2 Atomic structure
Table of contents
2 Atomic structure 1
2.1.2 Isotopes 1
2.2.1 The arrangement of electrons in atoms 1
2.2.2 Full Electron Configurations 2
12.1.2 Successive Ionization Energies 3
Unit 12 Checklist (combined to unit 2) 4
Unit 2 Checklist (edited) 4
2.1 The Nuclear Atom
2.1.2 History of Atomic Model
Fast-moving helium nuclei (4He2+) were fired at a thin piece of gold foil with most passing undeflected but a few
deviating largely from their path. The diagram illustrates this historic experiment.
(a) Suggest what can be concluded about the gold atom from this experiment. [2]
Most 4He2+ passing straight through:
1. most of the atom is empty space OR the space between nuclei is much larger than 4He2+ particles
OR nucleus/center is «very» small «compared to the size of the atom»
Do not accept the same reason for both M1 and M2. Accept “most of the atom is an electron cloud” for M1.
Very few 4He2+ deviate largely from their path:
2. nucleus is positive «and repels 4He2+ particles»
OR nucleus is «more» dense/heavy «than 4He2+ particles and deflects them»
OR nucleus is «very» small «compared to the size of the atom»
Do not accept only “nucleus repels 4He2+ particles” for M2.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
- Same chemical properties but different physical properties
1.
2.2 Electrons in Atoms
2.2.1 Atomic Orbitals
Draw diagrams of 1s, 2s, and 2p.[2]
1. 1s AND 2s as spheres
2. One or more 2p orbital(s) as figure(s) of 8 shape(s)
of any orientation (px, py pz)
2.2.1 The arrangement of electrons in atoms
Energy levels and sub-levels
- The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Niels Bohr in 1914. According to his model, electrons can only
occupy certain energy levels within the atom and can transition between these energy levels by absorbing or
emitting exact amounts of energy.
- The further the energy level (shell) is from the nucleus, the higher its number (n) and the higher its energy
- s atomic orbitals are spherical and p atomic orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.
Evidence for energy levels in atoms
The hydrogen atom spectrum
- An emission spectrum is produced from the transition of an electron from a high energy level to a lower one as it
gives out energy in the form of photon
- Absorption line spectra are produced when electrons absorb
energy and transition to higher energy levels.
- This line spectrum shows certain frequencies/wavelengths of light
present as opposed to a continuous spectrum, which consists of all
the colors
- Thus the fact that a line spectrum is produced provides evidence
for electrons being in energy levels (shells): i.e. electrons in an
atom are allowed to have only certain amounts of energy
How an emission spectrum is formed
- Ground state: when an electron is in the lowest energy level.
- Exited state: when the electron is in a higher energy level than the
ground state.
Different series of lines
- All transitions that occur in the visible region of the spectrum involve electrons falling down to level 2.
- All transitions down to level 1 occur in the ultraviolet region.
- All transitions down to level 3 occur in the infrared region.
- The convergence limit is where the lines in the emission spectrum
merge to form a continuum as lines get closer together at higher
frequency/energy and the lines
Pauli exclusion principle
Two electrons in the same orbital will have opposite spins – one rotating
clockwise on its axis, the other anti-clockwise.
The wavelength (symbol: lambda, λ) is the distance between two crests in an
oscillating wave. It has units of distance (m).
The frequency (symbol: nu, v) is the number of waves that pass a point in one second. It has the units hertz (Hz) or s-1.
C (speed of light) = vλ
Higher energy = higher frequency = shorter wavelength.
Lower energy = lower frequency = longer wavelength.
2.2.2 Full electron configurations
Exceptions to the Aufbau principle
Orbitals
An orbital (max 2 e-) is a region of space in which there is a high probability of finding an electron. It represents a discrete
energy level.
2.3 Electrons in atoms (Textbook)/12.1 Electrons in atoms (Kognity)
12.1.1 Ionisation energy and the convergence limit
- At the convergence limit, the lines merge to form a continuum. Beyond this point the electron can have any
energy and so must be free from the influence of the nucleus, i.e. the electron is no longer in the atom.
- At this point, the electron can be considered to have left the atom, resulting in the formation of a positive ion.
- Knowing the frequency of the light emitted at the convergence limit enables us us to work out the ionisation
energy of an atom.
- The ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.
- The ionisation energy represents the minimum energy for the removal of an electron from level 1 to ∞, and the
frequency of the convergence limit in the Lyman series represents the amount of energy given out when an
electron falls from outside the atom to level 1 (∞ to 1). These are therefore the same amount of energy.
Calculating ionization energy
E is the energy of a photon
E(in J)=hv
v is the frequency of the light (Hz or s−1)
h is Planck’s constant (6.63×10−34 Js)
c=vλ
λ is the wavelength of the light (m)
c is the speed of light (3.0×108ms–1)
Combined: E=hc/λ
12.1.2 Successive ionization energies
- I12 = The first ionization energy for an element is the energy for the process:
- M(g) → M+(g)+e−
- IE2 = The second ionization energy is:
- M+(g) → M2+(g)+e−
- IEn = The nth ionization energy is:
- M(n−1)+(g) → Mn+(g)+e−
- The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous
atoms to produce one mole of gaseous 1+ ions under standard conditions.
- The second ionization energy is always higher than the first, and this can be explained in two ways:
- Once an electron has been removed from an atom, a positive ion is created. A positive ion attracts a
negatively charged electron more strongly than a neutral atom does. More energy is therefore required to
remove the second electron from a positive ion.
- Once an electron has been removed from an atom, there is less repulsion between the remaining electrons.
They are therefore pulled in closer to the nucleus. If they are closer to the nucleus, they are less shielded,
more strongly attracted and more difficult to remove.
- Ionisation energies are always positive (endothermic) as energy must be added to overcome the electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons.
Plotting successive ionisation energies
- The frist big jump indicates the number of valence electrons
- ‘Jumps’ are caused by change in main energy level
Exceptions to the increase ionization energy across the period
- Despite the fact that boron has a higher nuclear charge (more protons in the nucleus) than beryllium the ionisation
energy is lower. The electron configurations of beryllium and boron are: Be 1s2 2s2 B 1s2 2s2 2p1
- The major difference is that the electron to be removed from the boron atom is in a 2p sub-level, whereas it is in a
2s sub-level in beryllium. The 2p sub-level is farther away from the nucleus than the 2s sub-level and therefore
less energy is required to remove an electron from boron.
- The second exception is that the first ionisation energy of oxygen is lower than that of nitrogen.
- The electron configurations for nitrogen and oxygen are: N 1s2 2s2 2p3 O 1s2 2s2 2p4
- The major difference is that oxygen has two electrons paired up in the same p orbital, but nitrogen does not. An
electron in a pair of electrons in the p orbital is easier to remove than one in an orbital by itself because of the
repulsion from the other electron.
- When two electrons are in the same p orbital they are closer together than if there is one in each p orbital. If the
electrons are closer together, they repel each other more strongly. If there is greater repulsion, an electron is easier
to remove.
Unit 12 Checklist (combined to unit 2)
Unit 2 Checklist (edited)
1. Distinguish between continuous spectrum, absorption spectrum, and emission spectrum.
2. Explain the evidence for the presence of defined electron energy levels within atoms
3. Describe the the shape and orientation of s and p atomic orbitals
4. Describe the anomalies that occur in the electron configurations
