaft of long bone

wide
-Metaphysis-between epiphysis and diaphysis

• Location of epiphyseal plate/line

Function: Leverage
• Medullary cavity-hollow space in diaphysis
Examples: Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals,
humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, phalanges • Houses yellow bone marrow

Articular cartilage-layer of hyaline cartilage that

reduces friction in joint
Short

Functions: Provide stability, support, while

allowing for some motion Common Structures of a Long Bone (2 of 3)
(Figure 7.5)
Features: Cube-like shape,approximately equal
in length, width, and thickness • Epiphyseal plate (growth plate) found in
children
Examples:Carpals, tarsals
-Contains growing cartilage that allows bones to
increase in length

Flat -Ossifies to become epiphyseal line in adults

Feature: Thin and curved

Functions: Points of attachment for muscles; • Epiphyseal line-site of previous epiphyseal

protectors of internal organs Protect internal plate
organs

Examples: Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones

Common Structures of a Long Bone (3 of 3)
(Figure 7.6)

Irregular Periosteum-dense irregular connective tissue

lining surface
Features: Complex shape Small and round;
embedded in tendons -Contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels
Functions: Protect tendons from compressive
forces -Tendons and ligaments attach to periosteum by
perforating fibers
Examples: Vertebrae, facial bones

• Endosteum-dense irregular connective tissue

Sesamoid lining medullary cavity
• Periosteum and endosteum contain cells that Sternum
allow bone growth
Ribs

Scapula
Periosteum (Figure 7.7)

• Periosteum is attachment site for tendons and

ligaments Sesamoid Bones (Figure 7.3)

• Collagen fibers of tendon weave into those of • Small, round bones suspended within a tendon
periosteum to anchor muscle to bone or ligament

• Develop over time due to friction

• Help protect tendons

• Typically seen in tendons of feet, hands, and

knees
Articular Cartilage (Figure 7.8)
• Patella is the only common sesamoid bone in
• Found at ends of long bones where joints form every person

• Made of hyaline cartilage

Reduce friction and act as shock absorber Irregular and Sesamoid Bones

• Irregular bones

Short and Flat Bones • Do not have an easily characterized shape

Short bones • Does not fit any other classification

• Cube-like in shape • Complex shapes

• Approximately equal length, width, and

thickness

• Provide stability and support

• Examples:

Vertebrae
• Examples:
Facial bones
Carpal bones of the wrist

Tarsal bones of the ankle

Sesamoid bones

• Small, round bones suspended in a tendon or

ligament

Flat bones • Protect tendons from compressive force

Usually thin, but can be curved • Example:

Protect internal organs Patella

-Only common sesamoid bone

• Examples:

Cranial bones (skull) Bone Markings

• The surface features of bones • Sinus-air-filled space in bone

• Articulating surfaces where two bones meet

• Depressions-sunken portion of a bone The Microscopic Structure of Cartilage and

Bone
• Projections-projects above surface of bone

• Holes and spaces-an opening or a groove in the

bone Three Types of Cartilage (Figure 7.11)

• Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

Bone Markings • Chondroblasts cells of cartilage that secrete

matrix
• The surface features of bones
• Chondrocytes cells that are completely
• Articulating surfaces where two bones meet surrounded by matrix

• Depressions-sunken portion of a bone -Found in lacunae

• Projections-projects above surface of bone Cartilage Tissue (Figure 7.10)

• Holes and spaces-an opening or a groove in the Semi-solid connective tissue

bone
Avascular
The 4 Classes of Bone Markings (Table 7.2)
Covered by perichondrium
• The four general classes of bone markings
include:

• Articulating surfaces • Dense irregular connective tissue

• Depressions • Contains blood vessels

• Projections • Provides nutrients to cartilage

• Holes and spaces

Bone Tissue

Articulating Surfaces • Solid connective tissue

• Articulating surfaces

• Condyle-rounded surface • Compact bone

• Facet-flat surface - More dense

• Head-prominent rounded surface - Provides support and protection

• Trochlea-rounded articulating surface

Spongy bone

Holes and Spaces -Provide strength to bone

• Canal-passage in bone -Spaces house red bone marrow

Fissure-slit through bone

Foramen-hole through bone Cells of Bone

• Meatus-opening into canal • Osteogenic cells

-stem cells that replicate • Ossification-the process of forming bone

- Develop into osteoblasts • A cartilage or membranous model is required

- Communicate via channels • New bone tissue is built on the model

• Intramembranous ossification-connective
tissue membrane is used to make bone
• Osteoblasts-cells that form new bone matrix
Endochondral ossification-hyaline cartilage is
used to make bone

• Osteocytes-mature osteoblast that are

completely surrounded by matrix

-Located in lacunae

• Osteoclasts-cells that breakdown bone

Intramembranous Ossification (Figure 7.14)
-Aid in bone remodeling
• Forms flat bones of cranium and face

• Mesenchymal cells group together and

Compact Bone (Figure 7.12) differentiate into osteoblasts forming ossification
center
Osteon-structural unit of compact bone
Osteoblasts begin to secret osteoid
Made of rings of matrix called concentric
lamellae • Trabeculae and periosteum form

Concentric lamellae surround central canal and Compact bone surrounds trabecular bone
provide support

Blood vessels in central canal connected to

periosteum by perforating canals Endochondral Ossification (Figure 7.15)

• Nutrients and wastes move through canaliculi Forms most long bones

• Cells in cartilage differentiate into osteoblasts

Spongy Bone (Figure 7.13) Minerals are deposited on collagen fibers in

cartilage starting at diaphysis
• Contain osteocytes within trabeculae
• Perichondrium becomes periosteum
• Trabeculae-beams of bone that form lattice-like
network within spongy bone • Blood vessels penetrate periosteum forming
primary ossification center
• Form along stress lines to provide strength
• Mineralization increases
Spaces house red bone marrow where
hematopoiesis occurs • Cartilage remains at epiphyseal plate to allow
bone to grow in length

• Epiphyses ossify after birth at secondary

Formation and Growth of Bone and Cartilage ossification centers

Ossification of Embryonic and Fetal Skeletons

(Figure 7.16)
Formation of Bone
• Embryonic and fetal skeletons form by • Cartilage on the diaphysis side of the plate is
combination of intramembranous and replaced with bone
endochondral ossification
Bone is longer as a result
• Long bones are formed via endochondral
ossification

• Flat bones are formed via intramembranous Anatomy of Epiphyseal Plate

ossification
• Epiphyseal plates exhibit four zones of activity
• Mineralization increases during development
• Reserve zone anchors epiphyseal plate to
epiphysis

Cartilage Growth • Proliferative zone chondrocytes that recently

underwent mitosis
• Interstitial cartilage growth-cartilage grows
longer • Zone of mature cartilage older, more mature
chondrocytes
• Due to mitotic replication of chondrocytes
• Zone of calcified matrix - dead chondrocytes
• Allows bone to increase in length surrounded by bone matrix

Appositional cartilage growth-cartilage grows Anchors epiphyseal plate to diaphysis

wider
How Bones Grow in Diameter (Figure 7.20)
• Occurs as cells in perichondrium become
chondroblasts and secrete matrix • Occurs by appositional growth

• Allows bone to increase in width • Osteoblasts in periosteum form new matrix on

surface of bone
Interstitial Cartilage Growth (Figure 7.17)

• Chondrocytes divide by mitosis in the

interstitial cartilage which allows cartilage to • Osteoclasts break down older bone that lines
grow in length medullary cavity

• Initially share same lacuna

Chondrocytes move apart as they secrete matrix Bone Remodeling

• The changes bones go through on a daily basis

Appositional Cartilage Growth (Figure 7.18) • Bone is constantly broken down and new bone
is formed
• Allows cartilage to increase in width
• Aids homeostasis by making minerals available
• Cell in perichondrium differentiate into
chondroblasts • Caused by injury, exercise, and other activities

• Chondroblasts secrete matrix allowing increase Bone remodels to increase strength along line of
in width resistance

How Bones Grow in Length (Figure 7.19) Blood Calcium Regulation (Figure 7.21)

• Epiphyseal plate grows Bones store calcium and other minerals

• The increase in size increases the distance • Hormones influence bone:

between the epiphysis and diaphysis
Calcitonin causes bones to take up calcium

• Lowers blood calcium levels

Parathyroid hormone causes bones to release •Spiral
calcium
• Comminuted
Increases blood calcium levels
• Impacted

•Greenstick
Hormones that Influence the Skeletal System
(Table 7.3) • Oblique

• Growth hormone (GH) promotes bone growth

• T3 and T4 - promotes bone growth Common Types of Fractures (Table 7.4)

• Estrogen and testosterone - increase osteoblast Table 7.4 Common Types of Fractures
activity

• Calcitriol - increases absorption of calcium and

phosphate from intestine Type of Fracture

• PTH - increases osteoclast activity Description

• Calcitonin increases osteoblast and decreases Transverse

osteoclast activity
-Occurs straight across the long axis of the bone
Bone Repair (Figure 7.22)
Oblique
• Fracture-break of a bone
-Occurs at an angle that is not 90 degrees
Steps in bone repair:
Spiral
1. Hematoma prevents blood loss
-Bone segments are pulled apart as a result of a
2. Cartilage callus forms new bone template twisting motion

3. Callus is replaced by bone Comminuted

4. Compact bone is built around the outer -Several breaks result in many small pieces
surface of bone between two large segments

Assisting Bone Repair (Figure 7.23) Impacted

• Reduction = aligning of bones for optimal -One fragment is driven into the other, usually as
healing a result of compression

• Should be done as soon as possible Greenstick

• Cylinders and screws can be added surgically -A partial fracture in which only one side of the
for stabilization bone is broken

Open (or compound)

Types of Fractures -A fracture in which at least one end of the

broken bone tears through the skin; carries a
Fractures classified based on complexity, high risk of infection
location, and other features
Closed (or simple)
• Closed
-A fracture in which the skin remains intact
•Open

• Transverse
Bones and Homeostasis Section 7.6 • Good sources of dietary calcium include:

- Cheese

Nutrition and Bone Tissue -Milk

• Calcium is stored in the extracellular matrix of -Nuts

bone
- Leafy greens
• Hypocalcemia - low blood levels of calcium
-Fish
• Hypercalcemia high blood levels of calcium

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - stimulates

osteoclasts Exercise and Bone Tissue (Figure 7.27)

• The breakdown of bone increases blood • Exercise and physical stress strengthen bones
calcium
Increased exercise leads to thicker, denser bones
• Calcitonin (CT) - inhibits osteoclasts
• Lack of exercise leads to weaker, lighter bones
• Increased formation of bone decreases blood
calcium • Increases risk of fracture

Nutrition and Bone Tissue Osteoporosis

• Calcium is stored in the extracellular matrix of • Characterized by a decrease in bone mass with
bone age

• Hypocalcemia - low blood levels of calcium Rate of bone resorption exceeds rate of bone
formation
• Hypercalcemia high blood levels of calcium
• Osteoclasts more active than osteoblasts
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - stimulates
osteoclasts • Rapidly declining levels of estradiol in females
increases risk
• The breakdown of bone increases blood
calcium

• Calcitonin (CT) inhibits osteoclasts

• Increased formation of bone decreases blood

calcium

Calcium Homeostasis

Thyroid gland secretes calcitonin, bones take up

Ca, blood Ca levels lower

• Bones store calcium

• Calcitonin and parathyroid hormones aid in

calcium homeostasis

• Calcium is absorbed by small intestine

• Requires vitamin D for absorption

Dietary Calcium (Figure 7.24)

 • Allows movement of head, neck, back, and
respiratory muscles

• Consists of 80 bones in total

• Skull

• Vertebral column

• Ribs

• Sternum

The Skull
Anatomy and Physiology, 1e Chapter 8: Axial
Skeleton Introduction to the Skull (Figure 8.2)

• Composed of 22 bones

The Skeletal System • Bones are divided into two groups:

• Consists of all the bones, cartilage, and 1. Cranial bones-surround and protect the brain
ligaments of the body
2. Facial bones-form the face, nasal cavity,
• 206 bones in adult skeleton mouth, and orbit

• More in children • Form openings called cavities

• Provides support for the body • Contain soft organs

• Aids in body movements • Decrease weight of skull

• Assists in calcium homeostasis

• Divided into axial and appendicular divisions Bones of the Skull

• Cranial bones

The Appendicular Skeleton • Frontal bone (1)

• Forms upper and lower extremities • Parietal bones (2)

• Includes bones that attach extremities to axial • Occipital bone (1)

skeleton
• Temporal bones (2)
• 126 bones in total
• Sphenoid bone (1)
• Discussed further in Chapter 9
• Ethmoid bone (1)

The Axial Skeleton (Figure 8.1)

Facial bones
• Forms vertical, central axis of the body
• Mandible (1)
• Protects internal organs
• Jaws (2) • Forms posterior skull and posterior base of
cranial cavity
• Lacrimal bones (2)

• Nasal bones (2)

• Bony markings:
• Palatine bones (2)
• External occipital protuberance
• Zygomatic bones (2)
• Superior nuchal line
• Inferior nasal concha (2)
• A large hole
• Stomach (1)
• Occipital condyles
Unpaired and Paired Skull Bones (Figure 8.3)

• Paired skull bones are found on the left and

right sides Temporal Bones (Figure 8.8)

• Some bones are unpaired • Form lower lateral sides of skull

Cavities of the Skull (Figure 8.4) • Bony markings:

• Cavities house softer structures • Squamous portion

• Cavities include: • Zygomatic process

• Cranial cavity • Mastoid process

• Orbits • External acoustic meatus

• Nasal cavity • Mandibular fossa

• Oral cavity • Articular tubercle

• Paranasal sinuses • Styloid process

Frontal Bone (Figure 8.5) Sphenoid Bone (Figure 8.12)

• Forms the forehead and part of cranium • Forms much of the base of central skull and
part of temples
Bone Markings

Glabella
• Bony markings:
-Supraorbital foramen
• Greater and lesser wings
-Supraorbital margin
• Turkish chair

• Pituitary fossa
Parietal Bones (Figure 8.6)
• Medial and lateral pterygoid processes
• Form superior lateral sides of the skull (middle
part)

• Articulate with frontal, temporal, and occipital Maxillary Bone (Figure 8.10)
bones
• Also called the hard palate or maxilla

Occipital Bone (Figure 8.7)

• Forms the upper jaw, most of the roof of the • Form bony base (bridge) and lateral walls the
mouth, part of the orbit, and the lateral base of nose
the nose
Inferior nasal concha
• Bony markings:
• Project into nasal cavity
• Alveolar processes

• Infraorbital foramen
The Articulated Skull (Figure 8.15)

• Anterior view of articulated skull

• Many of the bones of the skull can be

identified anteriorly

Lacrimal Bones (Figure 8.16)

• Lacrimal bones Sutures

• Form part of orbit • Immobile joints filled with dense, fibrous

connective tissue that attach cranial bones
• Contain lacrimal glands that secrete tears
• Sagittal suture-connects the two parietal bones
Palatine Bones (Figure 8.14)
• Coronal suture-connects frontal bone to
• Form posterior portion of hard palate, medial parietal bones
part of orbit, and contributes to vertical section
of nasal cavityPalatine Bones (Figure 8.14) • Lambdoid suture-connects parietal bones to
occipital bone
• Form posterior portion of hard palate, medial
part of orbit, and contributes to vertical section • Squamous suture-connects parietal and
of nasal cavity temporal bones

Zygomatic Bones (Figure 8.11) The Orbit (Figure 8.16)

• Known as the cheekbones • Protects the eyeball and muscles that move it

• Forms much of the lateral part of orbit • Frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, ethmoid, lacrimal,
palatine, and sphenoid bones contribute to orbit

• Optic canal allows entry of optic nerve

• Bony markings:
• Superior orbital fissure allows entry of blood
• Temporal process supply

• Unites with zygomatic process of temporal

bone to form zygomatic arch
The Nasal Cavity, Septum, and Conchae (Figure
8.17)

Vomer, Nasal, and Inferior Nasal Conchae Nasal cavity is bordered by maxillae and nasal
Bones (Figures 8.18 and 8.16) bones

Vomiting Nasal septum-divides nasal cavity

• Forms part of nasal septum • Formed by perpendicular plate of ethmoid,

vomer, and septal cartilage

Nasal concha
Nasal bones
• Covered by mucous membranes Parietal bone

• Warm, filter, and moisten inhaled air • Zygomatic arch is formed by temporal process
of zygomatic bone articulating with zygomatic
process of temporal bone

The Nasal Septum (Figure 8.18) • Temporal fossa above zygomatic arch

• Divides nasal cavity • Squamous suture unites parietal and temporal

bones
• Formed by union of three structures:

• Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone

Posterior View of Skull (Figure 8.23)
• Vomiting
• Parietal bones are united by sagittal suture
• Septal cartilage
• Parietal bones and occipital bone are united by
lambdoid suture
Paranasal Sinuses (1 of 2) (Figure 8.19)

• Hollow, air-filled spaces found in frontal, Inside the Cranial Cavity (Figure 8.24)
maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones
• Mostly occupied by the brain
• Connect to nasal cavity
• Base of skull is divided into 3 fossae:
• Add volume to skull without adding weight
• Anterior cranial fossa
• Allow resonance for voice
• Middle cranial fossa

• Posterior cranial fossa

Paranasal Sinuses (2 of 2) (Figure 8.20)

• Named for the skull bone they are found in

Base of the Skull (Figure 8.25)
• Frontal sinus
Anterior cranial fossa
• Maxillary sinuses
• Contains crista galli and cribriform plates
• Sphenoid sinus
Middle cranial fossa
• Ethmoid sinus
• Contains openings for blood vessels and nerves

Posterior cranial fossa

Oral Cavity (Figure 8.21)
• Contains internal acoustic meatus, hypoglossal
• Formed by maxillae, mandible, and palatine canal, and jugular foramen
bones

• Teeth are embedded in alveolar processes

Openings of Middle Cranial Fossa
• Hard palate formed by palatine process of
maxillae and horizontal plate of palatine bones • Superior orbital fissure-passage for nerves to
eyeball, associated muscles, and sensory nerves
• Mandibular (mental) foramen allows entry of to forehead
nerves and blood vessels to lower jaw
• Foramen rotundum-allows exit of major
sensory nerve to face
Lateral View of Skull (Figure 8.22) • Foramen ovale-allows exit of major sensory
nerve to face
• Foramen spinosum-entry of blood supply into • Bones are not fully fused until adulthood
cranial cavity

• Stylomastoid foramen-exit of nerve to muscles

of the face The Developing Skull (Figure 8.28)

• Carotid canal-entry of blood supply to brain • Early embryonic skull is mainly sheets of
connective tissue
• Foramen lacerum-no structures pass through
here • As bone ossifies, fontanelles remain to separate
bones

• During birth, bones may shift slightly and

Openings of the Posterior Cranial Fossa overlap

• Internal acoustic meatus - allows passage of the • After birth, fontanelles and sutures eventually
nerves for hearing and equilibrium and the nerve ossify
that supplies muscles of the face

• Hypoglossal canal - allows passage of a nerve

to the tongue (hypoglossal nerve, CNXII) Application: Fusion Disorders

• Jugular foramen - allows passage of several • Cleft lip results from partial or complete failure
nerves and the jugular vein of upper lip to fuse together

• Cleft palate results from failure of the hard

palate to fuse completely
Midsagittal Section of Skull (Figure 8.26)
Craniosynostosis is the premature fusion of a
• Frontal and parietal bones united by the suture line
coronal suture
• Results in abnormal growth of skull and cranial
• Internal acoustic meatus of the temporal bone deformity

• Sphenoid sinus Hyoid Bone (Figure 8.29)

• Nasal septum • U-shaped bone located in superior part of neck

• Does not articulate with other skull bones

• Used primarily for muscle attachment

Brain-to-Body Size Ratio (Figure 8.27) • Due to location in the neck, may be broken by
strangulation
• Humans have a greater brain-to-body size ratio
than other primates

• Size of human neonate head is close to size of Case Study Activity 1 Answer
pelvic outlet, increasing difficulty of delivery
• Marisol is a medical examiner. During an
examination, she finds that the hyoid bone of the
body she is examining has been crushed. Could
Development and Aging of the Skull this information be used as a way of determining
what killed the individual? Why or why not?
• Bones of skull are not fused at birth
• Yes, she could use this information to aid in
• Fontanelles determining what killed the individual. The
hyoid bone does not articulate with any other
• Also known as "soft spots" bones. Because of this fact, crushing this bone
would mean that direct pressure would have to
• Allow skull to change shape during birth
be applied to the area of the bone. This would
• Allow for rapid growth of brain during infancy mean that pressure was applied to the neck as is
the case in strangulation
 • Lamina

The Vertebral Column • Vertebral foramen

Regions of the Vertebral Column (Figure 8.30) • Transverse, spinous, and articular processes

• Twenty-four vertebrae in total plus the sacrum • Intervertebral foramen

and the соссух

• Five regions of vertebral column:

Articulated Vertebrae (Figure 8.32)
• Cervical (7)
• Intervertebral discs are between the bodies of
• Thoracic (12) each vertebrae

• Lumbar (5) • Superior and inferior articular processes unite

the vertebrae posteriorly
• Sacral (5 fused vertebrae)
• Intervertebral foramen allow spinal nerves to
• Coccygeal (4 fused vertebrae) exit

Cervical Vertebrae (Figure 8.33)

• Seven cervical vertebrae

Curvatures of the Vertebral Column (Figure • Small vertebral bodies

8.31)
• Transverse foramina for vertebral arteries
• Four curvatures increase strength, flexibility,
and shock absorption • Bifid spinous processes

• Cervical curve (posteriorly oriented)

• Thoracic curve (anteriorly oriented) Atlas and Axis (Figure 8.34)

• Lumbar curve (posteriorly oriented) • C1 and C2 allow rotation of the head

• Sacrococcygeal curve (anteriorly oriented)

C1 = atlas

Curvature Abnormalities • Allows head to move in a "yes" motion

• Kyphosis - excessive posterior curvature of C2 = axis

thoracic region
• Contains the dens
• Lordosis excessive anterior curve of lumbar
region • Allows head to move in a "no" motion

• Scoliosis - abnormal lateral curvature of

vertebral column
Thoracic Vertebrae (Figure 8.35)
General Structure of a Vertebra
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae
• Components of a typical vertebra:
• Vertebral bodies increase in size as you
• Vertebral body descend the spinal column

• Vertebral arch • Long, downward angled spinous processes

• Pedicles • Articulate with ribs

 2. Body

Ribs Articulate with Thoracic Vertebrae (Figure • Joins to manubrium at sternal angle
8.36)
3. Xiphoid process
• Bodies of thoracic vertebrae articulate with
heads of ribs • Clavicles and some ribs attach to sternum

• Transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae

articulate with rib tubercles
Ribs (Figure 8.41)

• Twelve pairs of curved flat bones

Lumbar Vertebrae (Figure 8.37)
• Costal cartilage articulates some to the sternum
• Five lumbar vertebrae anteriorly

• Largest vertebral bodies

• Short, blunt spinous processes • Bony features:

• Head, neck, body, tubercle, and angle of the rib

Sacrum and Coccyx (Figure 8.38) • Costal groove

• Sacrum is a thick triangular shaped bone

• Formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae Types of Ribs

• Median sacral crest • Only some ribs have costal cartilage

• Sacral promontory on superior portion of • True ribs (1-7)-costal cartilage directly attaches
sacrum to sternum

• Openings are called sacral foramina • False ribs (8-12)-costal cartilage does not
attach to sternum
• Coccyx is formed by fusion of 4 vertebrae
• Floating ribs (11-12)-do not have costal
cartilage

Intervertebral Disks (Figure 8.39)

• Fibrocartilage pads between vertebrae

• Anulus fibrosus fibrous outer layer

• Nucleus pulposus soft, gel- Like

• Anchor vertebrae to each other

• Cushion and allow movement

The Thoracic Cage Sternum (Figure 8.40)

Parts of sternum

1. Handle

• Clavicular notch

• Suprasternal notch
 •Anchor the upper limb to the axial skeleton

•Facilitate movement of the upper limb

•Serve as attachment sites for muscles that move

shoulder and arm

Clavicle

• Also known as the collarbone

•Loosely-anchored, S-shaped bone

•Articulates medially with manubrium of

sternum

• Forms sternoclavicular joint

• Articulates laterally with acromion of scapula

•Forms acromioclavicular joint

Scapula (1 of 2)

•Located on posterior of shoulder

CHAPTER 9 •Glenoid cavity articulates with

Timeline of Skeletal Development •head of humerus

•Forms gienchumeral joint

•Appendicular axeleton development begins •Coracold and acromion processes

before birth
•sicapular spine
•Continues through warty adulthood
•Supraspinous, Infrassinous, and subscapular
•Completion occars arosand age 25 fossee

Anatomy of a Limb Scapula (2 of 2)

•Mammals have similar limb construction Three borders:

•Single, strong bone close to trunk Superior, medial and lateral borders

•A hinge joint connecting two distal bones Superior and inferior angles

•A complex joint made of a series of short bones

•A hand, foot, or wing made of rows of small Knowledge Check Activity 1

bones
The joint formed by the articulation of the
clavicle and scapula is:

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle A. Glenohumeral joint

•The clavicle and scapula compose the shoulder B. Sternoclavicular joint

girdle
C. Acromioclavicular joint Olecranon and coronoid processes form
trochlear notch

Articulates with trochlea of humerus at elbow

Bones of the Arm
Allows hinge-like motion of forearm
•Humerus

•Ulna
Radius
•Radius
•Lateral bone of antebrachial region
•Carpal bones
•read articulates with capitulum of hameras it
•Metacarpal bones of the hands elbow

•Phalanges of the fingers •Rolales around unele allow pronation and

superation of forearm

•Urterosseous membrane is between Palue and

Humerus wire
•Head of humerus articulates with glencid cavity •Diatal end articulated with carpal bones
of scapula at shoulder

•Multiple sites for muscle attachment

•Distal end forms elbow

•Trochlea and olecranon fossa articulate with

ulna Supination and Pronation

•Capitulum articulates with radius •Movements that occur as the radius rotates
around the ult

•When the elbow is flexed:

Additional Bony Markings of the Humerus
•Pronatiin occurs as the palm faces inferioriy
• Anatomical neck
•Supiration results in the pain Facing superiorly
•Surgical neck

•Common site of fractures

Supination and Pronation
•Greater and lesser tubercles
Movements that occur as the radius rotates
•intertubercular (bicipital) groove around the ulna
•Body (shaft) of the humarus When the elbow is flexed:
•Coronoid and radial fossae • Pronation occurs as the palm faces inferiorly
• Medial and lateral epicondyles •Suiination results in the palm facing superiorly
•coronoid and radial fossae

Ulna Bones of the Wrist: Carpals

Medial bone of antebrachial region •Eight bones arranged into two rows
Proximal end resembles shape of the letter "C" •Proximal row (lateral to medial)
• Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform 2. Ischium

• Distal row (lateral to medial) 3. Pubis

•Trapezium, trapezoid. capitate, hamate Anchored anteriorly by the pubic symphysis

Anchored posteriorly to the sacrum

Bones of the Hand: Metacarpals and Phalanges

Elve metacarpals in the palm of hand Ilium

Fourteen phalanges found in fingers (three in Large, fan-shaped superior portion of the os
each finger, two in the thumb) coxae

•Named according to relative position Site of large muscle attachments

Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges Move lower extremity

Thumb only has proximal and distal phalanges Bony markings:

Illac crest

Fractures of Upper Limb Bones Iliac spines

• Usually occur as a result of breaking a fall Greater sciatic notch

Outstretched hand sends force through upper Iliac fossa

limb
Iliac spines
Force may result in fracture Surgical neck,
transverse. supracondylar, and intracondylar Ischium
fractures of the humerus
Posterior portion of os coxae
Colles' fracture of the radium
Site where large muscles attach
Scaphoid fractures in the wrist
Bony markings:
The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
Ischial tuberosity

Ischial ramus
The Pelvis
Lesser sciatic notch
The pelvis is formed by:
Ischial spine

•Two hip bones (each called ar os coxoe)

Pubis
•The sacrum
• Anterior portion of os coxae
• The coccyx
Bony markings:
•Largely immobile, weight- bearing structure
• Pubic body

Pubic tubercle
Os Coxae
• Superior and inferior rami
• Formed by three fused bones
Pectineal line
1. Ilium
Inferior pubic ramus
Pubic bodies joined by pubic symphysis Testosterone and estrogen

Features of the Pelvis Hormone-Induced Pelvic Changes

Acetabulum forms at fusion site of ilium, pubis, Posterior tilting of coccyx in female pelvis;
and ischium anterior tilting of coccyx in male pelvis

Head of femur articulates here to form hip joint Narrower sciatic notch in female pelvis

• Obturator foramen Greater distance between ischial tuberosities in

female pelvis
• Large opening filled with connective tissue
that allows a nerve to pass through and reach the Greater distance between anterior ilac spines in
anterior leg female pelvis

Wider subpubic angle in female pelvis

Boundaries of the Pelvis

Pelvic brim civides greater pelvis from lesser Bones found in the Leg
pelvis
Femur
Greater pelvis lies superior to lesser pelvis
Tibla
Greater pelvis contains mainly abdominal organs
Fibula
Lesser pelvis contains bladder, rectum, and
reproductive organs Tarsais, metatarsals, and phalanges of the foot

Pelvic Inlet is the roof of lesser pelvis Femur

Pelvic outlet is the floor of lesser pelvis Found in thigh region

Longest, strongest bone of the body

Features of the Pelvis Head articulates with acetabulum of os coxae to

form hip joint
Acetabulum forms at fusion site of ilium, pubis,
and ischium Multiple markings for muscle attachment

Head of femur articulates here to form hip joint Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the
tibia to form knee joint
• Obturator foramen

Large opening filled with connective tissue that

allows a nerve to pass through and reach the The Distal Femur
anterior leg
Medial and lateral condyles articulate with tibia
to form knee joint

Male versus Female Pelvis Intercondylar fossa accommodates ligaments of

the knee
The male pelvis is larger and heavier
Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments
The female pelvis is structured to meet the needs
of pregnancy and [Link] Patellar surface articulates with patella

Wider and shallower

Pelvic inlet is oval and rounded

Changes attributable to hormones Patella

• Largest sesamo'd bone of the human body Hallux only has proximal and distal phalanges

Only sesamoid bone found in all humans

Increases leverage power of thigh muscles Arches of the Foot

Help the bones of the foot distribute and absorb

the force of impact
Tibia and Fibula
• Flatten upon impact
Found in lower leg
Medial longitudinal arch
•Tibia-medial bone
Lateral longitudinal arch
Condyles articulate with femur to form knee
joint Transverse arch

Tibial tuberosity

Medial malleolus Knowledge Check Activity 3

•Fibula-Lateral bone The bone found in the thigh region is the:

Head and lateral malleolus A. Tibia

Used for muscle attachment B. Fibula

C. Femur

Bones of the Foot: Tarsals (Figure 9.23) D. Calcaneus

Proximal row of tarsals: E. Talus

Talus-articulates with tibia and fibula to form

ankle

•Calcaneus-hee bone

•Navicular

Distal row of tarsals:

Cubold, medial cuneiform, Intermediate

cuneiform, lateral cuneiform

Bones of the Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges

Metatarsals

Make up the arch of the foot

Numbered 1-5 (1-V) starting at the medial side

of the foot

14 phalanges in the toes

Toes numbered 1-5 starting at the big toe

(hallux)

Named proximal, middle, and distal according to

relative position
 • Most common joint

Functional Classification (1 of 2) (Figure 10.1

and Figure 10.2)

Based on the extent of joint mobility

Synarthrosis-little to no movement

Example: sutures of skull

Amphiarthrosis-slight movement

Examples: pubic symphysis, intervertebral

discs

Functional Classification (2 of 2) (Figure 10.3)

Diarthrosis-significant movement

Three categories based on axes of motion

1. Uniaxial-movement in one plane

Example: elbow

2. Biaxial-movement in two planes

CHAPTER 10
Example: metacarpophalangeal joints
Joints
3. Multiaxial-movement in three or more planes
Sites where bones and cartilage form a
connection Example: hip and shoulder joints

• Also known as an articulation or arthrosis

Two ways to classify joints: Structural and Functional Relationship

• Structural-based on the structure that connects • The structure of a joint determines which types
the articulating surfaces of bones of movement are possible

• Functional-based on the amount of movement • Fibrous and cartilaginous joints

between articulating bones
• Functionally are synarthroses or
amphiarthroses

Structural Classification Synovial joints

• Based on the structure of the articulating Functionally are diarthroses

surfaces

Fibrous joined by fibrous connective tissue

Knowledge Check Activity 1 Answer
Cartilaginous-joined by cartilage
What term describes a joint that allows no or
• Hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage only slight movement?

• Synovial-joined within a fluid-filled joint A. Synarthrosis

cavity
 Functionally classified as amphiarthroses

Fibrous Joints Found between radius and ulna of forearm and

between tibia and fibula of leg
Characteristics of Fibrous Joints (Figure 10.4)
• Interosseus membrane anchors parallel bones
No joint cavity to each other

Bones held together by dense (fibrous) • Interosseus membrane between radius and ulna
connective tissue is more mobile

Synarthroses

Permit little to no movement Types of Fibrous Joints: Gomphoses

Types: • Anchors teeth to maxilla (upper jaw) and

mandible (lower jaw)
• Sutures
• Made of numerous short bands of dense
•Syndesmoses connective tissue called periodontal ligaments
•Gomphoses Classified as synarthroses

Cartilaginous Joints
Types of Fibrous Joints: Sutures

• Joins the bones of the skull

Classified as synarthroses Characteristics of Cartilaginous Joints (Figure

10.6)
• Some may allow slight movement
Bones joined by hyaline cartilage or
Convoluted shape prevents movement between fibrocartilage
bones
Sychondroses
Form when skull bones completely ossify during
early childhood • Joined by hyaline cartilage

• Symphyses
The Newborn Skull (Figure 10.5) Joined by fibrocartilage
• Newborn skull contains wide areas of
connective tissue between bones called
fontanelles Type of Cartilaginous Joint: Synchondroses

Provide flexibility to skull during birth Cartilaginous joint using hyaline cartilage

Allow for rapid growth of brain after birth Found in every long bone early in life to allow
increase in skeletal size
• Fontanelles ossify over time
• Allows epiphyseal plate to increase in size,
leading to increase in bone length
Types of Fibrous Joints: Syndesmoses Classified as synarthroses
Joins two parallel bones using fibrous Examples: epiphyseal plates, costal cartilage
connective tissue

Space between bones may be narrow or wide

Type of Cartilaginous Joint: Symphyses
• Wide spaces are filled by an interosseus
membrane Cartilaginous joint formed using fibrocartilage
Permit strong attachment while allowing limited • Fat pads
movement
Provide cushioning
Classified as amphiarthroses

Examples: pubic symphysis, intervertebral

symphyses Bursae and Tendon Sheskin

Both contain additional pockets of synovial fluid

located outside of joint
Characteristics of Synovial Joints
Bursae are small sacs of synovial fluid
• Contain a joint cavity
Tendon sheaths are elongated and wrap around
• Bones do not directly touch tendons where they cross a joint

• Articular capsule-forms walls of cavity • They function to reduce friction between bones
and muscle tendons or skin
Ligaments to attach bones

Synovial membrane-secretes synovial fluid

Pivot Joint
• Lubricates joint and nourishes cartilage
Rounded portion of a bone enclosed in a ring
Articular cartilage-hyaline cartilage at ends of
bones Allows rotation around one axis

Classified as diarthroses Uniaxial joint

Supporting Structures Atlantoaxial joint

• Ligaments = strong bands of fibrous Formed between C1 and C2

connective tissue
vertebrae
• Strengthen and support joint by anchoring bone
together

1. Extrinsic ligaments are located outside of Hinge Joint

articular capsule
Convex end of one bone articulates with the
2. Intrinsic ligaments are incorporated into wall concave end of another
of articular capsule
Allows bending and stretching along one axis
3. Intracapsular ligaments are located inside of
articular capsule • Uniaxial joint

• Tendons = connective tissue structure that Elbow, knee, ankle, and interphalangeal joints
attaches muscle to bone
Condyloid Joint

• Shallow depression at the end of one bone

Cushioning Structures articulates with rounded structure from nearby
bone or bones
Articular discs and menisci
• Biaxial joint
Pads of fibrocartilage between bones
• Allows bending and straightening, anterior-
Provide shock absorption and help smooth posterior movements
movements
• Metacarpophalangeal joints
Bursae and tendon sheaths

Prevent friction between bone and tendons

Saddle Joint
• Both articulating surfaces have a saddle shape • Surgery replaces the articular surfaces of the
bones with artificial materials
• Biaxial joint
Hip replacement surgery replaces head and neck
• Allows almost circular movement of femur and acetabulum of pelvis

• First carpometacarpal joint, sternoclavicular

joint
Knowledge Check Activity 2

• The shoulder joint is a:

Plane Joint
A. Saddle joint
• Surfaces of the bones are mostly flat
B. Ball-and-socket joint
• Bones slide past each other during motion
C. Condyloid joint
• Limited motion, but multiaxial joint
D. Hinge joint
• Intercarpal joints, intertarsal joints,
acromioclavicular joint E. Pivot joint

Knowledge Check Activity 2 Answer

• The shoulder joint is a:

Ball-and-Socket Joint B. Ball-and-socket joint

• Rounded head of one bone fits into the bowl- Movements at Synovial Joints
shaped socket of another

• Great range of motion

Flexion and Extension (1 of 2)
Multiaxial joint
Flexion-reduces the angle of the joint from
Hip joint, shoulder joint resting position

Extension-returns joint to resting position

Joint Damage Hyperextension-increases joint angle beyond

180 degrees
Arthritis
Lateral flexion-bending of neck or body toward
inflammation of a joint left or right side

Leads to pain, swelling, stiffness, and reduced

mobility of the joint
Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction
Most common form is osteoarthritis
• Abduction-moves a limb, finger, toe or thumb
• Caused by degeneration of articular cartilage away from midline of body

Other causes include gout, autoimmune • Adduction-moves a limb, finger, toe, or thumb
conditions, joint infections, and genetic causes toward midline

• Circumduction-movement in a circular motion

Hip Replacement Combination of flexion, adduction, extension,

and abduction at a joint
Severely arthritic joints may require surgery to
alleviate pain
Rotation Mandible

• Rotation-twisting movement Depression-downward movement

• Medial rotation-moves anterior of a limb Elevation-upward movement

toward midline

• Lateral rotation-moves anterior of a limb away

from midline Scapula

Supination and Pronation • Depression-downward movement

• Movements of the forearm • Elevation-upward movement

• Supination-moves palm toward facing • Think "shrugging shoulders"

posteriorly

•Pronation-moves palm toward facing anteriorly

Opposition and Reposition

Opposition-moves tip of thumb in contact with a

Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion finger

• Movements of the ankle joint Reposition-returns thumb to its anatomical

position
•Dorsiflexion-moves top of foot toward anterior
leg

•Plantar flexion-lifts heel away from ground or Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
points toes toward ground
Temporomandibular Joint

• Mandibular condyle articulates with

Inversion and Eversion mandibular fossa of temporal bone

• Inversion-movement that turns bottom of foot • Hinge joint

toward midline
• Allows depression/elevation, excursion, and
• Eversion-movement that turns bottom of foot protraction/retraction of the man
away from midline

Shoulder Joint (Figure 10.11)

Protraction and Retraction (Figure 10.9J)
• Head of humerus articulates with glenoid
• Mandible cavity of scapula

• Protraction-jaw is pushed forward • Ball-and-socket joint

• Retraction-returns jaw to resting position • Large range of motion

• Scapula • Allows flexion, extension, hyperextension,

abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation,
• Protraction-shoulder moves forward circumduction

Retraction-scapula pulled posteriorly and

medially
Elbow Joint

• Formed by articulation of humerus, radius, and

ulna

Depression and Elevation (Figure 10.9K) • Hinge joint

• Allows flexion and extension of the forearm C. Shoulder joint

• Strengthened by radial collateral and ulnar D. Hip joint

collateral ligaments
E. A and B are correct.
• Prevent side-to-side movements
F. All of the above are correct.

Hip Joint

Formed by articulation of acetabulum and head

of femur

• Ball-and-socket joint

• Lesser range of motion than shoulder

• Favors strength and stability

• Allows flexion, extension, abduction,

adduction, medial and lateral rotation,
circumduction

Knee Joint SUMMARY CHAPTER 1&2

• Condyles of femur articulate with condyles of • Anatomy is the study of body structures, while
tibia physiology is the study of how body structures
work together to support the functions of life.
• Also involves articulation of femur and patella
at patellar surface • Physiology is determined by anatomy. The
function of a specific body part is determined by
• Medial and lateral meniscus provide support its shape or structure.
and cushioning
• The study of anatomy consists of the following
• Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments help leveis: gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.
hold femur and tibia together
• Approaches to studying anatomy consist of
•Hinge joint regional anatomy and systemic anatomy Form is
closely related to function in all living things.
• Allows flexion and extension of the leg
• Function is related to structure at all levels of
organization, from the molecular level to the
systemic level.
Knowledge Check 3 Answer
• In all living things, branching patterns provide
• Which major joints are a hinge joints? for maximum surface area.

E. A and B are correct. • Evolution is a change in gene expression that

occurs over many generations in a population of
living organisms. • Genetic changes that impact
survival or reproduction display less variation
Knowledge Check Activity 3 than those that do not.
Which major joints are hinge joints? • Anatomical and physiological variations exist
among individuals of different biological sex
A. Knee joint
and age, with physiological variation being more
B. Elbow joint diverse than anatomical variation.
The flow of substances in the body is driven by • Each organ system provides different functions
three types of gradients: electrical, in the body. All systems, with the exception of
concentration, and pressure gradients. the reproductive system, are necessary for the
survival of an individual
• Concentration gradients determine the flow of
individual molecules from one location to • In anatomical position, a person is standing
another. upright, with feet parallel and toes forward, and
arms by their side with the thumbs pointing
Pressure gradients are responsible for the flow of outwards.
fluids and gasses.
• The body is divided into compartments known
Electrical gradients cause the movement of as cavities, The abdominopelvic cavity is also
charged particles, such as ions, from one divided into regions and quadrants to describe
location to another the location of pain or mass.

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of dynamic • There are three planes that are commonly
internal stability in the body. referred to in anatomy the sagittal plane divides
the body vertically into night and left sides, the
• Each monitored variable has a set point and frontal plane divides the body into front and
normal range. back, and the transverse plane divides the body
into upper and lower portions.
When a variable is outside of its normal range,
homeostatic mechanisms will attempt to restore • There are three serous membranes: the pleura
its homeostatic level. surrounds the lungs, the pericardium surrounds
the heart, and the peritoneum surrounds severai
• Negative feedback mechanisms reverse organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
deviations from the set point of a variable and
restore the homeostatic level. 3.1 Summary
• Positive feedback systems temporarily ● Atoms are made up of protons (positively
intensify the deviation from the set point of a charged), neutrons (neutrally charged), and
variable in order to accomplish a specific task. electrons. The protons and neutrons make up the
nucleus, while the electrons spin around the
Once the task has been completed, this system nucleus in electron shells.
will restore homeostasis. Organelles are tiny
functioning units encased in a membrane to The atomic number tells you the number of
make up a cell. protons and electrons, and the atomic mass tells
you the number of protons and neutrons.
Groups of cells make up a tissue.
● Usually the numbers of protons, neutrons, and
Two or more tissue types make up an organ. electrons are the same. Protons are the identity
of the atom, so protons The learning objectives
A group of organs make up an organ system.
for this section are: 3.3.1* Compare and contrast
An organism is the highest level of organization kinetic and potential energy. 3.3.2* Compare
that can perform all physiological functions and contrast endergonic and exergonic chemical
necessary for life. reactions. 3.3.3* Describe and draw examples of
the three basic types of chemical reactions. never
• The levels of organization in the body are leave during reactions.
subatomic particles, atoms, molecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, If a neutron is lost or added, the atom is known
and the organism. as an isotope. If an electron is lost or added, the
atom is known as an ion.
Each level of organization makes up the next
level. For example, subatomic particles make up ● The last electron shell is known as the valence
atoms and tissues make up organs. shell. During reactions, electrons from the
valence shell share bonds with other molecules.
• The smallest unit of any pure element is an
atom. If there are fewer than eight electrons in the
valence shell, the atom will want to form bonds
• An organism is the highest level of with other atoms.
organization of the body.
● There are three major types of chemical bonds ● There are four major types of organic
in the body: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen compounds found in the human body:
bonds. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

● A covalent bond involves the sharing of ● Carbohydrates provide energy for body
electrons between atoms in order to fill their processes and can be stored for later use.
valence shells. This is the strongest type of
chemical bond. ● Lipids provide energy, they provide
cushioning and insulation for the body, and they
● An ionic bond is an attraction between represent an efficient form of energy storage.
oppositely charge atoms. It is formed when one
atom transfers one or more electrons to the other ● Proteins consist of building blocks called
atom. amino acids. They function as enzymes,
antibodies, plasma proteins, structural proteins,
Both atoms become ions as the bond is formed and hormones.
and both achieve chemical stability.
● Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are composed
● A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between of building blocks called nucleotides. DNA is
the slightly positive atom in one polar molecule the genetic material that stores the instructions
and the slightly negative atom in a nearby polar for producing proteins for the cells. RNA
molecule. performs several functions in protein synthesis

● Chemical energy is a type of potential energy, 4.1 Summary

which is energy stored in the bonds of a
molecule. • The cell membrane is created by three
structures.
When these bonds break, this energy is released
and transforms into kinetic energy. •The phospholipids form the cell membrane and
create the selectively permeable characteristics
● Chemical reactions occur when reactants form of the cell membrane.
a product. Two reactants can come together to
form one product, which is known as a synthesis •The cholesterol contributes to the fluid
reaction. component of the cell membrane.

One reactant can split up to form two or more •The proteins form channels and receptors to
products, which is known as a decomposition allow for movement of structures in and out of
reaction. Lastly, both of these can occur in a the cell.
single reaction, and that reaction is known as an
exchange reaction. • Molecules can move down the concentration
gradient through passive transport, which
● The factors that influence the rate of chemical requires no energy. Molecules can move up the
reactions are molecular size, phase of reaction, concentration gradient through active transport,
temperature, concentration, pressure, and which requires energy.
presence of a catalyst (or enzyme).
• Passive transport is done through various forms
● The inorganic compounds essential to life are of diffusion while active transport is done
water, salts, acids, and bases. through the sodium-potassun pump, endocytosis,
and exocytosis
● Water acts as a lubricant, cushion, and heat
sink, and is termed the “universal solvent.” 4.2 Summary

● Salts release ions other than H1 or OH2. • A cell is composed of three portions: the
Acids release H1 ions. Bases release OH2 ions. plasma (cell) membrane, the cytoplasm, and the
nucleus. The cytoplasm can be further
● The pH scale is a logarithmic scale with 7 subdivided into the cytosol and the organelles.
being neutral. Anything below 7 is acidic, while
anything above 7 is basic • The plasma membrane forms the outer
boundary of the cell and regulates the passage of
● Organic compounds are found in living molecules into and out of the cell.
organisms. They consist mainly of hydrogen
atoms covalently bound to carbon atoms. • Some organelles, such as the endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles, form
the endomembrane system, which produces and • S phase is split into Initiation (where the DNA
exports cellular products. strands are separated), Elongation (where the
DNA polymerase synthesizes a new strand), and
• Other organelles, such as the mitochondria, Termination (where DNA replication stops).
lysosomes, peroxisomes, function in energy
production for the cell and detoxification. • Cell replication is split into five phases:
Prophase (where the chromatin condenses into
• The cytoskeleton provides structural support chromosomes and the centrioles migrate toward
and cellular movements; it consists of the opposite side), Metaphase (where chromatids
microtubules, intermediate filaments, and align in the middle), Anaphase (where each part
microfilaments. of the chromatid is separated toward the opposite
side of the cell), Telophase (where the nucleolus
starts to form around the chromosomes), and
Cytokinesis (where the cleavage furrow
4.4 Summary separates the cell into two distinct cells).
• DNA stores the genetic code in the nucleus of a
cell.
4.6 Summary
• The genetic code is a set of instructions for
synthesizing proteins. Protein synthesis consists • Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can
of two portions: transcription and translation. replicate as many times as is necessary.
• Transcription consists of copying the genetic • Stem cells can also produce new cells that can
code for a protein from DNA onto a new differentiate (specialize) into a variety of cell
molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). types.
• Translation involves the assembly of a protein, • Early embryos are mostly composed of stem
using the code stored on mRNA to produce a cells, but as the embryo grows the stem cells will
protein on a ribosome become specialized cells such as cells found in
the heart, liver, kidney, and brain.
• Three types of RNA function in the process of
protein synthesis. mRNA transports a copy of 5.1 Summary
the genetic code from DNA to the cytoplasm.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up a portion of • The four major types of tissues are: (1)
the ribosomes, which read the genetic code from epithelial tissue, which lines internal cavities and
mRNA. Transfer RNA (tRNA) adds amino acids exterior surfaces of the body: (2) connective
to growing proteins. tissue, which binds cells and organs of the body
together; (3) muscle tissue, which provides
movement through contraction; and (4) nervous
tissue, which communicates short and long
4.5 Summary distances throughout the body.
• Cells have 46 total chromosomes, which is 23 • Extracellular matrix is composed of: (1)
pairs of chromatids. collagen, which is tough and protective but
flexible and allows for movement, and (2)
• The cell cycle is split into two phases:
proteoglycans, which are negatively-charged
Interphase and cell reproduction. The cell spends
molecules that take on a gel-like consistency.
most of its time in interphase, where it grows
and carries out all normal metabolic functions. • There are three types of cellular connections:
(1) tight junctions, which tightly bind cells
• Cell reproduction is when the cell divides. This
together to prevent seepage between them; (2)
is called mitosis for somatic cells and meiosis
anchoring junctions, which tightly bind cells
for reproductive cells.
together to form structural stability, and (3) gap
• Interphase is split into G, phase (where the cell junctions, which are intercellular passageways
grows, makes proteins, and carries out the that allow large groups of cells to function in a
function of cells), S phase (where the cell coordinated manner.
replicates its DNA), and G₂ phase (where the
cell prepares for mitosis).
5.2 Summary
• Epithelial tissues cover all surfaces of the • All three types of muscle tissues consist mainly
body, including the outside and the inside, to of densely packed muscle cells (fibers), with
protect the body from physical, chemical, and very little space between the cells for other
biological wear and tear. components.

• Epithelial tissues are classified based on the

number of rows (simple = 1 row, stratified =
multiple rows) and the shape (squamous = flat 5.5 Summary
and thin, cuboidai = boxy, columnar =
rectangular). These classifications are unique to • Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and glial
their function and therefore are found in specific cells.
areas of the body.
•Nervous tissue makes up the brain, spinal cord,
• Endocrine glands release hormones into the and peripheral nerves.
interstitial fluid, which travels to specific targets
that have the receptors for these hormones. •Neurons are excitable cells; therefore, they are
Exocrine glands release secretions through a capable of responding to stimuli.
duct that leads to the epithelial surface.
•Neurons are specialized for communication
through action potentials, and glial cells provide
structural and nutritional support for neurons.
5.3 Summary

• Connective tissues have three components:

cells, ground substance, and protein fibers. 5.6 Summary
Ground substance is a major component of
• There are four types of tissue membranes in the
connective tissues. There are three types of
body: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial.
protein fibers. collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and
reticular fibers. The proportions of these fibers • Mucous membranes secrete mucus and line
determine the physical properties of the different body cavities and that open to the hollow
types of connective tissue. passageways that open to the external
environment.
• There are three types of connective tissue:
connective tissue proper (loose connective tissue • Serous membranes secrete watery serous fluid
and dense connective tissue), supportive and line body cavities that do not open to the
connective tissue (cartilage and bones), and fluid external environment.
connective tissue (blood and lymph).
• The cutaneous membrane is the skin, it is a dry
• The functions of connective tissues include membrane lined externally with a layer of dead
binding structures together, protection of organs, keratinized cells
defense of the body against infection by
microorganisms, transport of a variety of • Synovial membranes line the joint cavities of
substances throughout the body, energy storage, freely movable joints; their cells secrete a
and insulation against heat loss. viscous synovial fluid.

5.4 Summary 5.7 Summary

•Muscle tissues are excitable. When excited, the • Inflammation is the body's response to injury,
tissue contracts and creates movement. which initiates a chain of events to control the
damage and heal the tissue.
• There are three types of muscle tissues: (1)
skeletal muscle, which controls voluntary • Aging leads to a decrease in the rate of mitosis
movement; (2) cardiac muscle, which and decrease in the numbers of elastic fibers.
involuntarily causes your heart to beat; and (3)
smooth muscle, which involuntarily controls • Cancer occurs when there is a mutation in
movement in your gastrointestinal, urinary, and DNA replication that causes the cell to replicate
reproductive systems, as well as in the airways uncontrollably to form tumors. Those that break
and arteries. off and move around the body are malignant,
while those that stay in place and do not cause • The integumentary system, which includes the
disease are benign. skin and its accessory organs, is vital to the
homeostasis of the body.

•The skin protects the body against wind, UV

6.1 Summary radiation, infection, water loss, and injury.

• The skin has three layers: the epidermis, the • The skin provides the sensations of touch,
dermis, and the hypodermis. pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain.

•Depending on the location, the epidermis has • The skin helps to regulate body temperature
either four layers or five layers. Every skin has, through sweating and changes in blood flow.
from superficial to deep, stratum corneum,
stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and • The skin helps in vitamin D synthesis. Vitamin
stratum basale. In places that receive a lot of D is important for bone health and immunity.
friction, such as the palms of your hands or the
soles of your feet, there is also stratum lucidum,
which is between stratum corneum and stratum
granulosum. 6.4 Summary

• The dermis is mostly connective tissue, and has • All wounds heal sequentially. First the blood
two layers: the papillary layer and the reticular clots, then there is granulation tissue laid in the
layer. region. Next, there is increased blood flow to the
region to bring more macrophages to that region.
• The hypodermis is the deepest layer of the skin At the same time, there is replication of the
and connects the dermis to the fascia, which stratum basale. Eventually a scar will form.
surrounds muscles and internal organs.
• There are three types of burns. A first-degree
burn affects only the epidermis. A second-degree
burn affects the epidermis and part of the dermis.
6.2 Summary A third-degree burn affects the epidermis and the
dermis.
• From deep to superficial, hair is composed of
the hair papilla, the hair bulb, the hair root, and • Three types of cancer can arise in the skin: (1)
the hair shaft. In the center of the hair shaft is the basal cell carcinoma, (2) squamous cell
medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex, carcinoma, and (3) melanoma Squamous cell
which is surrounded by the cuticle. Hair helps carcinoma is the most treatable type, while
maintain thermoregulation, protection, sensory melanoma is most likely to metastasize
input, and UV protection.

• Nails serve to protect the farthest extremities

and parts that experience the maximum 7.1 Summary
mechanical stress.
• The skeletal system is responsible for: (1)
• There are three types of glands in the skin: (1) Providing structure to hold us upright; (2)
the eccrine sweat glands, which produce sweat Protecting your internal organs from injury: (3)
for thermoregulation; (2) the apocrine sweat Maintaining homeostasis through mineral
glands, which produce sweat and may release deposition and withdrawal; and (4) Production
pheromones; and (3) sebaceous glands, which of red blood cells.
release sebum to lubricate hair and the stratum
corneum. • Three types of cartilage exist in the skeletal
system: (1) hyaline cartilage, which is rigid and
smooth, (2) elastic cartilage, which is flexible,
and (3) fibrocartilage, which is tough and
6.3 Summary durable

•The integumentary system functions to protect • There are two types of bone marrow: (1) red
the body, sense changes in environment, regulate marrow, which produces blood cells, and (2)
body temperature, and synthesize vitamin D. yellow marrow, which stores fat.
7.2 Summary

•Bones can be classified by shape: (1) Long 7.5 Summary

bones, (2) Short bones, (3) Irregular bones, (4)
Flat bones, and (5) Sesamoid bones. • Cartilage can grow in length (interstitial
cartilage growth) or in width (appositional
•The metaphysis is in the middle of the two, cartilage growth), similar to bone.
which is where the growth plate is found.
•Hormones play a big role in calcium
• The most superficial layer is the periosteum, homeostasis to maintain bone density. Growth
followed by compact bone, followed by the hormone triggers chondrocyte proliferation and
endosteum, until you reach the medullary cavity. increases calcium absorption across the intestinal
wall. Calcitriol also helps absorb calcium.
• The epiphysis sits on the proximal and distal Thyroxine stimulates osteoblasts. Estrogen and
ends of the bones. In the center of the bone, you testosterone also promote osteoblastic activity
will find the diaphysis. and production of bone matrix

• Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin work

together to maintain calcium levels in the blood.
7.3 Summary Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclast
proliferation and calcitonin inhibits osteoclast
• Chondroblasts generate cartilage matrix and activity and stimulates uptake of calcium by
differentiate into chondrocytes, which are inside bones
a lacuna. Similarly, osteoblasts generate bone
matrix and differentiate into osteocytes.

• Compact bone is found in the periosteum, 7.6 Summary

while spongy bone is found in the epiphysis.
• Calcium is used in the body not only as a major
• Chondroblasts generate cartilage matrix and component of the bone matrix, but also in
differentiate into chondrocytes, which are inside nervous impulse conduction, muscle contraction,
a lacuna. Similarly, osteoblasts generate bone and blood clotting.
matrix and differentiate into osteocytes.
• Vitamin D, when converted into a hormone, is
• Cartilage and bone provide the rigidity of the critical for the absorption of dietary calcium in
skeletal system. Both tissue types contain a the small intestine. This is of vital importance in
small number of cells in a large amount of bone health.
extracellular matrix.
•Bones will adapt to the stresses put on them, so
• The diaphysis of a long bone is composed of activity will promote bone growth and increased
compact bore and the epiphyses are composed of bone density.
spongy bone

8.1 Summary
7.4 Summary
•The human skeleton is divided into the axial
•Bone tissue forms by two methods of skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
ossification, both involving the replacement of
existing connective tissue. • The appendicular skeleton is composed of the
bones of the upper and lower limb, and the
• Intramembranous ossification involves the bones that attach both limbs to the axial
growth of bone fissue within sheets of dense skeleton, such as the scapula and pelvic girdle.
irregular connective tissue. This type of bone
formation occurs mainly in flat bones • The axial skeleton forms the main axis of the
body, and consists of the bones of the skull,
• Endochondral ossification involves the vertebral column, thoracic cage, hyoid bone, and
replacement of a hyaline cartilage model with auditory ossicles of the ear.
bone tissue. This type of bone formation occurs
mainly in long bones.
8.2 Summary

•The skull is composed of facial bones and

cranium. The facial bones are located anteriorly
on the skull and form the bony structures of your
face. The bones of the cranium surround the
brain and protect it from damage.

• The skull contains several sinuses that make

the skull lighter in weight. These sinuses are
filled with air and are connected to the nasal
cavity.

•The skull bones develop through

intramembranous ossification while facial bones
develop through endochondral ossification

8.3 Summary

• There are five regions of the vertebral column:

cervical. thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.
The cervical and lumbar regions have lordotic
curves, and the thoracic and sacral/coccygeal
regions have kyphotic curves.

• A typical vertebra consists of a vertebral body,

pedicles, laminae, a spinous process, transverse
processes, vertebral foramen, and intervertebral
foramen.

• Two typical vertebrae are connected at three

joints: two between the superior and inferior
articular processes of the adjacent vertebrae, and
one intervertebral disc connecting the bodies.

8.4 Summary

• The thoracic cage is composed of the sternum

(anteriorly) and the ribs (which connect the
vertebrae to the sternum).

• The sternum consists of the manubrium, body,

and xiphoid process.

• The ribs are classified as true ribs (ribs 1-7)

and false ribs (ribs 8-12.) Floating ribs (ribs 11
and 12) are a subset of the false ribs.