JBCMET

LECTURE NOTES

ON

4012-HYDRAULICS & IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Compiled by

[Link] Vijayan
(Lecturer in Department of Civil Engineering, JBCMET)

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 1

 CONTENTS

[Link] Chapter Name Page No

1 Hydrostatics (Part-A) Hydraulics 3-12
2 Kinematics Of Fluid Flow 13-43
3 Pumps 44-53
Part: B (Irrigation Engineering)
4 Hydrology 54-62
5 Water Requirement Of Crops 63-137
6 Flow Irrigation 138-145
7 Water Logging And Drainage : 146-147
8 Diversion Head Works And Regulatory 148-150
Structures
9 Cross Drainage Works 151-154
10 Dams 155-167

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 2

 CHAPTER-1
HYDROSTATICS

Hydrostatic is that branch of science which relating to fluids at rest or to the pressures they exert or transmit
Hydrostatic Pressure.

Fluid:-

Fluid is a substance that continuously deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the
phase of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. Fluids can be defined as
substances which have zero shear modulus or in simpler terms a fluid is a substance which cannot resist any
shear force applied to it.

 Fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing

 Conform the shape of the containing vessel

 Deform continuously under application of small shear force

1.1 PROPERTIES OF FLUID:-

1.1.1 Density:-

The density of a fluid, is generally designated by the Greek symbol is defined as the mass of the fluid
over a unit volume of the fluid at standard temperature and pressure. It is expressed in the SI system as kg/m3.

m dm
  lim 
V dV

If the fluid is assumed to be uniformly dense the formula may be simplified as:

m

V

Example: - setting of fine particles at the bottom of the container.

1.1.2 Specific Weight:-

The specific weight of a fluid is designated by the Greek symbol (gamma), and is generally defined as the
weight per unit volume of the fluid at standard temperature and pressure. In SI systems the units is N/m3.

  *g

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g = local acceleration of gravity and ρ = density
Note: It is customary to use:
g = 32.174 ft/s2 = 9.81 m/s2
ρ = 1000 kg/m3

1.1.3 Relative Density (Specific Gravity):-

The relative density of any fluid is defined as the ratio of the density of that fluid to the density of the standard
fluid. For liquids we take water as a standard fluid with density ρ=1000 kg/m3. For gases we take air or O2 as a
standard fluid with density, ρ=1.293 kg/m3.

1.1.4 Specific volume:-

Specific volume is defined as the volume per unit mass. It is just reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed in
m3/kg.

1.1.5 Viscosity:-

Viscosity (represented by μ, Greek letter mu) is a material property, unique to fluids, that measures the fluid's
resistance to flow. Though a property of the fluid, its effect is understood only when the fluid is in motion.
When different elements move with different velocities, each element tries to drag its neighboring elements
along with it. Thus, shear stress occurs between fluid elements of different velocities.

Viscosity is the property of liquid which destroyed the relative motion between the layers of fluid.

 It is the internal friction which causes resistance to flow.

 Viscosity is the property which control the rate of flow of liquid

Viscosity is due to two factors-

a) Cohesion between the liquid molecules.

b) Transfer of momentum between the molecules.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 4

The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was that the shear stresses are directly
proportional to the velocity gradient. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity.

u
 
y

Units of Viscosity

 In mks system unit of viscosity is kgf-sec/m2

 In cgs system unit of viscosity is dyne-sec/cm2
 In S.I system unit of viscosity is Newton-sec/m2

1.1.5 A Kinematic viscosity:-

Another coefficient, known as the kinematic viscosity ( , Greek nu) is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity
and density.

[Link],     = viscosity/density

In mks & S.I system unit of kinematic viscosity is meter2/sec

In cgs system unit of kinematic viscosity is stoke.

1.1.6 SURFACE TENSION:-

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the
surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per
unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter sigma(σ). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI unit is N/m.

It is also defined as force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent—but when referring
to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it
applies also to solids and not just liquids.

1.1.7 Capillarity:-

Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent
general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known
as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of
cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and
surface tension of the liquid

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 5

 1.2 Pressure and its Measurement
1.2.1 Intensity of Pressure

Intensity of pressure is defined as normal force exerted by fluid at any point per unit area. It is also called
specific pressure or hydrostatic pressure

P=df/da

 If intensity of pressure is uniform over an area “A” then pressure force exerted by fluid equal to

Mathematically F=PA

 If intensity of pressure is not uniform or vary point to point then pressure force exerted by fluid equal to
integration of P*A

Mathematically F=ʃ PA

 Unit of pressure

 1N/m2 =1 Pascal

 1KN/m2= 1 kilo Pascal

 Kilo Pascal= 1kpa = 103 Pascal

 1 bar = 105 Pascal = 105 N/m2

1.3 Pascal’s law:-

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all direction.

1.4 Atmospheric Pressure:-

The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surface with which it is in contact and it is called
atmospheric pressure. It is also called parametric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure at the sea level is called standard atmospheric pressure.

S.A.P = 101.3 KN/m2 = 101.3 kpa = 10.3m of H2O

= 760 mm of Hg

=10.3 (milli bar)

1.5 Gauge pressure:-

It is the pressure which measure with help of pressure measuring device in which atmospheric pressure taken as
datum.

The atmospheric pressure on scale is marked as zero.

1.6 Absolute pressure:-

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Any pressure measure above absolute zero pressure is called absolute pressure.

1.7 Vacuum pressure:-

Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

1.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, GAUGE PRESSURE, VACUUM

PRESSURE:-

Fig. 1.2

 Equations

Pgage = Pabs – Patm gauge pressure

Pvac = Patm – Pabs vacuum pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgage absolute pressure
 Nomenclature

Pabs absolute pressure

Pgage gage pressure
Pvac vacuum pressure
Patm atmospheric pressure
1.8.1Pressure Head:-

pressure head is the internal energy of a fluid due to the pressure exerted on its container. It may also be
called static pressure head or simply static head (but not static head pressure). It is mathematically
expressed as:
p p
  
 g

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where
is pressure head (Length, typically in units of m);
is fluid pressure (force per unit area, often as Pa units); and
is the specific weight (force per unit volume, typically N/m3 units)
is the density of the fluid (mass per unit volume, typically kg/m3)
is acceleration due to gravity (rate of change of velocity, given in m/s2)
If intensity of pressure express in terms of height of liquid column, which causes pressure is also called pressure
head.

Mathematically, h= P/w

1.9 Pressure Gauges :-

The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:-

1. manometers

2. mechanical gauges

1.9.1 Manometers:-Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as:

a) Simple manometers

b) Differential manometer

1.9.2 Mechanical gauges:-mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the
pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical gauges
are:-
a) Diaphragm pressure gauge

b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge

c) Dead weight pressure gauge

d) Bellows pressure gauge

1.10 PRESSURE EXERTED ON IMMERSED SURFACE:-

1.10.1 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces:-

Hydrostatic means the study of pressure exerted by a liquid at rest. The direction of such pressure is always
perpendicular to the surface to which it acts.

1.10.2 Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids

These are the following features of statics fluids:-

 Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 8

 Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous fluid are equal
 Pressure at a point acts equally in all directions (Pascal's law).
 Forces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right angles to that boundary.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 9

1.11 TOTAL PRESSURE:-

Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface when the fluid comes in contact with
the surface.

Mathematically total pressure,

P=p1a1 + p2a2+ p3a3………….

Where,

 p1, p2, p3 = Intensities of pressure on different strips of the surface, and

 a1, a2, a3 = Areas of corresponding strips.

The position of an immersed surface may be,

 Horizontal
 Vertical
 Inclined

Total Pressure On A Horizontal Immersed Surface

Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a liquid as shown in figure 1.

Fig. 1.3

   Specific weight of the liquid

 A  Area of the immersed surface in in2
  = Depth of the horizontal surface from the liquid level in meters

We know that the Total pressure on the surface,

P = Weight of the liquid above the immersed surface

= Specific weight of liquid * Volume of liquid

= Specific weight of liquid * Area of surface * Depth of liquid

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= AkN

1.11.1 Total Pressure On A Vertically Immersed Surface

Consider a plane vertical surface immersed in a liquid shown in figure 2.

Fig. 1.4

Let the whole immersed surface is divided into a number of small parallel stripes as shown in figure.

Here,

   Specific weight of the liquid

 A = Total area of the immersed surface
  = Depth of the center of gravity of the immersed surface from the liquid surface

Now, consider a strip of thickness dx, width b and at a depth x from the free surface of the liquid.

The intensity of pressure on the strip = 

and the area of strip =[Link]

Pressure on the strip = Intensity of pressure * Area =  .bdx

Now, Total pressure on the surface,

P   [Link] .

 w [Link]

But, w  [Link] = Moment of the surface area about the liquid level = Ax

 P  wAx

Centre of pressure:-

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 11

The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act
through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated pressure
field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and moment on the body as
the original pressure field. Pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid mechanics. Specification of the
center of pressure, the reference point from which the center of pressure is referenced, and the associated force
vector allows the moment generated about any point to be computed by a translation from the reference point to
the desired new point. It is common for the center of pressure to be located on the body, but in fluid flows it is
possible for the pressure field to exert a moment on the body of such magnitude that the center of pressure is
located outside the body.

Chapter-II

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 CHAPTER-2

KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

2.1 Basic equation of fluid flow and their application:-

2.1.1 Energy of a Liquid in Motion:-

The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exits in many forms, yet
the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Potential energy,
2. Kinetic energy, and
3. Pressure energy.

2.1.2 Potential Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:-

It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position. If a liquid particle is Z m
above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the potential energy of the particle will be Z
metre-kilogram (briefly written as mkg) per kg of the liquid. The potential head of the liquid, at
point, will be Z metres of the liquid.

2.1.3 Kinetic Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:-

It is the ehergy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If a liquid particle is
flowing with a mean velocity of v metres per second; then the kinetic energy of the particle will be V2/2g
mkg per kg of the liquid. Velocity head of the liquid, at that velocity, will be V2/2g metres of the liquid.

2.1.4 Pressure Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:-

It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid particle is
p
under a pressure of p kN/m2 (i.e., kPa), then the pressure energy of the particle-will be mkg per kg of
w.
the liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid. Pressure head of the liquid
p
under that pressure will be metres of the liquid.
w.

2.1.5 Total Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:-

The total energy of a liquid, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure
energy, Mathematically total energy,
p
E = Z + V2/2g + m of Liquid.
w.
2.1.6 Total Head of Liquid :-
The total head of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head and pressure head.
Mathematically, total head,
p
H = Z + V2/2g + m of liquid.
w.
Example
Water is flowing through a tapered pipe having end diameters of 150 mm and 50 mm respectively. Find the
discharge at the larger end and velocity head at the smaller end, if the velocity of water at the larger end is 2
m/s. Solution. Given: d1 = 150mm = 0•15 m ; d2= 50 mm= 0•05 m and V1 = 2•5 m/s. Discharge at the larger
end We know that the cross-sectional area of the pipe at the larger end,
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 13
 
a1=  (0.15)2  17.67 10-3 m2
4
and discharge at the larger end,
Q1 = a1.v1 = (17.67xl0-3)x2.5 = 44.2 x 10-3 m3/s
= 44.2Jitres/s Ans.
Velocity head at the smaller end
We also know that the cross-sectional area of the pipe at the smaller end,

A2=  (0.15)2  1.964 10-3m2
4
Since the discharge through the pipe is continuous, therefore
a1.v1 = a2.v2
a1.v1
or v2 = = [(17.67 x 10-3) x 2.5]/1.964 x 10-3 = 22.5 m/s
a2

:. Velocity head at the smaller end

V22/2g=(22.5)2/2 x 9.81=25.8 m Ans

2.2 Bernoulli’s Equation:-

It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total nergy; of a particle
remains the same, while the particle moves from one point to another.” This statement is based on the
assumption that there are no “losses due to friction in the pipe. Mathematically,
p
Z + V2/2g + = Constant
w.
where
Z = Potential energy,
V2/2g =Kinetic energy, and
p
= Pressure energy.
w.
Proof
Consider a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing through a non-uniform pipe as shown in Fig-

Fig. 2.1

Let us consider two sections AA and BB of the pipe. Now let us assume that the pipe is running full and there
is a continuity of flow between the two sections.

Let
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 14
Z1 = Height of AA above the datum,
P1= Pressure at AA,
V1 = Velocity of liquid at AA,
A1 = Cross-sectional area of the pipe at AA, and
Z2,P2,V2,A2= Corresponding values at BB.
Let the liquid between the two sections AA and BB move to A' A' and B' B' through very small lengths dl1 and
dl2 as shown in Fig. This movement of the liquid between AA and BB is equivalent to the movement 'of the
liquid between AA and A' A' to BB and B' B', the remaining liquid between A' A' and BB being uneffected.
Let W be the weight of the liquid between AA and A' A'. Since the flow is continuous, therefore
W = wa1dI1 = wa2dL2
W
or a1 X dl1= ...(i)
w
W
Similarly a2dl2=
w
a1 . dL1 = a2 dL2 ...(ii)
We know that work done by pressure at AA, in moving the liquid to A' A'
= Force x Distance = P1. a1 . dL1
Similarly, work done by pressure at BB, in moving the liquid to B' B'
=-P2a2dl2
...(Minus sign is taken as the direction of P2 is opposite to that of P1)
:. Total work done by the pressure
= P1a1dl1- P2a2dl2
=P1a1dl1-p2a1dl1 …(a1dl1=a2dl2)
W W
= a1.dl1 (P1- P2) = (P1 - P2) …( a1.dl1 = )
w w
Loss of potential energy = W (Z1-Z2)
W
and again in kinetic energy =W[(V22/2g)-( V12/2g)]= (v22-v12)
2g
We know that loss of potential energy + Work done by pressure
= Gain in kinetic energy
W W
W (Z1-Z2)+ (P1 - P2) = (v22-v12)
w 2g
(Z1-Z2)+(p1/w)-(p2/w)=v2 /2g-v12/2g
2

Or Z1 + v12/2g+ (p1/w)=Z2+ v22/2g+(p2/w)

which proves the Bernoulli's equation.

2 .3 Euler's Equation For Motion

The "Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is based on the
Newton's Second Law of Motion. The integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form of
energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid. It is based on the 'following assumptions:
1. The fluid is non-viscous (i.e., the frictional losses are zero).
2. The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid is constant).
3. The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline.
4. The velocity of flow is uniform over the section.
5. No energy or force (except gravity and pressure forces) is involved in the flow.
Consider a steady' flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline. Now consider a small element
AB of the flowing fluid as shown in Fig.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 15
Let
dA = Cross-sectional area of the fluid element,
ds = Length of the fluid element,
dW = Weight of the fluid 5!1ement,
p = Pressure on the element at A,
p + dp = Pressure on the element at B, and
v = Velocity of the fluid element.
We know that the external forces tending to accelerate the fluid
element in the direction of the streamline
= p. dA - (p + dp) dA Fig. 2.2
= -[Link]
We also know that the weight of the fluid element,
dW = g. dA . ds
From the geometry of the figure, we find that the component of the weight of the fluid element
,in the direction of flow
= - g . dA . ds cos

= - g . dA . ds( ) …cos =
= - g. dA. dz
= .[Link]
,We see that the acceleration of the fluid element

Now, as per Newton's Second Law of Motion, we know that

Force = Mass x Acceleration

(- dp . dA) - ( g . dA . dz-) = . dA . ds

…(dividing both side by - )

Or
This is the required Euler's equation for motion and is in the form of a differential equation. Integrating the
above equation, '

gz+v2/2=constant
P + wZ +Wv2/2g=constant
+Z+ v2/2g=constant (Dividing by w)

or in other words, +Z1+(v12/2g)= which 2

proves
+Z2+(v the
2 /2g)
Bernoulli's equation.

2.4 Limitations of Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli's equation has been derived on certain assumptions, which are
rarely possible. Thus the Bernoulli's theorem has the following limitations:

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 16

1. The Bernoulli's equation has been derived under the assumption that the velocity of every liquid
particle, across any cross-section of a pipe, is uniform. But, in actual practice, it is not so. The
velocity of liquid particle in the centre of a pipe is maximum and gradually decreases towards the
walls of the pipe due to the pipe friction. Thus, while using the Bernoulli's equation, only the
mean velocity of the liquid should be taken into account.
2. The Bernoulli's equation has been derived under the assumption that no external force, except the
gravity force, is acting on the liquid. But, in actual practice, it is not so. There are always some
external forces (such as pipe friction etc.) acting on the liquid, which effect the flow of the liquid.
Thus, while using the Bernoulli's equation, all such external forces should be neglected. But, ifsorne
energy is supplied to, or, extracted from the flow, the same should also be taken into account.
3. The Bernoulli's equation has been derived, under the assumption that there is. no loss of energy of
the liquid particle while flowing. But, in actual practice, -it is rarely so. In a turbulent flow, some
kinetic energy is converted into heat energy. And in a viscous flow, some energy is lost due to shear
forces. Thus, while using Bernoulli's equation, all such losses should be neglected.
4. If the liquid is flowing in a curved path, the energy due to centrifugal force should also be taken into
account.

Example
The diameter of a pipe changes from 200 mm at a section 5 metres-above datum = to 50 mm at a section
3 metres above datum. The pressure of water at first section is 500 kPa. If the velocity of flow at the
first section is 1 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at the second section.
Solution.'Gi~en: d1= 200 mm = 0.2 m; Z1= 5 m; d2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m z2 = 3 m; p = 500/
kPa = 500 kN/m2 and V1 = 1 mls.
Let
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2, and
2
P2 = Pressure at section 2. We know that area of the pipe at section 1 a1= =31.42 10-3 m2
2
and area of pipe at section 2 a1= =1.964 10-3 m2
Since the discharge through the pipe is continuous,therefore a1. V1 = a2. V2
-3 -3
V2= =[(31.42 ) ]/ 1.964 =16m/s

Fig. 2.3
Applying Bernoulli's equation for both the ends of the pipe,
Z1 + v12/2g+ (p1/w)=Z2+ v22/2g+(p2/w)

5+(1)2/(2 ) +500/9.81=3+(16)2/2X9.81+
P2 = 40 x 9.81 = 392.4 kN/m2 = 392.4 kPa Ans

2.3.1 practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation

The Bernoulli's theorem or Bernoulli's equation is the basic equation which has the widest applications
in Hydraulics and Applied Hydraulics. Since this equation is applied for the derivation
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 17
.of many formulae, therefore its clear understanding is very essential. Though the Bernoulli's equation has a
number of practical applications. yet in this chapter we shall discuss its applications on the following
‘hydraulic devices :
1. Venturi meter.
2. Orifice meter.
3. Pitot tube.

2 .4Venturimeter

Fig. 2.4

A venturi meter is an apparatus for finding out the discharge of a liquid flowing in a pipe. A- venture
meter, in its simplest form, consists of the following three parts:

(a) Convergent cone.

(b) Throat.
(c) Divergent cone.
(a) Convergent cone
It is a short pipe which converges from a diameter d1 (diameter of the pipe. in which the venture meter
is fitted) to a smaller diameter d2: The convergent cone is also known as inlet of the venturi meter. The
slope of the converging sides is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5 as shown in Fig.
(b) Throat
It is a small portion of circular pipe in which the diameter d2 is kept constant as shown in Fig.
(c) Divergent cone
It is a pipe, which diverges from a diameter d2 to a large diameter d1. The divergent cone is also known as
outlet of the venture meter. The length of the divergent cone is about 3 to 4 times than that of the convergent
cone as shown in Fig.

A little consideration will show that the liquid, while flowing through the venture meter, is accelerated
between the sections 1 and 2 (i.e., while flowing through the convergent cone). As a result of the acceleration,
the velocity of liquid at section 2 (i.e., at the throat) becomes higher than that at section 1. This increase in
velocity results in considerably decreasing the pressure at section 2.1fthe pressure head at the throat falls
below the separation head (which is 2.5 metres of water), then there will be a tendency of separation of the
liquid flow, In order to avoid the tendency of separation at throat, there is always a fixed ratio of the
diameter of throat and the pipe (i.e., dz/dt). This ratio varies from 1/4 to 3/4, but the most suitable value is 1/3
to 1/2.

The liquid, while flowing through the venture meter, is decelerated (i.e., retarded) between the sections 2
and 3 (i.e., while flowing through the divergent cone). As a result of this retardation, the velocity of liquid
decreases which, consequently, increases the pressure. If the pressure is rapidly recovered, then there is
every possibility for the stream of liquid to break away from the walls of the metre due to boundary layer
effects. In order to avoid the tendency of breaking away the stream of liquid, the divergent cone is made
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 18
sufficiently longer. Another reason for making the divergent cone longer is to minimise the frictional
losses. Due to these reasons, the divergent cone is 3 to 4 times longer than convergent cone as shown in Fig
2.4.1 Discharge through a Venturi meter
Consider a venture meter through which some liquid is flowing as shown in Fig.

Fig. 2.5
Let
P1 = Pressure at section 1,
V1 = Velocity of water at section 1,
Z1 = Datum head at section 1,
a1 = Area of the venturi meter at section 1, and
p2,v2,z2,a2 = Corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2. i.e
Z1 + v12/2g+ (p1/w)=Z2+ v22/2g+(p2/w) ……..(1)
Let us pass our datum line through the axis of the venture meter as shown in Fig.
Now Z1=0 and Z2=0
v12/2g+ (p1/w)= v22/2g+(p2/w)
Or (p1/w)-( p2/w)= v22/2g- v12/2g ……..(2)
Since the discharge at sections 1 and 2 is continuous, therefore
V1=a2v2/a1 (a1v1=a2v2)
V12=a22v22/a12 ……..(3)
Substituting the above value of v12 in equation (2),

=v22/2g-(a22/a12X v22/2g)
= v22/2g(1-a22/a12)= v22/2g[(a12-a22)/a12]

We know that is the difference between the pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 when the pipe is
horizontal, this difference represents the venturi head and is denoted by h.
Or h= v22/2g[(a12-a22)/a12]
Or v2 =2gh[a12/(a12-a22)]
2

v2= [a1/ (a12-a22)]

We know that the discharge through a venture meter,
Q = Coefficient of venturi meter x a2 v2
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 19
=C.a2v2=[Ca1a2/ (a12-a22)]
Example
A venture meter with a 150 mm diameter at inlet and 100 mm at throat is,laid with its axis horizontal and is
used for measuring the flow of oil specific gravity O.9. The oil-mercury differential manometer shows a
gauge difference of200 mm. Assume coefficient of the metre as O.9 Calculate the discharge in litres per
minute.

Solution. Given: d1 = 150 mm = 0.15 m; d2 = 100 mm = 0.1 rn; Specific gravity of oil = 0.9
h = 200 mm = O.2 m of mercury and C = 0.98.

We know that the area at inlet,

2
a1= =17.67 10-3m2

and the area at throat,

2
a2= =7.854 10-3 m2
We also know that the difference of pressure head,
H=0.2(13.6-0.9/0.9)=2.82 m of oil
and the discharge through the venturi meter,
Q= [Ca1a2/ (a12-a22)]
=63.9 X 10-3m3/s=63.9lit/s Ans.

2.5 0rifice Metre

An orifice metre is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. An orifice metre, in its simplest
form, consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as an orifice. This plate is fixed inside
a pipe as shown in Fig. c A mercury manometer is inserted to know the difference

of pressures between the pipe an? the throat (i.e., orifice).

Let
h = Reading of the mercury manometer,
P1 = Pressure at inlet,
V1 = Velocity of liquid at inlet,
a1 = Area of pipe at inlet, and
P2,v2,a2= Corresponding values
at the throat. Fig. 2.6

Now applying Bernoulli's equation for inlet of the pipe and the throat,
Z1 + v12/2g+ (p1/w)=Z2+ v22/2g+(p2/w) ………(i)
(p1/w)-(p2/w)=v22/2g-v12/2g
Or h= v22/2g-v12/2g=1/2g(v22-v12) ………(ii)
Since the discharge is continuous, therefore a1.v1 = a2v2
V1=a2/a1 X v2 or v12=a22/a12 X v22
Substituting the above value of v12 in equation (ii)
h = 1/2g(v22-a22/a12 X v22)= v22/2g X (1- a22/a12)=v22/2g[(a12-a22)/a12]

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 20

 v22= 2gh[a12/(a12-a22)] or v2= 2gh[a1/ (a12-a22)]
We know that the discharge,
Q = Coefficient of orifice metre x a2 . v2

=[Ca1a2/ (a12-a22)]
Example. An orifice metre consisting of 100 mm diameter orifice in a 250 mm diameter pipe has
coefficient equal to 0•65. The pipe delivers oil (sp. gr. 0•8). The pressure difference on the two sides of the
orifice plate is measured by a mercury oil differential inano [Link] differential gauge reads 80 mm of
mercury, calculate the rate of flow in litresls.
Solution. Given: d2 = 100 mm = 0.1 m; d1 = 250 mm = o.25 m; C = 0.65 ; Specific gravity
of oil = 0.8 and h = 0.8 m of mercury.

We know that the area of pipe,

2
a1= =49.09 10-3m2
and area of throat

2
a2= =7.854 10-3m2
We also know that the pressure difference,
h = 0.8[(13.6-0.8)/0.8]=12.8 m of oil
and rate of flow,

Q=[Ca1a2/ (a12-a22)]
=82 10-3 m3/s=82 lit/s Ans
2.6 Pitot Tube.

A Pitot tube is an instrument to determine the velocity of flow at the required point in a pipe or a stream. In
its simplest form, a pitot tube consists of a glass tube bent a through 90° as shown in Fig.
The lower end of the tube faces the direction of the flow as shown in Fig. The liquid rises up in the tube due to
the pressure exerted by the flowing liquid. By measuring the rise of liquid in the tube, we can find out the
velocity of the liquid flow.
Let h = Height of the liquid in the pitot tube above the surface,

Fig. 2.7

H = Depth of tube in the liquid, and

v = Velocity of the liquid.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 21
Applying Bernoulli's equation for the sections 1 and 2,
H+v2/2g=H+h …..(z1=z2)
h =v2/2g
v= 2gh
Example .
A pltot tube was inserted in a pipe to measu!e the velocity of water in it. If (
water rises the tube is 200 mm, find the velocity of water.
Solution. Given: h = 200 mm = 0.2 m.
We know that the velocity of water in the pipe,
v= 2gh = (2 x 9.81 x 0.2) = 1.98 m/s Ans.

2.6.1 Rate of Discharge

The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second through a section of a pipe or a channel, is known as the rate of
discharge or simply discharge. It is generally denoted by Q. Now consider a liquid flowing through a pipe.

Let, a = Cross-sectional area of the pipe, and

v = Average velocity of the liquid,
:. Discharge, Q = Area × Average velocity = a.v

Notes: 1. If the area is in m2 and velocity in m/s, then the discharge,

Q = m2 x m/s = m3/s = cumecs
2. Remember that 1m3 = 1000 litres.

2.7 Equation of Continuity of a Liquid Flow

If an incompressible liquid is continuously flowing through a pipe or a channel (whose cross- sectional area
may or may not be constant) the quantity of liquid passing per second is the same at all sections. This is
known as the equation of continuity of a liquid flow. It is the first and fundamental equation of flow.

Fig. 2.8

2.7.1 CONTINUITY OF A LIQUID FLOW

Consider a tapering pipe through which some liquid is flowing as shown in Fig
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 22
Let , a1 = Cross-sectional area of the pipe at section 1-1, and
v1= Velocity of the liquid at section 1-1,
Similarly , a2 , v2= Corresponding values at section 2-2,
and a3 , v3 = Corresponding values at section 3-3.
We know that the total quantity of liquid passing through section 1-1,
Q1 = a1.v1 ……………………………(i)
Similarly, total quantity of liquid passing through section 2-2,
Q2= a1.v1 ………………….(ii)
and total quantity of the liquid passing through section 3-3,
Q3 = a3.v3 ………………….(iii)

From the law of conservation of matter, we know that the total quantity of liquid passing through the sections
1-1, 2-2 and 3-3 is the same. Therefore
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ....... or a1. v1 = a2.v2 = a3.v3 ....... and so on.

Example : Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter with an average velocity
10 m/s. Determine the rate of discharge of the water in litres/s. Also determine the velocity of water
At the other end of the pipe, if the diameter of the pipe is gradually changed to 200 mm.

Solution. Given: d1= 100 mm = 0.1 m; V1 = 10 m/s and d2= 200 mm = 0.2 m.
Rate of discharge
We know that the cross-sectional area of the pipe at point 1,
a1= x(0.1)2=7.854x10-3 m2
and rate of discharge, Q = a1.v1 = (7.854 x 10-3)x 10 = 78.54 X 10-3 m3/s
= 78.54 litres/s Ans.
Velocity of water at the other end of the pipe
We also know that cross-sectional area of the pipe at point 2,
a2= x(0.2)2=31.42x10-3 m2

and velocity of water at point 2 ,v2= = ((78.54 X 10-3)/( 31.42x10-3))=2.5m/s Ans.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 23

2.8 Flow over Notches:-

A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel or a tank. It
may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a way that the liquid
surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

A weir is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs. It is
generally in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp edge at the top, running all the way across the
open channel. The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size. The notch is generally
made of metallic plate while weir is made of concrete or masonry structure.

1. Nappe or Vein. The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called Nappe or
Vein.

2. Crest or Sill. The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over which the water flows, is
known as the sill or crest.

2.9 Classification Of Notches And Weirs:- The notches

are classified as :

I. According to the shape of the opening:

(a) Rectangular notch,

(b) Triangular notch,
(c) Trapezoidal notch, and

(d) Stepped notch.

2. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe:

(a) Notch with end contraction.

lb) Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch e,

Weirs are classified according to the shape of the opening the' shape of the crest, the effect of the sides
on the nappe and nature of discharge. The following are important classifications.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 24

2.10 Discharge Over A Rectangular Notch Or Weir

The expression for discharge over a rectangular notch or weir is the same.

Fig. 2.9
2.11 Rectangular notch and 'weir:-

Consider a rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as shown in Fig Let H =
Head of water over the crest L = Length of the notch or weir

3/2
The total discharge, Q= cd

Problem - 1
Find the discharge of water flowing over a rectangular notch 0/2 In length when the constant head over
the notch is 300 mm. Take cd = 0.60.
Solution. Given:
Length of the notch, L=2.0m
Head over notch, H = 300 m = 0.30 m
Cd=0.06

3/2
Discharge Q= cd

= 1. 5 m3/s

= 3.5435 x 0.1643 = 0.582 m3/s. Ans,

Problem 2
Determine the height of a rectangular weir of length 6 m to be built across a Rectangular channel. The
maximum depth of water on the upstream side of the weir is 1.8m and discharge is 2000 litres/s. Take Cd =
0.6 and neglect end contractions.
Solution. Given:
Length of weir, L=6m
Depth of water, H1=1.8m
Discharge, Q = 2000 litIs = 2 m3/s
Cd/=0.6
Let H is the height of water above the crest of weir and H2 =height of weir
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 25
The discharge over the weir is given by the equation .

3/2
Q= cd

3/2
2=
=10.623
H3/2

=
H3/2= Fig. 2.10

2/3
H= =0.328 m
Height of weir, H2 = H1- H
= Depth of water on upstream side - H
= 1.8 - .328 = 1.472 m. Ans.

2.12 Discharge Over A Triangular Notch Or Weir:-

The expression for the discharge over a triangular notch or weir is the same. It is derived as : Let H =
head of water above the V- notch
= angle of notch
5/2
Total discharge, Q= d
For a right angle V Notch ,if Cd=0.6
0
, tan
5/2
Discharge, Q =
5/2
=1.417 Fig. 2.11

Problem -1
Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60° when the head over the
V-notch is 0.3 m. Assume Cd = 0.6.
Solution. Given an Angle of V-notch, e = 60°
Head over notch, H=0.3 m
Cd = 0.6
Discharge, Q over a V-notch is given by equation

5/2
Q= d

5/2
d
= 0.8182 x 0.0493 = 0.040 m3/s. Ans,

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 26

Problem -2
Water flows over a rectangular weir 1 m wide at a depth of 150 mm and afterwards passes through a
triangular right-angled weir. Taking Cd for the rectangular and triangular weir as 0.62 and 0.59
respectively, find the depth over the triangular weir.
Solution. Given:
For rectangular weir. Length= L = 1 m
Depth of water, H = 150mm=0.15m
Cd = 0.62
For triangular weir.
= 90°
Cd = 0.59
Let depth over triangular weir = H1
The discharge over the rectangular weir IS given by equation

3/2
Q= cd

3/2
=

=0.10635 m3/s

The same discharge passes through the triangular right-angled weir. But discharge. Q. is given by the
equation

5/2
Q= d

5/2 0
0.10635= 1 { and H=H1 }
5/2
= 1
=1.3936 H15/2

H15/2=
H1=(0.07631)0.4=0.3572 m , Ans

2.13 Discharge Over A Trapezoidal Notch Or Weir:-

A trapezoidal notch or weir is a combination of a rectangular and triangular notch or weir. Thus the total
discharge will be equal to the sum of discharge through a rectangular weir or notch and discharge through
a triangular notch or weir.
Let H = Height of water over the notch

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 27

 L = Length of the crest of the notch

Cd1 = Co-efficient or discharge. for rectangular portioo ABCD of Fig.

Cd2 = Co-efficient of discharge for triangular portion [FAD and BCE]
The-discharge through rectangular portion ABCD is given by

3/2
or Q1= d1

The discharge through two triangular notches FDA and BCE is equal to the discharge through a single
triangular notch of angle e and it is given by equation

5/2
Q2= d2
Discharge through trapezoldal notch or weir FDCEF = Q1 + Q2
3/2 5/2
= d1L d2

Problem -1 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1 m wide at the tap and 0.40 m at the
bottom and is 30 cm in height. The head of water On the notch is 20 cm. Assume Cd for rectangular
portion = 0.62 while for triangular portion = 0.60.

Solution. Given:
Top width AE=1 m
Base width, CD=L=0.4 m
Head of water, H=0.20 m
For rectangular portion, Cd1=0.62
From ,we have

= Fig. 2.12
Discharge through trapezoidal notch is given by equation

3/2 5/2
Q= d1 + d2

= x 0.62 x 0.4 x x (0.2)3/2 + 5/2

= 0.06549 + 0.02535 = 0.09084 m3/s = 90.84 litres/s. Ans

2.14 Discharge Over A Stepped Notch:-
A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches. The discharge through 'stepped notch is equal
to the sum of the discharges' through the different rectangular notches.

Consider a stepped notch as shown in Fig.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 28

Let H1 = Height of water above the crest of notch (1).
L1 = Length of notch 1 ,
H2,L2 and H3,L3 are corresponding values for notches 2 and 3 respectively.

Cd=Co-efficient of discharge for all notches

Total discharge Q=Q1+Q2+Q3
Fig. 2.12
3/2
Q= d 1 1 -H23/2]+ d 2 2
3/2
-H33/2]+ Cd 3 3
3/2

Problem Fig. 2.13

Fig. 1 shows a stepped notch. Find the discharge through the notch if Cd for all
section = 0.62.
Solution. Given:
L1 = 40 cm, L2 = 80 cm,
L3 = 120cm
H1 = 50 + 30 + 15 = 95 crn,
H2=80 cm,H3=50 cm,
Cd=0.62
Total Discharge ,Q=Q1+Q2+Q3
where
3/2
Q1= d 1 1 -H23/2]

= [953/2-803/2]
=154067cm3/s =154.067 lit/s Fig. 2.14
3/2
Q2= d 2 2 -H33/2]

= [803/2-503/2]
=530141 cm3/s
=530.144 lit/s

3/2
Q3= Cd 3 3

= 3/2

=776771 cm3/s
=776.771 lit/s

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 29

 Q=Q1+Q2+Q3
=154.067+530.144+776.771
=1460.98 lit/s Ans.
2.15 Velocity Of Approach
Velocity of approach is defined as the velocity with which the water approaches or reaches the weir or notch
before it flows over it. Thus if Va is the velocity of approach, then an additional head ha equal
to Va2 /2g due to velocity of approach, is acting on the water. flowing over the notch. Then initial height of
water over the notch becomes (H+ ha ) and final height becomes equal to ha,' Then all the formulae are
changed taking into consideration of velocity of approach.
The velocity of approach, Va is determined by finding the discharge over the notch or weir neglecting
velocity of approach. Then dividing the -discharge-by the cross-sectional area of the channel .on the'
upstream side of the weir or notch, the velocity of approach is obtained . Mathematically,

Va=
This velocity of approach is used to find an additional head (ha= Va2 /2g ).Again the discharge is
calculated and above process is repeated for more accurate discharge.
Discharge over a rectangular weir, with velocity of approach

= d [(H1+ha)3/2-ha3/2]
Problem:-
Water is flowing in a rectangular channel of 1 m wide and 0.75 m deep. Find the discharge over a
rectangular weir of crest length 60 cm if the head of water over the crest of weir is
20 cm and water from channel flows over the weir. Take Cd = 0.62. Neglect end contractions. Take
velocity of approach into consideration.
Solution. Given:

Area of channel, A = Width x depth = 1.0 x 0.75 = 0.75 m2

Length of weir, L = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Head of water, H1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Cd = 0.62
Discharge over a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is given by

3/2
Q= Cd 1

3/2
=
=0.0982 m3/s
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 30
velocity of approach Va= =
Additional head ha=Va2/2g

=(0.1309)2/2
Then discharge with velocity of approach is given by equation

Q= d [(H1+ha)3/2-ha3/2]
3/2
= -(0.00087)3/2]
= 1.098 [0.09002- .00002566]
= 1.098 x 0.09017
=0.09881 m3/s. Ans

2.16 Types of Weirs :-

Though there are numerous types of weirs, yet the following are important from the subject point of view
:
1. Narrow-crested weirs,
2. Broad-crested weirs,
3. Sharp-crested weirs,
4: Ogee weirs, and
5. Submerged or drowned weirs.

2.16.1 Discharge over a Narrow-crested Weir :-

The weirs are generally classified according to the width of their crests into two types. i.e.
narrow-crested weirs and broad crested weirs.

Let b = Width of the crest of the weir, and

H = Height of water above the weir crest.

If 2b is less than H,the weir is called a narrow-crested weir. But if 2b is more than H . it is called a broad-crested
weir.
A narrow-crested weir is hydraulically similar to an ordinary weir or to a rectangular weir .Thus, the same
formula for discharge over a narrow-crested weir holds good, which we derived from an ordinary weir
.

Q = X Cd .L x H3/2
Where, Q = Discharge over the weir,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge,
L = Length of the weir, and
H = Height of water level above the crest of the weir.

Example A narrow-crested weir of 10metres long is discharging water under a constant head of 400 mm.
Find discharge over the weir in litresls. Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.623.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 31
Solution. Given: L = 10 m; H= 400 mm = 0.4 m and Cd = 0.623.
We know that the discharge over the weir,

Q= X Cd .L x H3/2

= x0.623x10 (0.4)3/2
=46.55 m2/s =4655 lit/s

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 32

2.16.1 Discharge over a Broad-crested Weir :-

Fig. 2.15

Broad-crested weir

Consider a broad-crested weir as shown in Fig. Let A and B be the upstream and downstream ends of
the weir.
Let H = Head of water on the upstream side of the weir (i.e., at A),
h = Head of water on the downstream side of the weir (i.e., at B),
v = Velocity of the water on the downstream side of the weir
(i.e., at B),
Cd = Coefficient of discharge, and
L = Length of the weir.
Q=1.71Cd .L H3/2
Example A broad-crested weir 20 m long is discharging water from a reservoir in to channel. What will
be the discharge over the weir, if the head of water on the upstream and downstream sides is 1m and 0.5
m respectively? Take coefficient of discharge for the flow as 0.6 .
Solution. Given: L = 20 m; H = 1 m; h = 0.5 m and Cd = 0.6.
We know that the discharge over the weir,
Q = Cd L .h
= 0.6 x 2.0 x 0.5 x m3/s
3
= 6 x 3.13 = 18.8 m /s Ans.
2.16.2 Discharge over a Sharp-crested
Weir :-

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 33

It is a special type of weir, having a sharp-crest as shown in Fig. The water flowing over the crest comes
in contact with the crest -line and then springs up from the crest and falls as a trajectory as shown in
Fig.
In a sharp-crested weir, the thickness of the weir is
kept less than half of the height of water on the weir. i.e.,
b<(H/2)
where , b = Thickness of the weir,
and H = Height of water, above the crest of the weir.
The discharge equation, for a sharp crested weir, remains the same as that of a rectangular weir. i.e.,

Fig. 2.16
2.16.3 Sharp-crested weir :-

Q= X Cd .L x H3/2

Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge, and

L = Length of sharp-crested weir

Example In a laboratory experiment, water flows over a sharp-crested weir 200 mm long under a constant
head of 75mm. Find the discharge over the weir in litres/s, if Cd = 0.6.
Solution. Given: L = 200 mm = 0.2 m; H = 75 mm = 0.075 m and Cd = 0.6.
We know that the discharge over the weir,

Q= X Cd .L x H3/2

3/2
=
=0.0073 m3/s =7.3 litres/s. Ans.

2.16.2 Discharge over an Ogee Weir :-

It is a special type of weir, generally, used as

a spillway of a dam as shown in Fig. , The crest
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 34
of an agee weir slightly rises up from the
point A ,(i.e., crest of the sharp-crested weir) and after reaching the maximum rise of 0.115 H (where
H is the height of a water above the point A) falls in a parabolic form as shown in Fig.
The discharge equation for an agee weir remains the same as that of a rectangular weir. i.e.,

Q = X Cd .L x H3/2
Where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge and
L= Length of an ogee weir

Fig. 2.17
Example
An ogee weir 4 metres long has 500 mm head of water. Find the discharge over the weir, if Cd = 0.62.
.
Solution. Given: L = 4 m; H = 500 mm = 0.5 m and C d= 0.62.
We know that the discharge over the weir,

Q= X Cd .L x H3/2

= X 0.62 X 4 2 X 9.81 X (0.5)3/2 m3/s

= 7.323 x 0.354 = 2.59 m3/s= 2590 litres/s Ans

2.16.3 Discharge over a Submerged or Drowned Weir :-

When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is above the top surface of weir, it is known a
submerged or drowned weir as shown in Fig
The total discharge, over such a weir, is found out by splitting up the height of water, above the sill of the
weir, into two portions as discussed below:
Let H1 = Height of water on the upstream side of the weir, and
H2 =height of water on the downstream side
of the weir.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 35

 Fig. 2.18

The discharge over the upper portion may be considered as a free discharge under a head of water equal to
(H1 – H2). And the discharge over the lower portion may be considered as a submerged discharge under a
head of H2 . Thus discharge over the free portion (i.e., upper portion),

Q1= X Cd .L x (H1-H2)3/2

2.16.4 Submerged weir :-

and the discharge over the submerged (i.e., lower portion),
Q2 = Cd . L. H2. 1-H2)
:. Total discharge, Q = Q1 + Q2

Example A submerged sharp crested weir 0.8 metre high stands clear across a channel having vertical sides
and a width of 3 meters. The depth of water in the channel of approach is 1.2 meter. And 10 meters
downstream from the weir, the depth of water is 1 meter. Determine the discharge over the weir in liters
per second. Take Cd as 0.6.

Solution. Given: L = 3 m and Cd = 0.6.

From the geometry of the weir, we find that the depth
of water on the upstream side,
H1 = 1.25 - 0.8 = 0.45 m and depth of water on the downstream side,
H2 = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2 m
We know that the discharge over the free portion of the weir

Q1= X Cd .L x (H1-H2)3/2

3/2
=
= 5.315 x 0.125 = 0.664 m3/s = 664 liters/s ... (i) and
discharge over the submerged portion of the weir,
Q2= Cd . L. H2. 1-H2)

= 0.6 x 3 x 0.2 2 x 9.81(0.45- 0.2) m3/s

= 0.36 x 2.215 = 0.797 m3/s = 797 liters/s ... (ii)
:. Total discharge: Q = Q1 + Q2 = 664 + 797 = 1461 liters/ s Ans.

2.17 Flow over Weirs:-

An open channel is a passage through which the water flows under the force of gravity - atmospheric
pressure. Or in other words, when the free surface of the flowing water is in contact, with the atmosphere
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 36
as in the case of a canal, a sewer or an aquaduct, the flow is said to be through an open channel. A channel
may be covered or open at the top. As a matter of fact, the flow of water in an open channel, is not due to any
pressure as in the case of pipe flow. But it is due to the slope the bed of the channel. Thus during the
construction of a channel, a uniform slope in its bed is provided to maintain the flow of water.

2.18 Chezy's Formula for Discharge through an Open Channel :-

Fig. 2.19

2.18.1 Sloping bed of a channel :-

Consider an open channel of uniform cross-section and bed slope as shown in Fig.
Let
I = Length of the channel,
A = Area of flow,
v = Velocity of water,
p = Wetted perimeter of the cross-section, m=
f = Frictional resistance per unit area at unit velocity, and
i = Uniform slope in the bed.

m= ……..(known as hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radious )

Discharge Q= A X v=AC mi
Example.
A rectangular channel is 1. 5 metres deep and 6 metres wide. Find the discharge through channel, when it runs
full. Take slope of the bed as 1 in 900 and Chezy's constant as 50.
Solution. Given: d = 1.5 m; b = 6 m; i = 1/900 and C = 50.
We know that the area of the channel,
A = b.d = 6 x 1.5 = 9 m2
and wetted perimeter, D = b + 2d = 6 + (2 x 1.5) = 9 m

:. Hydraulic mean depth, m = = 1m

and the discharge through the channel,

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 37

Q = AC mi = 9x50 (1 X 1/900)= 15m3/s Ans.
2.18.2 Manning Formula for Discharge :-

Manning, after carrying out a series of experiments, deduced the following relation for the value of C in
Chezy's formula for discharge:
1/6
C=
where N is the Kutter's constant
Now we see that the velocity,
v = C mi=M X m2/3 X i1/2
where
M =1/N and is known as Manning's constant.
Now the discharge,
Q = Area x Velocity = A x 1/N x m2 xi1/2

= A x M x m2/3 x i1/2

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 38

Example
An earthen channel with a 3 m wide base and side slopes 1 : 1 carries water with a depth of 1 m. The bed
slope is 1in 1600. Estimate the discharge. Take value of N in Manning's formula as 0.04.
Solution.
Given: b = 3 m; Side slopes = 1 : 1; d = 1 m; i = 1/1600 and N = 0.04.
We know that the area of flow,

A = x (3 + 5) x1 = 4 m2
and wetted perimeter,
P = 3 +2 X (1)2+(1)2 = 5.83 m
hydraulic mean depth m = A/P=4/5.83=0.686 m
We know that the discharge through the channel
Q = Area x Velocity = A x 1/N x m2/3 xi1/2
= 4 X 1/0.04 X 0.6862/3 X (1/1600)1/2
=1.945 m 3/s Ans

2.18.3 Channels of Most Economical Cross-sections :-

A channel, which gives maximum discharge for a given cross-sectional area and bed slope is called a
channel of most economical cross-section. Or in other words, it is a channel which involves least excavation
for a designed amount of discharge. A channel of most economical cross-section is, sometimes: also
defined as a channel which has a minimum wetted perimeter; so that there is a minimum resistance to
flow and thus resulting in a maximum discharge. From the above definitions,
it is obvious that while deriving the condition for a channel of most economical cross-section, the cross-
sectional area is assumed tobe constant. The relation between depth and breadth of the section is found out
to give the maximum discharge.
The conditions for maximum discharge for the following sections will be dealt with in the succeeding
pages :
1. Rectangular section,
2. Trapezoidal section, and
3. Circular section.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 39

2.19 Condition for Maximum Discharge through a Channel of Rectangular Section :-
A rectangular section is, usually, not provided in channels except in rocky soils where the faces of rocks can
stand vertically. Though a rectangular section is not of
much practical importance, yet we shall discuss it for its theoretical importance only.

Consider a channel of rectangular section as shown in Fig.

Let
b = Breadth of the channel, and
d = Depth of the channel.
A= b X d
Discharge Q = A x v = AC mi
m=A/P
=d/2
Fig. 2.20

Hence, for maximum discharge or maximum velocity, these two conditions (i.e., b = 2d and
m = d/2) should be used for solving the problems of channels of rectangular cross-sections.

Example
A rectangular channel has a cross-section of 8 square metres. Find its size and discharge through the most
economical section, if bed slope is 1 in 1000. Take C = 55.

Solution. Given: A = 8 m2

i= 1/1000 = 0.001 and C = 55.

Size of the channel
Let
b = Breadth of the channel, and
d = Depth of the channel.
We know that for the most economical rectangular section,
b = 2d
:. Area (A) 8=b X d= 2d X d =2d2
= b=2 m
And b=2d=2 X 2= 4 m
Discharge through the channel
We also know that for the most economical rectangular section, hydraulic mean depth,
m=d/2=2/2=1 m
and the discharge through the channel,
Q = AC mi= 8 x 55 1 X 0.001 m3/s
= 440 x 0.0316 = 13.9 m3/s , Ans.
2.19.1 Condition for Maximum Discharge through a Channel of Trapezoidal
Section :-

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 40

A trapezoidal section is always provided in the earthen channels. The side slopes, in a channel of
trapezoidal cross-section are provided, so that the soil can stand safely. Generally, the side slope in a
particular soil is decided after conducting experiments on that soil. In a soft soil, flatter side slopes
should be provided whereas in a harder one, steeper side slopes may be provided.
consider a channel of trapezoidal cross- section ABCD as shown in FIg.

Fig. 2.21

Let
b = Breadth of the channel at the bottom,
d = Depth of the channel and

=side slope (i.e., 1 vertical to n horizontal)

Hence, for maximum discharge or maximum velocity these two

(i.e., b +2nd/2 = d and m = d/2) should be used for solving problems on channels of
trapezoidal cross-sections.

Example .
A most economical trapezoidal channel has an area of flow 3.5 m2 discharge in the channel, when running
1 metre deep. Take C = 60 and bed slope 1 in 800.
Solution. Given: A = 3.5 m2 ; d = 1 m; C = 60 and i = 1/800.
We know that for the most economical trapezoidal channel the hydraulic mean depth
m = d/2 = 0.5 m
and discharge in the channel,
Q= A.C. = 5.25 m3/s Ans.
Example .
A trapezoidal channel having side slopes of 1 : 1 and bed slope of 1 in 1200 is required to carry a discharge
of 1800 m3/min. Find the dimensions of the channel for cross-section. Take Chezy's constant as 50.
Solution.
Given side slope (n)=1

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 41

(i.e. 1 vertical to n horizontal),
i= 1/1200 ,Q= 180m3/min = 3m3/sec
and C = 50
Let b=breadth of the channel of its bottom and d= depth of the water flow.
We know that for minimum cross section the channel should be most economical and for economical
trapezoidal section half of the top width is equal to the slopping side. i.e.

b +2nd/2 = d
or b = 0.828d
Area A = d X (b + nd) = 1.828d2
We know that in the case of a most economical trapizodial section the hydraulic mean depth m=d/2
And discharge through the channel (Q)= A.C. =1.866d5/2
d5/2 =3/1.866 = 1.608
Or d = 1.21 m
b = 0.828 d = 0.828 X 1.21 = 1 m ANS
Condition for Maximum Velocity through a Channel of Circular Section :-
Consider a channel 'of circular section, discharging water under the atmospheric pressure shown in Fig.
Let r = Radius of the channel,
h = Depth of water in the channel, and
2 = Total angle (in radians) subtended at the centre by the water
From the geometry of the figure, we find that the wetted perimeter of the channels,
P= 2 ...(i)
and area of the section, through which the water is flowing,

A = r2 - = r2 ( - ) …(ii)
We know that the velocity of flow in an open channel,

Q= A.C.

We know that the velocity of flow in an open channel , v= C

Problem: Find the maximum velocity of water in a circular channel of 500 mm radius, if the bed slope is
1 in 400. Take manning’s constant as 50.

Solution:-
Given d= 500mm = 0.5m or r = 0.5/2 = 0.25m, i=1/400 and M= 50
Let 2 = total angle (in radian) subtended by the water surface at the centre of the channel.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 42

Now we know that for maximum velocity , the angle subtended by the water surface at the centre of the
channel.

2 = 257030’ or = 128.750 = 128.75X = 2.247rad

Area of flow, A = r2 ( - ) = 171m2

And perimeter P = 2r = 1.124m
hydraulic mean depth m= A/P = 0.171/1.124 =0.152m
And velocity of water v= MXm2/3Xi ½ = 0.71m/s ANS

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 43

 CHAPTER-3

PUMPS

3.1 Centrifugal Pumps:-

The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy to hydraulic energy are called pumps. The
hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted, into pressure energy
by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal pump.

The centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow which means that when a certain
mass of liquid is rotated by an external torque, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid takes place. The
rise in pressure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the
v2  2r 2
liquid at that point (i.e. , rise in pressure head = or ) . Thus at the outlet of the impeller, where radius is
2g 2g
more , the rise in pressure head will be more & the liquid will be more & the liquid will be discharged at the
outlet with a high pressure head. Due to this high pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a high level.

3.1.1 Main Parts Of A Centrifugal Pump:-

The followings are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:

1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe with a foot valve & a strainer
4. Delivery Pipe
All the main parts of the centrifugal pump are shown in Fig 19.1

1. Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called ‘impeller’. It consists of a series of
backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the shaft of an electric
motor.

2. Casing: The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction turbine. It is an air-
tight passage surrounding the impeller & is designed in such a way that the kinetic energy of the water
discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted into pressure energy before the water leaves the casing
& enters the delivery pipe. The following three types of the casings are commonly adopted:

a. Volute casing as shown in Fig.19.1

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 44

 b. Vortex casing as shown in Fig.19.2(a)
c. Casing with guide blades as shown in Fig.19.2(b)
a) Volute casing as shown in Fig.3.1the Volute casing, which is surrounding the impeller. It is of spiral
type in which area of flow increases gradually. The increase in area of flow decrease velocity of flow.
Decrease in velocity increases the pressure of water flowing through casing. it has been observed that in
case of volute casing, the efficiency of pump increases.

Main parts of a centrifugal pump

Fig. 3.1

b) Vortex casing. if a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and impeller as shown in fig.3.1,the
casing is known as vortex casing .by introducing the circular chamber, loss of energy due to formation of eddies
is reduced to a considerable extent. thus efficiency of pump is more than the efficiency when only volute casing
is provided.

c) Casing with guide blades. This casing is shown in fig.3.1 in which the impeller is surrounded by a series of
guide blades mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. the guide vanes are designed in which a way that
the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without stock. Also the area of guide vanes increases, thus
reducing the velocity of flow through guide vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of water. the water
from guide vanes then passes through the surrounding casing which is in most of cases concentric with the
impeller as shown in fig.3.1.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 45

3. suction pipe with foot-valve and a strainer: A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of pump and
other end dips into water in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which is a non-return valve or
one –way type valve is fitted at lower end of suction pipe. Foot valve opens only in upward direction. A
strainer is also fitted at lower end of suction pipe.

Different type of casing

Fig: 3.2

4. Delivery pipe: a pipe whose one end is connected to outlet of pump and other end delivers water at a
required height is known as delivery pipe.

3.1.2 Efficiencies of a centrifugal pump: Efficiencies of a centrifugal pump: In case of a centrifugal pump ,
the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric motor to the shaft of the pump & then to the impeller.
From the impeller, the power is given to the water. Thus power is decreasing from the shaft of the pump
to the impeller & then to the water. The following are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:

a. Manometric efficiencies  man

b. Mechanical efficiencies  m

c. Overall efficiencies  o

a) Manometric Efficiencies  man : The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the impeller
to the water is known as manometric efficiency. It is written as

 max  Manometric head∕Head imparted by impeller to water

Hm gH m
=  .................
Vw2u2 Vw2u2
g

The impeller at the impeller of the pump is more than the power given to the water at outlet of the pump. The
ratio of the power given to water at outlet of the pump to the power available at the impeller, is known as
manometric efficiency.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 46
 WH m
The power given to water at outlet of the pump= kW
1000

The power at the impeller =

W Vw 2 u 2
 kW
g 1000
= WH m
gH m
 max  1000 
W Vw 2 u 2 Vw 2  u 2

g 1000

b) Mechanical efficiencies:-

The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is more than the power available at the impeller of the
pump . The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
known as mechanical efficiency. It is written as

 m  Power at the impeller∕Power at the shaft

The power at the impeller in kW=Work done by impeller per second∕10000

W Vw 2u2
 
g 1000
W  Vw 2u2 
 
g  1000 
m  ...............
S .P.

Where S.P.= Shaft Power

c) Overall efficiencies o

It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump . The power output
of the pump in kW

WH m
 =
1000

Power input to the pump =Power supplied by the electric motor

= S.P. of the pump

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 47

  WH m 
 
= o   1000 
................
S .P.
  man  m ....................

Problem 3.1: The internal & external diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 200mm &
400mm respectively. The pump is running at 1200 r.p.m. The vane angles of the impeller at inlet & outlet
are 200 & 300 respectively. The water enters the impeller radially & velocity of flow is constant.
Determine the velocity of flow per metre sec.

Solution: Internal Dia. Of impeller,=D1=200mm=0.20m

External Dia. Of impeller ,=D2=400mm=0.40m

Speed N=1200r.p.m

Vane angle at inlet ,   20 0

Vane angle at outlet,   30 0

Water enter s radially means,   90 0 and Vw1  0

Velocity of flow , = V f 1  V f 2

Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet & outlet are,

D1 N   .20  1200

u1    12.56m / s
60 60
D2 N   .40  1200
u2    25.13m / s
60 60

From inlet velocity triangle,

V V
f1 f2
tan   
u 12.56
1
V  12.56 tan   12.56  tan 20  4.57 m / s
f1
V V  4.57 m / s
f2 f1

Problem 3.2: A centrifugal pump delivers water against a net head of 14.5 metres & a design speed of
1000r.p.m .The values are back to an angle of 300 with the periphery. The impeller diameter is 300mm & outlet
width 50mm. Determine the discharge of the pump if manometric efficiency is 95%.

Solution: Net head, Hm= 14.5m

Speed, N =1000r.p.m

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 48

 Vane angle at outlet,   30 0

Impeller diameter means the diameter of the impeller at outlet

Diameter, D2  300mm  0.30m

Outlet width, B2  50mm  0.05m

Manometric efficiency,  man  95 %=0.95

D2 N   .30  1000

Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet, u2    15.70m / s
60 60

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 49

Now using equation

gH m
 max 
Vw 2 u 2
9.81  14.5
0.95 
Vw 2  15.70
0.95  14.5
Vw 2   9.54m / s
0.95  15.70

Fig. 3.3

Refer to fig(3.3). From outlet velocity triangle, we have

Vf 2
tan  
(u 2  Vw 2 )
Vf 2 Vf 2
tan 30 0  
(15.70  9.54) 6.16
V f 2  6.16  tan 30  3.556m / s
0

Disch arg e  Q   D 2 B2  V f 2

   0.30  0.05  3.556m 3 / s  0.1675m 3 / s

3.3 Reciprocating Pump:-

Introduction:-

We have defined the pumps as the hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy to hydraulic energy
which is mainly in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy (or
pressure energy) by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating (moving backwards and
forwards ), which exerts the thrust on the liquid & increases its hydraulic energy (pressure energy), the pump is
known as reciprocating pump.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 50

3.3.1 Main parts of a reciprocating pump:-

The following are the main parts of a reciprocating pump as shown in fig (3.4)

Fig. 3.4

3.3.2 Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump: Consider a single acting reciprocating pump as shown in fig ().

Let D= dia. Of the cylinder

A= C/s area of the piston or cylinder

r= Radius of crank

N=r.p.m of the crank

L=Length of the stroke=2*r

hs = height of the axis of the cylinder from water surface in sump

hd = Height of the delivery outlet above the cylinder axis (also called delivery head)

Volume of water delivered in one revolution or discharge of water in one revolution

= Area * Length of stroke = A*L

Number of revolution per second, =

Discharge of the pump per second , Q= Discharge in one direction × No. of revolution per second

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 51

 = A×L = …………………………….

gALN
Wt. of water delivered per second, W = gQ 
60 ……………………………

3.3.3 Work Done : Work done by the reciprocating pump per sec. is given by the reaction
as

Work done per second = Weight of water lifted per second × Total height through which water is
lifted

= W  hs  hd 

Where hs  hd  = Total height through which water is lifted

gALN
From equation () Weight, W is given by W 
60

Substituting the value of W in equation () we get

Work done per second =

gALN
hs  hd 
60 …………………………………………

  g  ALN hs  hd 
Power required to drive the pump, in kW =
60  1000

gALN hs  hd 
= kW
60,000 …………………………

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 52

3.3.4 Classification of reciprocating pumps:

The reciprocating pumps may be classified as:

1. According to the water being in contact with one side or both sides of the piston, and

2. According to the number of cylinders provided

If the water is in contact with one side of the piston, the pump is known as single-acting. On the other hand,

If the water is in contact with both sides of the piston, the pump is called double –acting. Hence,
classification according to the contact of water is:

I. Single-acting pump

II. Double –acting pump

According to the number of cylinder provided, the pumps are classified as:

I. Single cylinder pump

II. Double cylinder pump

III. Triple cylinder pump

Reference: BOOK: R.K BANSAL

R.S KHURMI

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 53

 IRRIGATION

CHAPTER-1
HYDROLOGY

1.1 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

1.1.1 Introduction

Water can occur in three physical phases: solid, liquid, and gas and is found in nature in all these

phases in large quantities. Depending upon the environment of the place of occurrence, water

can quickly change its phase.

The hydrologic cycle can be visualized as a series of storages and a set of activities that
move water among these storages. Among these, oceans are the largest reservoirs, holding
about 97% of the earth’s water. Of the remaining 3% freshwater, about 78% is stored in ice
in Antarctica and Greenland. About 21% of freshwater on the earth is groundwater, stored in
sediments and rocks below the surface of the earth. Rivers, streams, and lakes together
contain less than 1% of the freshwater on the earth and less than 0.1% of all the water on the
earth.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 54

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 55
1.1.2 Measuring the Intensity of Rainfall

The measurement of the amount of rain over a given period of time is called the intensity of rain. It is
measured in terms of height the rainwater will cover if it stays where it falls. And, the measurement is
expressed in millimeters.

The device most commonly used to measure rain is a simple cylindrical funnel with a marking scale on
the side. The device is called a rain gauge. Modern weather stations
use Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge which also works on the same principle of measuring the height of
rainwater falling at a certain location.

Based on intensity rainfall is classified into three groups. They are as follows:

1. Light Rain ranges between 0 to 2.5 mm

2. Moderate Rain varies between 2.6 mm to 7.6 mm

3. Heavy Rain means rainfall above 7.6 mm

Rainfall is measured by Rain Gauge in the units

millimeters. Types of Rainfall based on Origin

Based on their origin, rainfall can be of three types namely – Convectional rainfall,
Orographic or relief rainfall and Cyclonic or frontal rainfall.

1. 2 Convectional rainfall

This type of rainfall is seen predominantly in the equatorial regions and interior parts
of continents in the northern hemisphere. This type of rainfall normally occurs in summer or the hotter
part of the day. Hot air rises up in convection current and forms cumulus clouds which pours down as
heavy rain with lightning and thunder. Convectional rainfall does not last long.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 56

1.3 Orographic rainfall

This is the type of rainfall is also known as Relief Rainfall and is associated with mountains.
The main characteristic of orographic rainfall is that it gives the majority of the rainfall to the
windward side of the mountain while the leeward side often remains dry and rainless. This type
of rain happens when clouds come across mountains and need to rise up. As the cloud rises up,
the temperature cools and condenses moisture which forms bigger droplets of water within the
cloud. The time these clouds cross the mountain their temperature increases which in turn
increases their capacity to absorb moisture. And, hence the leeward side does not get the rain.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 57

1.4 . Cyclonic rainfall

Also known as frontal rainfall. The cyclonic rain, as the name suggests, occurs along the
fronts of a cyclone. This type of rainfall is formed when two air masses with different density,
temperature and humidity meet at a place. As the warm air rises, moisture present in it
condenses to form altostratus clouds. Cyclonic rainfall falls gradually for a few hours to a few
days.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 58

 Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time. For instance, in the 24-
hour rainfall distributions as developed by the Soil Conservation Service (now the NRCS or National Resources
Conservation Service), rainfall intensity progressively increases until it reaches a maximum and then gradually
decreases. Where this maximum occurs and how fast the maximum is reached is what differentiates one distribution
from another. One important aspect to understand is that the distributions are for design storms, not necessarily
actual storms.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 59

What are the Different Types of Rain Gauges?

The Standard Rain Gauge

The recording of rainfall using the standard or funnel rain gauge is generally done manually.
These gauges work by catching the falling rain in a funnel-shaped collector that is attached to a
measuring tube. The area of the collector is 10 times that of the tube; thus, the rain gauge works
by magnifying the liquid by a factor of 10.

Magnifying the rain in this way allows precise measurements down to a one-hundredth of an
inch. Amounts that exceed the tube capacity are caught in the outer shell of the gauge, allowing
the recorder to pour out the liquid in the tube and fill it back up if needed.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 60

The Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

The operation of a tipping bucket rain gauge is quite different from the standard gauge. The
receiving funnel leads to one of two small buckets. Filling of one bucket occurs at one-
hundredth of an inch. The result is a “tipping” of the liquid into the outer shell of the gauge,
triggering the second bucket to take its place. The process then repeats itself, allowing for
precise measurement of rainfall intensity and amount. This gauge has become standard for
wireless weather stations.

The Weighing Rain Gauge

The universal weighing rain gauge is optimal for climatology use. This is because of a vacuum
that accounts for the effects of wind, allowing more rain to enter the gauge. These gauges are
very precise in measuring rainfall intensity as the weighing mechanism at the bottom of the
collector can be used to measure depth and time simultaneously. Recording is carried out
much in the same way as the older versions of the tipping bucket gauges.

Catchment area

A catchment is an area of land where water collects when it rains, often bounded by hills. As
the water flows over the landscape it finds its way into streams and down into the soil,
eventually feeding the river.
Types of Runoff • Surface runoff – Portion of rainfall (after all losses such as interception, infiltration, depression storage
etc. are met) that enters streams immediately after occurring rainfall – After laps of few time, overland flow joins
streams – Sometime termed prompt runoff (as very quickly enters streams)

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 61

• Subsurface runoff – Amount of rainfall first enter into soil and then flows laterally towards stream without joining
water table – Also take little time to reach stream

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 62

 CHAPTER-2
WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROP

Need and classification of irrigation- historical development and merits and demerits of irrigation-
types of crops-crop season-duty, delta and base period- consumptive use of crops- estimation of
Evapotranspiration using experimental and theoretical methods.

2.1 Irrigation- Definition

• Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil.
• It is usually used to assist the growing of crops in dry areas and during periods of
inadequate rainfall.
2.2 Need of the Irrigation
• India is basically an agricultural country, and all its resources depend on the agricultural.
• Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life.
• Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains.
• However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed.
• Systematic irrigation system – Collecting water during the period of excess rainfall &
releasing it to the crop when it is needed.
2.2.1ess rainfall:
• Artificial supply is necessary
• Irrigation work may be constructed at a place where more water is available & than
conveythe water where there is less rainfall.
2.2.2 Non uniform rainfall:
• Rainfall may not be uniform over the crop period in the particular area.
• Rains may be available during the starting period of crop but no water may be available
atend, with the result yield may be less or crop may be die.
• Collection of water during the excess rainfall & supplied to the crop during the period
whenthere may be no rainfall.
2.2.3Commercial crops with additional water:

• Rainfall may be sufficient to raise the usual crop but more water may be necessary
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 63
 forraising commercial & cash crop . ( Sugarcane, Tea, Tobacco, cotton, cardamom, & indigo)

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 64

 2.4 Controlled water supply:
• Yield of the crop may be increased by the construction of proper distribution system
2.5 Benefits of Irrigation:
• Increase in food production
• Protection from famine
• Cultivation of cash crop ( Sugarcane, Tobacco, & cotton)
• Addition to the wealth of the country
• Increase the prosperity of people
• Generation of hydro-electric power
• Domestic & industrial water supply
• Inland navigation
• Improvement of communication
• Canal plantations
• Improvement in the ground water storage
• General development of the country.
2.4 Types of Irrigation OR Classification of Irrigation:

Natural Irrigation

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 65

 • No engineering structure is constructed.
1) Rainfall Irrigation
• Rainfall is only used for raising crops.
2) Inundation canal system

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 66

 • Flood water is utilized for Irrigation purpose by properly direction flow of water.
2.5 Artificial Irrigation
• Properly designed engineering structure are constructed.
1) Flow irrigation
• Water flows to the irrigated land by gravity.
• Water sources is to be higher level than the irrigated land.
2) Perennial irrigation :
Water is supplied according to the requirements throughout the crop period through
storage canal head works & Canal distribution system.
b) Inundation irrigation:
◦ Lands are submerged & throughly flooded when floods occur in the river.
◦ Lands are allowed to drain off & the crop are sown.
◦ Now the soil retains sufficient moisture for the crops to grow.
c) Direct irrigation :
◦ Water is directly diverted to the canal from the river is called Direct irrigation.
◦ Discharge in the river shall be higher than the water requirement during the crop period.
◦ A low diversion weir or a barrage is constructed across the river to rise the water
leveland divert the same to the canal.
◦ Direct irrigation can be adopted only where there is enough flow in the river to
providesufficient quantity of water required for irrigation throughout the crop period.
d) Storage Irrigation:
◦ River flow is not perennial or insufficient during crop period, Storage Irrigation is
adopted.
◦ A dam is construction across the river to store water in the reservoir.
◦ In some area rain water that run off from a catchment area is stored in tanks and is
usedfor irrigation during the crop period.
e) Lift or well Irrigation:
• Water is lifted up by mechanical such as pump etc or manual to supply for irrigation .
• Lift irrigation is adopted when the water source is lower than the level of lands to
beirrigated.

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Historical development of Irrigation
• Historically, civilizations have been dependent on development of irrigated agriculture.
• Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation in Mesopotamia, Ancient
Egypt & Ancient Persia (at present Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE.

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 • In the “Zana” valley of the Andes Mountain in Peru, archaeologists found remains of three
irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd Millennium BCE
& the 9th century CE, These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the new world.
• The Indus valley civilization in Pakistan & North India (from 2600 BCE) also had an early
canal irrigation system. Large scale agriculture was used for the purpose of irrigation.
• There is evidence of ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Amenemhet-III in the 12th dynasty (about
1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of
water for use during the dry seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile.
• The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCe, in the
reign of King Pandukabhaya & under conditions development for the next thousand years,
were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world.
• In the Szechwan region ancient China the Dujiangyan Irrigation System was built in 250
BCE to irrigate a large area & it still supplies water today.
• In the Americas, extensive irrigation systems were created by numerous groups in
prehistoric times. One example is seen in the recent archaeological excavations near the
Santa Cruz River in Tucson, Arizona. They have located a village site dating from 4000 years
ago.
Present status of Irrigation:
• In the middle of 20th century, the advent of diesel & electric motors led for the first time
to system that could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than it was recharged.
• This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground
subsidence & other problems.
• The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation density are found in North India & Pakistan
along the rivers Ganges & Indus, in the Hai He, Huang He & Yangtze basins in China, along
the Nile River in Egypt & Sudan, in the Mississippi-Missouri river basin & in parts of
California.
Developmental Aspects of Irrigation:
Irrigation is practiced to maintain the different developmental parameters. Those are:
1. To make up for the soil moisture deficit.
2. To ensure a proper & sustained growth of crops.
3. To make harvest safe.
4. To colonize the cultivable wasteland for horizontal expansion of cultivation.
5. To shift from seasonal cultivation.
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 6. To promote more intensive cultivation by multiple cropping.
7. To improve the level of agricultural productivity by acting as an agent for adoption
ofmodern technology.

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Advantages of irrigation

Advantages of irrigation can be direct as well as indirect.

I. Direct Benefits
• The grower has many choices of crops and varieties and can go for multiple cropping
forcultivation
• Crop plants respond to fertilizer and other inputs and there by productivity is high.
• Quality of the crop is improved.
• Higher economic return and employment opportunities. It makes economy drought proof.
• Development of pisciculture and afforestation. Plantation is raised along the banks of
canalsand field boundaries.
• Domestic water supply, hydel power generation at dam site and means of transport
wherenavigation is possible.
• Prevention of damage through flood.
II. Indirect Benefits

• Increase in gross domestic product of the country, revenue, employment, land value,
higherwages to farm labour, agro-based industries and groundwater storage.
• General development of other sectors and development of the country
• Increase of food production.
• Modify soil or climate environment – leaching.
• Lessen risk of catastrophic damage caused by drought.
• Increase income & national cash flow.
• Increase labor employment.
• Increase standard of living.
• Increase value of land.
• National security thus self sufficiency.
• Improve communication and navigation facilities.
• Domestic and industrial water supply.
• Improve ground water storage.
• Generation of hydro-electric power.

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Disadvantages of Irrigation

The following are the disadvantages of irrigation.

• Water logging.
• Salinity and alkalinity of land.

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 • Pollution of underground water.
• Results in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of diseases like malaria.

Types of Crops:
1) Wet crops- which lands are irrigated and than crop are cultivation
2) Dry crops-which do not need irrigation.
3) Garden crops- which need irrigation throughout the year
4) Summer crop (Kharif)-which are sown during the south west monsoon & harvested in autumn.
5) Winter crops( rabi)-which are sown in autumn & harvested in spring.
6) Cash crop – which has to be encased in the market. As it cannot be consumed directly by
thecultivators.

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 Crop

Seasons:

• In north India the crop season is divided as Rabi & Kharif.

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 • Rabi crops are called as winter crops and kharif crops are called as summer crops.
• Kharif crops required more water than rabi crops.
• Rabi starts from 1 st oct and ends on 31 march
• In TamilNadu crops are classified as wet and dry crops.

Crops rotation:
Rotation of crops implies the nature of the crop sown in a particular field is changed year after year.
Necessity for rotation
• The necessity for irrigation when the same crop is grown again and again in the same field,
the fertility of land gets reduced as the soil becomes deficient in plant foods favorable to
that particular crop.
• If different crops were to be raised there would certainly be more balanced fooding and
soil deficient in one particular type of nutrient is allowed to recouped.
• Crop diseases and insect pests will multiply at an alarming rate, if the same crop is to be
grown continuously. Rotation will check the diseases.
• A leguminous crop (such as gram) if introduced in rotation will increase nitrogen content of
soil thus increasing its fertility.
• The deep rooted and shallow rooted crops in rotation draw their food from different
depths of soil. The soil will be better utilized.
• Rotation of crops is beneficial to the farmers as there would be rotation of cash crops,
fooderand soil renovating crops.
General rotation of crops can be summarized as:
1. Wheat – great millet – gram.
2. Rice – gram
3. Cotton – wheat – gram.
4. Cotton – wheat – sugarcane
5. Cotton – great millet – gram.
Consumptive Use of Water
• Considerable part of water applied for irrigation is lost by evaporation & transpiration.
• This two processes being difficult to separate are taken as one and called Vapor-
transpiration or Consumptive use of water.

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Duty :

Duty- Area of the crop irrigated/ Volume of water required.

Delta:

• The depth of water required every time, generally varies depending upon the type of
thecrop.

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 • The total depth of water required a crop to nature is called delta.
• Crop period-the time from the instant of its sowing to the instant of harvesting.
• Base Period-time b/w the first supply of water to the land and the last watering
before harvesting.

Factor affecting the duty:

1) Soil Moisture
• In clayey soil less water is required since its retentive capacity is more.
• Pervious soil it will be more.
2) Topography
• Uniform distribution depends on topography.
• If the area is sloping the lower portion will get more water than the flat portion, & henceWater
requirement is increase.

3) Nature of rainfall
• If rainfall is high over the crop period water requirement becomes less, otherwise it will bemore.
4) Nature of crop irrigated
• Dry crop required less water where as wed crop required more water.
5) Method of cultivation:
• If the fields are properly ploughed it will have high retentive capacity & the number of
watering are reduced.
6) Season of crop
• Less irrigation water is required for rainy season crop and the duty increased.
• If the crop grown in summer, more irrigation water is required & the duty gets decreased
7) System of Irrigation
• In perennial irrigation, continuous supply of water is given & hence water table is kept high&
percolation losses is minimized
• In inundation type wastage is more by deep percolation.

8) Canal Condition

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 • Well maintained canal will have more duty as the losses is less.
Improving Duty
1. The water losses can be reduced by having the irrigated area nearer to the head of thecanal.
2. Evaporation losses can be minimized by using the water as quickly as possible.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 78

 3. Water losses can be minimized by lining the canals.
4. The cultivators should be trained to use water economically without wasting.
5. The soil properties should be studied by establishing research stations in villages.

Crop Period or Base Period:

• The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting iscalled the crop period.
• The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last
watering before harvesting is called the base period.
Duty and Delta of a Crop Delta:
The total quantity of water required by the crop for its full growth may be expressed in hectare-
meter or simply as depth to which water would stand on the irrigated area if the total quantity supplied were
to stand above the surface without percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water is called delta (∆).

Problem –1: If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of about 10 days, and
the crop period for rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.

Solution:

No. of watering required = 120/10 = 12

Total depth of water required in 120 days = 10 × 12 = 120 cm
∆ for rice = 120 cm
Problem –2: If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the base period for
wheat is 140 days, find out the value of delta for wheat.

Solution:

No. of watering required = 140/28 = 5

Total depth of water required in 140 days = 7.5 × 5 = 37.5 cm
∆ for wheat = 37.5 cm

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Duty:
• It may be defined as the number of hectares of land irrigated for full growth of a given
cropby supply of 1 m3/s of water continuously during the entire base of that crop.
• Simply we can say that, the area (in hectares) of land can be irrigated for a crop period, B
(in days) using one cubic meter of water.
Factors on which duty depends:
1. Type of crop

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Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 81
 2. Climate and season
3. Useful rainfall
4. Type of soil
5. Efficiency of cultivation method

Importance of Duty
• It helps us in designing an efficient canal irrigation system.
• Knowing the total available water at the head of a main canal, and the overall duty for all
the crops required to be irrigated in different seasons of the year, the area which can be
irrigatedcan be worked out.
• Inversely, if we know the crops area required to be irrigated and their duties, we can work
out the discharge required for designing the channel.
Measures for improving duty of water:
The duty of canal water can certainly be improved by effecting economy in the use of water
by resorting to the following precautions and practices:
(1) Proper Ploughing:
Ploughing should be done properly and deeply so that the moisture retaining capacity of soil is
increased.
(2) Methods of supplying water:
The method of supplying water to the agriculture land should be decided according to the
field and soil conditions. For example,
◦ Furrow method For crops sown ion rows
◦ Contour method For hilly areas
◦ Basin For orchards
◦ Flooding For plain lands
(3) Canal Lining:
It is provided to reduce percolation loss and evaporation loss due to high velocity.
(4) Minimum idle length of irrigation Canals:
The canal should be nearest to the command area so that idle length of the canal is minimum
and hence reduced transmission losses.

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(5) Quality of water:
Good quality of water should be used for irrigation. Pollution en route the canal should be
avoided.

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 (6) Crop rotation:
The principle of crop rotation should be adopted to increase the moisture retaining capacity
and fertility of the soil.
Consumptive use of
cropsDefinition:
• It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area.
• It is the amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration
and building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation.
• It is expressed in terms of depth of water. Consumptive use varies with temperature,
humidity, wind speed, topography, sunlight hours, method of irrigation, moisture
availability.
Mathematically,
Consumptive Use = Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + transpiration
• It is expressed in terms of depth of water.
Factors Affecting the Consumptive Use of Water
Consumptive use of water varies with:

1. Evaporation which depends on humidity

2. Mean Monthly temperature

3. Growing season of crops and cropping pattern

4. Monthly precipitation in area

5. Wind velocity in locality

6. Soil and topography

7. Irrigation practices and method of irrigation

8. Sunlight hours

Types of Consumptive Water Use

Following are the types of consumptive use,

1. Optimum Consumptive Use

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 84
 2. Potential Consumptive Use
3. Seasonal Consumptive Use
1. Optimum Consumptive Use:
It is the consumptive use which produces a maximum crop yield.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 85

 2. Potential Consumptive Use:
If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully covering
the entire area then resulting evapotranspiration is known as Potential Consumptive Use.
3. Seasonal Consumptive Use:
The total amount of water used in the evapo-transpiration by a cropped area during the entire growing
season.

Crop Water Requirements

Soil moisture

Classes and availability of soil water

Water present in the soil may be to classified under three heads
1. Hygroscopic water
2. Capillary water
3. Gravitational water

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 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Water attached to soil particles through loose chemical bonds is termed hygroscopic water. This
water can be removed by heat only. But the plant roots can use a very small fraction of this soil
moisture under drought conditions.
Capillary water
The capillary water is held within soil pores due to the surface tension forces (against gravity)
which act at the liquid-vapour (or water-air) interface.

Gravitational water

Gravity water is that water which drains away under the influence of gravity. Soon after irrigation
(or rainfall), this water remains in the soil and saturates the soil, thus, preventing circulation of air
in the void spaces.

(1) Available moisture for the plant

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 87

(2) Readily available moisture for the plant = FC - Mo
Here FC= field capacity
φ = wilting point or wilting coefficient below plant can’t survive.

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 Mo= Readily available moisture content

(3) Frequency of Irrigation

(4)

where, weight of water stored in soil of unit area

Weight of some soil of unit area
dw= depth of water stored in root zone.

(5) dry unit wt. of soil

(6) Available moisture depth to plant

(7) Readily available moisture depth to plant

(8) where, G = specific gravity and n = porosity

Duty and delta

Duty:
• The duty of water is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of the
crop itmatures.
• It is defined as the area irrigated per cumec of discharge running for base period B.
• The duty is generally represent by D.
Delta:
• It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period and is
represented by the symbol Δ.

Relation between duty and delta

Where,
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 89
 ▪ Δ=Delta in meter
▪ D = Duty in Ha/cumec
▪ B = Base period in days

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 90

 Also
Where,
▪ Δ=Delta in meter
▪ B = Base period in days
▪ D = Duty in acre/cures

Irrigation Requirements of crops

(1) Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)

CIR = Cu- Peff
Where, Cu= total consumptive use requirement
Peff= Effective rainfall.
(2) Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
NIR = CIR + Leaching requirement
(3) Field irrigation requirement (FIR)

(4) Gross irrigation requirement, (GIR)

Methods of Determination of Evapotranspiration

To measure or estimation the consumptive use there are three main methods:
1. Direct Methods/Field Methods
2. Empirical Methods
3. Pan evaporation method

1. Direct Methods:
In this method field observations are made and physical model is used for this purpose. This
includes,
i. Vapour Transfer Method/Soil Moisture Studies
ii. Field Plot Method
[Link] and Lysimeter

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 iv. Integration Method/Summation Method
v. Irrigation Method
vi. Inflow Outflow Method

SURFACE IRRIGATION:

• Surface irrigation is defined as the group of application techniques where water is

appliedand distributed over the soil surface by gravity.

• It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world and has been
practicedin many areas virtually unchanged for thousands of years.

Surface irrigation:

There are four variations under this method viz.

1. Flooding,

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 2. Bed or border method (Saras and flat beds

3. Basin method (ring and basin) and

4. Furrow method (rides and furrows, broad ridges or raised beds)

Flooding:
• It consist of opening a water channel in a plot or field so that water can flow freely in
alldirections and cover the surface of the land in a continuous sheet.

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 • It is the most inefficient method of irrigation as only about 20 percent of the water is
actually used by plants. The rest being lost as a runoff, seepage and evaporation.
• Water distribution is very uneven and crop growth is not uniform. It is suitable for uneven
land where the cost of leveling is high and where a cheap and abundant supply of water is
available.
• It is unsuitable for crops that are sensitive to water logging the method suitable where
broadcast crops, particularly pastures, alfalfa, peas and small grains are produced.
Adaptations:

1. An abundant supply of water

2. Close growing crops

3. Soils that do not erode easily

4. Soils that is permeable

5. Irregular topography

6. Areas where water is cheap.

Advantages:

1. Can be used on shallow soils

2. Can be employed where expense of leveling is great

3. Installation and operation costs are low

4. System is not damaged by livestock and does not interfere with use of farm implements.

Disadvantages:

1. Excessive loss of water by run of and deep percolation

2. Excessive soil erosion on step land.

3. Fertilizer and FYM are eroded from the soil.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 94

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 95
Bed or border method (Sara and Flat beds or check basin):

• In this method the field is leveled and divided into small beds surrounded by bunds of 15
to 30 cm high. Small irrigation channels are provided between two adjacent rows of beds.

• The length of the bed varies from 30 meters for loamy soils to 90 meters for clayey soils.

• The width is so adjusted as to permit the water to flow evenly and wet the land uniformly.

• For high value crops, the beds may be still smaller especially where water is costly and not
very abundant.

• This method is adaptable to most soil textures except sandy soils and is suitable for high
value crops. It requires leveled land.

• It is more efficient in the use of water and ensures its uniform application. It is suitable for
crops plant in lines or sown by broadcast. Through the initial cost is high requires less
labourand low maintenance cost.

• This may also be called a sort of sara method followed locally in Maharashtra but the saras
to be formed in this method are much longer than broader.
Types of Border Irrigation

Two types of borders are formed :

• Straight Border

• These border are formed along the general slope of the field. These are preferred when
fieldscan be levelled or be given a gentle slope economically.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 96

Contour Border

• These are formed across the general slope of the field and are preferred when land
slopeexceeds the safe limits.

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 • As fields are undulating and require a lot of earth work to level, economical levelling is not
possible. Design criteria for both are not different.

Adaptations:

1. A large supply of water

2. Most soil textures including sandy Loam, loams and clays

3. Soil at least 90 cm deep

4. Suitable for close growing crops.

Advantages:

1. Fairly large supply of water is needed.

2. Land must be leveled

3. Suited only to soils that do not readily disperse.

4. Drainage must be provided

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 98

Basin irrigation:

• This method is suitable for orchids and other high value crops where the size of the plot
tobe irrigated is very small.

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 • The basin may be square, rectangular or circular shape. A variation in this method viz. ring
and basin is commonly used for irrigating fruit trees.

• A small bund of 15 to 22 cm high is formed around the stump of the tree at a distance of
about 30 to 60 cm to keep soil dry.

• The height of the outer bund varies depending upon the depth of water proposed to
retain. Basin irrigation also requires leveled land and not suitable for all types of soil. It is
also efficient in the use of water but its initial cost is high.

• There are many variations in its use, but all involve dividing the field into smaller unit areas
so that each has a nearly level surface. Bunds or ridges are constructed around the areas
forming basins within which the irrigation water can be controlled. Check basin types may
be rectangular, contour and ring basin.

Types of Check Basins Based on Size and Shape

The size of check basins may vary from one meters square, used for growing vegetables and other
intensive cultivation, to as large as one or two hectares or more, used for growing rice under wet
land conditions. While the following points need to be considered :

Rectangular

The basins are rectangular in shape when the land can be graded economically into nearly
level fields.

Contour

• The ridges follow the contours of the land surface and the contour ridges are connected by
cross ridges at intervals when there is rolling topography.

• The vertical interval between contour ridges usually varies fkom 6 to 12 cm in case of
upland irrigated crops like wheat and 15 to 30 cm in case of low land irrigated crops like
rice.

Adaptations:

1. Most soil texture

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 2. High value crops

3. Smooth topography.

4. High water value/ha

Advantages:

1. Varying supply of water

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 101

 2. No water loss by run off

3. Rapid irrigation possible

4. No loss of fertilizers and organic manures

5. Satisfactory

Disadvantages:

1. If land is not leveled initial cost may be high

2. Suitable mainly for orchids, rice, jute, etc.

3. Except rice, not suitable for soils that disperse easily and readily from a crust.

Furrow Method

• In this method, irrigation water is useful for row crops. Narrow channels are dug at
regularintervals. Water from the main supply is allowed to enter these small channels or
furrows.

• Water from the furrows infiltrates into soil and spread laterally to saturate the root zone
ofthe crops.

• It is suitable for row crops like potatoes, sugarcane, tobacco, maize, groundnut,
cotton,jowar, etc.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 102
• Row crops such as potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, vegetable etc. can be irrigated by
furrow method. Water is allowed to flow in furrow opened in crop rows.

• It is suitable for sloppy lands where the furrows are made along contours. The length
of furrow is determined mostly by soil permeability.

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 • It varies from 3 to 6 meters. In sandy and clay loams, the length is shorter than in clay and
clay loams. Water does not come in contact with the plant stems.

• There is a great economy in use of water. Some times, even in furrow irrigation the field is
divided into beds having alternate rides and furrows. On slopes of 1 to 3 percent, furrow
irrigation with straight furrows is quite successful.

• But on steeper slopes contour furrows, not only check erosion but ensure uniform water
penetration.

Irrigation furrows may be classified into two general types based on their alignment. They are :

(a) straight furrows, and

(b) contour furrows.

Straight Furrows

• They are best suited to sites where the land slope does not exceed 0.75 per cent. In areas of
intense rainfall, however, the furrow grade should not exceed 0.5 per cent so as to
minimise the erosion hazard.

• The range in furrow slopes for efficient irrigation in different soil types are the same as
thoserecommended for borders.

Contour Furrows

• Contour furrows carry water across a slopping field rather than the slope. Contour furrows
are curved to fitthe topography of the land.

• Contour furrow method can be successfully used in nearly all irrigable soils. The limitations
of straight furrow are overcome by contouring to include slopping lands. Light soils can be
irrigated successfully across slopes up to 5 per cent.

Adaptations:

1. Medium and fine textured soils.

2. Variable water supply

3. Farms with only small amount of equipment.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 104

Advantages:

1. High water efficiency

2. Can be used in any row crop

3. Relatively easy in stall

4. Not expensive to maintain

5. Adapted to most soils.

Disadvantages:

1. Requirement of skilled labour is more

2. A hazard to operation of machinery

3. Drainage must be provided.

Contour farming

• Contour farming involves ploughing, planting and weeding along the contour, i.e, across
theslope rather than up and down.

• Contour lines are lines that run across a (hill) slope such that the line stays at the
sameheight and does not run uphill or downhill.

• As contour lines travel across a hillside, they will be close together on the steeper parts
ofthe hill and further apart on the gentle parts of the slope.

• Experiments show that contour farming alone can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50%
onmoderate slopes.

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 • However, for slopes steeper than 10%, other measures should be combined with
contourfarming to enhance its effectiveness.

Benefits :

1. Contouring can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50% from up and down hill
farming

2. By reducing sediment and run off and increasing water infiltration

3. Contouring promotes better water quality

4. It gives 10-15% additional yield.

Criteria for Surface Irrigation Method Selection

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 106

 6. Adapted to most soils.

Disadvantages:

4. Requirement of skilled labour is more

5. A hazard to operation of machinery

6. Drainage must be provided.

Contour farming

• Contour farming involves ploughing, planting and weeding along the contour, i.e, across
theslope rather than up and down.

• Contour lines are lines that run across a (hill) slope such that the line stays at the
sameheight and does not run uphill or downhill.

• As contour lines travel across a hillside, they will be close together on the steeper parts
ofthe hill and further apart on the gentle parts of the slope.

• Experiments show that contour farming alone can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50%
onmoderate slopes.

• However, for slopes steeper than 10%, other measures should be combined with
contourfarming to enhance its effectiveness.

Benefits :

1. Contouring can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50% from up and down hill
farming

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 2. By reducing sediment and run off and increasing water infiltration

3. Contouring promotes better water quality

4. It gives 10-15% additional yield.

Criteria for Surface Irrigation Method Selection

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 • The deciding factors for the suitability of any surface irrigation method are natural
conditions (slope, soil type), type of crop, required depth of application, level of
technology,previous experiences with irrigation, required labour input.

• Moreover the irrigation system for a field must be compatible with the existing farming
operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvesting practices.

• The following outline lists a number of factors of the environment which will have a
bearing on the evaluation of irrigation system alternates and the selection of a particular
system.

• Not all points will be equally significant in each case, but the outline can serve as a useful
checklist to prevent overlooking important factors.

Physical Factors

• Crops and cultural practices are of prime importance while selecting an irrigation system.

• Hence, proper knowledge of agronomic practices and irrigation intervals is necessary for
proper use of irrigation water and to increase water use efficiency.

• The following physical factors need to be given due consideration.

Crop Parameters

• Tolerance of the crop to soil salinity during development and maturation.

• Magnitude and temporal distribution of water necessary for maximum production.

• Economic value of crop.

Soils Parameters

• Texture and structure;infiltration rate and erosion potential;salinity and internal drainage,
bearing strength.

• Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. Under these
circumstances, sprinkler or drip irrigation are more suitable than surface irrigation. Clay
soils with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation.

• High intake characteristicrequire higher flow rate to achieve the same uniformity and
efficiency.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 109

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 110
 • Location and relative elevation of water source – water diversion, pumping

• Acreage in each field

• Location of roads, natural gas lines, electricity lines, water lines and other obstructions.

• Shape of field – non rectangular shapes are more difficult to design for

• Field slope – steepness & regularity

• Furrow&borders 2-6% maximum

Climate and Weather Conditions

• Under very windy conditions, drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred.

• Scalding (the disruption of oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange between the atmosphere

and the root)& the effect of water temperature on the crop at different stages of growth -risk
in basin irrigation.

• Irrigation with cold water early in the spring can delay growth, whereas in the hot periods
of the summer, it can cool the environment— both of which can be beneficial or
detrimental in somecases.

Water Supply

The following parameters are important:

1. Source and delivery schedule

2. Water quantity available and its reliability

3. Water quality

4. Water table in case of ground water source.

5. Availability and Reliability of Electricity

6. Availability and reliability of energy for pumping of water is of

muchimportance.
Economic Considerations

The following points need to be considered while selecting irrigation alternatives.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 111

 1. Capital investment required and recurring cost.

2. Credit availability and interest rate.

3. Life of irrigation system, efficiency and cost economics.

Social Considerations

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 112

 • The education and skill of common farmers and labours available for handling the irrigation
system

• Social understanding of handling of cooperative activities and sharing of water resources

• Legal and political considerations, local cooperation and support, availability and skill of
labour and level of automatic control

Suitability and Limitations of Surface Irrigation Methods

• Some form of surface irrigation is adaptable to almost any vegetable crop. Basin and
border strip irrigation have been successfully used on a wide variety of crops.

• Furrow irrigation is less well adapted to field crops if cultural practices require travel across
the furrows. However, it is widely used in vegetables like potato.

• Basin and border strip irrigations flood the soil surface, and will cause some soils to form a
crust, which may inhibit the sprouting of seeds.

• Surface irrigation systems perform better when soils are uniform, since the soil controls
the intake of water. For basin irrigation, basin size should be appropriate for soil texture
and infiltration rate.

• Basin lengths should be limited to 100 m on very coarse textured soils, but may reach 400
m on other soils. Furrow irrigation is possible with all types of soils, but extremely high or
low intake rate soils require excessive labor or capital cost adjustments that are seldom
economical.

• A major cost in surface irrigation is that of land grading or leveling. The cost is directly
related to the volume of earth that must be moved, the area to be finished, and the length and
size of farm canals.

MICRO IRRIGATION METHOD

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 113

• To surmount the problem, micro irrigation methods h8s recently been introduced in Indian
agriculture.

• These methods save a substantial amount of water and helps increasing crop productivity
particularly valuable cash crops like vegetables.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 114

 • The research results have confirmed a substantial saving of water ranging between 40
to 80% and there are reports of two times yield increase for different crops crops by using
micro irrigation.

Two main micro irrigation systems are :

Advantages of Micro Irrigation

(a) Water saving, possibility of using saline water.

(b) Efficient and economic use of fertilizers.

(c) Easy installation, flexibility in operation.

(d) Suitable to all types of land terrain also suitable to waste lands.

(e) Enhanced plant growth and yield and uniform and better quality of produce.

(f) Less weed growth.

(g) Labour saving.

(h) No soil erosion, saves land as no bunds, etc. are required.

(i) Minimum diseases and pest infestation.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

• In sprinkler irrigation, water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network to sprinklers

nozzles or jets which spray the water into the air.

• To fall to the soil in an artificial "rain". The basic components of any sprinkler systems are :
a water source. a pump to pressurize the water.

• A pipe network to distribute the water throughout the field. sprinklers to spray the water
over the ground, and valves to control the flow of water.

• The sprinklers when properly spaced give a relatively uniform application of water over the
irrigated area.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 115

 Components
of
Sprinkler irrigation System

• Sprinkler systems are usually fthere are some exceptions) designed to apply water at a
lower rate than the soil infiltration rate so that the amount of water infiltrated at any point
depends upon the application rate and time of application but not the soil infiltration rate.

General Classification of Sprinkler Systems

Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the basis of the arrangement
for spraying irrigation water.

(a) Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.

(b) Perforated pipe system.

Components of Sprinkler Irrigation System

Sprinkler system usually consists of the following components :

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 116
 (a) A pump unit

(b) Tubings-main/sub-mains and laterals

(c) Couplers

(d) Sprinker head

(e) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 117

Suitability and Limitations

With regards to crops, soils, and topography nearly all crops can be irrigated with some type of
sprinkler system though the characteristics of the crop especially the height, must be considered in
system selection.

Sprinklers are sometimes used to germinate seed and establish ground cover for crops like lettuce
alfalfa and sod.

The light frequent applications that are desirable for this purpose are easily achieved with some
sprinkler systems.

Sprinklers are applicable to soils that are too shallow to permit surface shaping or too variable for
efficient surface irrigation.

In general, sprinklers can be used on any topography that can be formed. Land leveling is not
normally required.

With regards to labour and energy considerations, it has been observed that labour requirements
vary depending on the degree of automation and mechanization of the equipment used.

Hand-move systems require the least degree of skill, but the greatest amount of labor.

Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

The followings are the advantages of sprinkler irrigation :

(a) Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss.

(b) Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay, suitable for irrigating crops where the
plant population per unit area is very high. It is most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal
and vegetable crops.

(c) Water saving, closer control of water application convenient for giving light and
frequentirrigation and higher water application efficiency.

(d) Increase in yield.

(e) Mobility of system.

(f) May also be used for undulating area, saves land as no bunds etc. are required, areas
located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 118

 (g) Influences greater conducive micro-climate.

(h) Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.

(i) Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden

water

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 119

Capacity of Sprinkler System

The capacity of the sprinkler system may be calculated by the formula :

Where,

Q = Discharge capacity of the pump, liter/second,

A = Area to be irrigated, hectares,

d = Net depth of water application, cm,

F = Number of days allowed for the completion of

one irrigation,

H = Number of actual operation hours per day, and

E = Water Application Efficiency in %

DRIP IRFUGATION

• Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or microirrigation is an irrigation method

which minimizes the use of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the
roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a
network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.

• It is becoming popular for row crop irrigation. This system is used in place of water scarcity
as it minimizes conventional losses such as deep percolation, evaporation and run-off or
recycled water is used for irrigation.

• Small diameter plastic pipes fitted with emitters or drippers at selected spacing to deliver
the required quantity of water are used. Drip irrigation may also use devices called micro-
spray heads, which spray water in a small area, instead of dripping emitters.

• Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) uses permanently or temporarily buried drip per line or drip
tape located at or below the plant roots.

• Pump and valves may be manually or automatically operated by a controller Drip irrigation
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 120
 is the slow, frequent application of water to the soil though emitters placed along a water
delivery line.

• The term drip irrigation is general, and includes several more specific methods. Drip
irrigation applies the water through small emitters to the soil surface, usually at or near the
plant to be irrigated.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 121

 • Subsurface irrigation is the application of water below the soil surface. Emitter
dischargerates for drip and subsurface irrigation are generally less than 12 liters per hour.

Components of Drip Irrigation System (Listed in Order from Water Source)

(a) Pump or pressurised water source.

(b) Water Filter(s) - Filtration Systems : Sand Separator, Cyclone, Screen Filter, Media
Filters.

(c) Fertigation Systems (Venturi injector).

(d) Backwash Controller.

(e) Main Line (larger diameter Pipe and Pipe Fittings).

(f) Hand-operated, electronic, or hydraulic Contvl Valves and Safety Valves.

(g) Smaller diameter polytube (often referred to as "laterals").

(h) Poly fittings and Accessories (to make connections).

(i) Emitting Devices at plants (Example : Emitter or Drippers, micro spray heads, inline
drippers, trickle rings).

Suitabi1ity:and Limitation

(a) From stand point of crops, soil, and topography, drip irrigation is best suited for tree, vine, and
row crops. A lot of research work has been conducted to establish the suitability of drip irrigation

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 122

for different vegetable crops. Drip irrigation has been found suitable both for field vegetable
crops and also under covered cultivation practices.

(b) With respect to water quantity and quality, drip irrigation uses a slower rate of water
application over a longer period of time than other irrigation methods. The most economical
design would have

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 123

 water flowing into the farm area throughout most of the day, every day, during peak use periods. If
water is not available on a continuous basis, on-farm water storage may be necessary.

(c) Though a form of pressurized irrigation, drip is a low pressure, low flow rate method. These
conditions require small flow channel openings in the emission devices, which are prone to
plugging.

(d) High efficiencies are USP of drip irrigation system. Properly designed and maintained drip
systems are capable of high efficiencies. Design efficiencies should be on the order of 90 to 95%.

(e) Labour and energy considerations are very important consideration in drip irrigation system.
Due to their low flow characteristics, drip irrigation systems usually have few sub-units, and are
designed for long irrigation times.

(f) Drip irrigation systems generally use less energy than other forms of pressurized irrigation
systems. The emission devices usually operate at pressures ranging from 5 to 25 PSI. Additional
pressure is required to compensate for pressure losses through the control head (filters and
control valves) and the pipe network.

(g) Economic factors need special attention in case drip irrigation system as initial cost
and operational cost is reasonably high. Drip systems costs can vary greatly. Depending on crop
(plant. and therefore. emitter and hose spacings) and type of hose employed (permanent or
"disposable" thin-walled tubing).

Advantages

The advantages of drip irrigation are :

1. Minimised fertilizerlnutrient loss due to localized application and reduced leaching, allows
safe use of recycled water.

2. High water distribution efficiency. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field
capacity.

3. Leveling of the field not necessary. Soil type plays less important role in frequency of
irrigation, minimised soil erosion.

4. Highly uniform distribution of water, i.e. controlled by output of each nozzle.

5. Lower labour cost.

6. Early maturity and good harvest.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 124

 7. Foliage remains dry thus reducing the risk of disease.

Performance
Conventional Irrigation Methods Drip Irrigation
Indicator
Water saving Waste lot of water. Losses occur due to 40-70% of water can be saved over
percolation, runoff and evaporation conventional irrigation methods. Runoff
and deep percolation losses are nil or

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 125

 negligible.
Water use efficiency 30-50%, because losses are very high 80-95%
Saving in Labour engaged per irrigation is higher Labour required only for operation and
labour than drip periodic maintenance of the system
Weed Less wetting of soil, weed infestation is
Weed infestation is very high
infestation very less or almost nil.
Concentration of salts increases and
Frequent irrigation keeps the salt
Use of saline adversely affects the plant growth.
concentration within root zone below
water Saline water cannot be used for
harmful level
irrigation
Diseases and Relatively less because of less
High
pest problems atmospheric humidity
Suitability in Deep percolation is more in light soil
Suitable for all soil types as flow rate can
different soil and with limited soil depths. Runoff loss
be controlled
Type is more in heavy soils
Water control Inadequate Very precise and easy
Efficiency of Efficiency is low because of heavy Very high due to reduced loss of nutrients
fertilizer use losses due to leaching and runoff through leaching and runoff water
Partial wetting of soil surface and slow
Soil erosion is high because of large
Soil erosion application rates eliminate any possibility
stream sizes used for irrigation.
of soil erosion
Frequent watering eliminates moisture
Increase in crop Non-uniformity in available moisture stress and yield can be increased up to
yield reducing the crop yield 15- 150% as compared to conventional
methods of irrigation.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 126

 Extent of Water Saving and Increase in Yield with Drip Irrigation Systems

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 127

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 128
 Check Basin Irrigation : In this irrigation system, water is applied to a completely level or dead
level area enclosed by dikes or boarders.

Furrow Irrigation : Furrows are sloping channels formed in the soil. Infiltration occurs laterally
and vertically through the wetted perimeter of the furrow and plants get water in its root zone.

Sprinkler Irrigation : In this system of irrigation, water is delivered through a pressurised pipe
network to sprinklers nozzle or jets which spray water into the air.

Drip Irrigation : It minimises the use of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to
the roots of plants.

Fertigation : It is the process of application of water soluble solid fertilizer or liquid fertilizer
through drip irrigation system.

Water distribution system

Irrigation water inay be applied to crops either by flooding the field. by applying water beneath the
soil surface, by spraying it under pressure. or by applying it in drops. Selection of the suitable
method, from among these methods, depends on topography. soil condition, land preparation, type
of crop and its value. available water supply and other factors

CHECK BASIN IRRIGATION

Check basin irrigation or simply basin irrigation is the simplest available mode of irrigation and
commonly practised in India end other countries. The principle underlying this system involves
dividing tile field or fanil into smaller unit areas such that each has a nearly level surface.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 129

Methods to Apply Irrigation Water to check Basins
There are two methods to supply imgation water to check basins, namely, direct method, and
cascade inetliod.
In the direct method. irrigation water is led dircctly from thc field channel into the basins through
siphons. or bund breaks, basin A is irrigated first and then basin B and so on. This method can bc
used for most crop types. and is also suitable for nlost type of soil.

Direct Method
The other method. namely, the cascade method is suitable for sloping land where terraces are used.
In this method, the irrigation water is supplied to the highest terrace, and then allowed to flow to a
lower terrace and so on. In Figure water is supplied to tlie tcrrace A1 until tlie lowest terrace A3 is
fillcd. Tlie supply to A1 is tlien closed and irrigation water is diverted to terrace B1 until B I, B2
and B3 are filled, and so on.

Cascade Method
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 130
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 131
 • About 5% of sand by volume is added to the dug up soil and mixed well.
• The pit is then filled back with the mixture and while filling up every 15 cm layer is well
compacted, so that the soil in the pit retains the original bulk density as that of
surrounding soil.
• Crop is sown normally and is allowed to grow as usual with the rest of the field.
• As and when the plants in the mini-plot show wilting symptoms it is taken as a warning of
impending water need and cropped field is irrigated.
Plant population
• Increase in plant population by 1.5 to 2.0 times that of optimum
• This happens because when more plants are there per unit area, the available water
withinthat zone is depleted rapidly as compared to other area
• This result in drooping or wilting of plants earlier, which can be taken as an indication of
water deficits and accordingly irrigations are scheduled to crops.
Rate of growth
• Growth of a plant is dependent on turgor, which in turn is dependent on a favourable
soilwater balance.
• So fluctuations in the water balance are reflected by parallel fluctuations in the growth
rateof expanding organs.
• Stem elongation is markedly reduced when the available soil moisture level approaches
thecritical level, but accelerates again after irrigation.
Canopy temperatureIndicator plants
• In wheat, scheduling irrigations on the basis of wilting symptoms in maize and
sunflowergave the highest grain yields.

Critical growth stages

• The crop plants in their life cycle pass through various phases of growth, some of which
arecritical for water supply.
• The most critical stage of crop growth is the one at which a high degree of water
stresswould cause maximum loss in yield.
Irrigation Efficiencies
• Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is usually expressed

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 132

aspercentage.
• Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if Losses are more, output is less
and,therefore, efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional to the losses.
• Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and, therefore, there are different kinds
ofirrigation efficiencies, as given below

• Efficiency of Water-conveyance

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 133

 • Efficiency of Water Application

• Efficiency of Water Use

• Efficiency of water storage

• Water Distribution Efficiency

Efficiency of Water-conveyance (ηc)

• It is the ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the outlet point of the channel, to the
water entering into the channel at its starting point. It may be represented by ηc. It takes the
conveyance or transit losses into consideration.

ηc = (Wf/Wr) X 100

Where
▪ ηc= Water conveyance efficiency,
▪ Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot at field supply Channel,

▪ Wr = Water diverted from the source ( river or reservoir )

Efficiency of Water Application (ηa)

• It is ratio of water stored into the root zone of the crop to the quantity of water delivered at
thefield (Farm).

ηa =W s/Wf X 100

Where,

▪ ηa = Water application efficiency,

▪ Ws = Water stored at the root zone during the irrigation

▪ Wf = Water delivered to the farm.

Efficiency of Water Use (ηu)

• It is the ratio of the water beneficially used including leaching water, to the Quantity
ofwater delivered. It may be represented by ηu
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg ηu = (Wu/Wd)134
X 100
 Where,

▪ ηu = Water use efficiency,

▪ Wu = Beneficial use of water or consumptive.
▪ Wa = Water delivered to the field.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 135

Efficiency of water storage: (ηs)

• The concept of water storage efficiency gives an insight to how completely the
requiredwater has been stored in the root zone during irrigation.

ηs = (Ws/Wn )X 100
Where,

▪ ηs= Water storage efficiency,

▪ Ws = water stored in the root zone during irrigation.
▪ Wn = Water need in the root zone prior to irrigation.
Water Distribution Efficiency (ηd)

Water distribution efficiency evaluates the degree to which water is uniformly distributed
throughout the root zone. Uneven distribution has many undesirable results. The more uniformly
the water is distributed , the better will be crop response.

ηd =100 (1-y/d)
Where,

▪ ηd= Water distribution efficiency,

▪ y= avg numerical deviation in depth of water stored from avg depth stored in the
rootzone during irrigation
▪ d = Avg depth of water stored during irrigation..

Consumptive use Efficiency (ηcu)

It is the ratio of consumptive use of water to the water depleted from the root zone.

ηcu = (Wcu/Wd)X 100

Where,

▪ ηcu= Consumptive use efficiency,

▪ Wcu= Nominal consumptive use of water
▪ Wd = Net amount of water depleted from the root zone soil.
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 136
 ****************

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 137

 CHAPTER-3
3.1 FLOW IRRIGATION

3.1.1 Canal Irrigation

Irrigation canal is an artificial channel that is the main waterway that brings irrigation water from
a water source to the area to be irrigated.
They can be lined with concrete, brick, stone or a flexible membrane to prevent seepage and
erosion.

3.1.2 Classification of Canals based on Different Factors

A canal is an artificial channel constructed to convey water from rivers, reservoirs, etc. for several
purposes like power generation, navigation, irrigation, etc. Canals are classified into different types
based on factors such as nature of supply source, functions, type of boundary surface, financial
output, discharge capacity and alignment of the canal.
3.1.3 Classification of Canals based on Different Factors
Canals are classified into different types based on factors which are as follows:
1. Based on the nature of the supply source
2. Based on functions
3. Based on the type of boundary surface soil
4. Based on the financial output
5. Based on discharge
6. Based on canal alignment

3.2 Based on the Nature of Supply Source

1. Permanent Canal
2. Inundation Canal
1. Permanent Canal
A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which water is available throughout the year. This
type of canal is generally directed from a permanent source of supply water bodies. Several
Permanent hydraulic structures are constructed in this type of canal for water regulation
and distribution. A Permanent canal can also be called as a perennial canal.
2. Inundation Canal
Inundation canal is a type of canal in which water is available only during the flood periods. These type of
canals are taken off from rivers to control the water level in rivers during floods. A canal head regulator is
provided to regulate the flow into the canal. Based on Functions of Canal 1. Irrigation canal 2. Power canal 3.
Feeder canal 4. Carrier canal 5. Navigation canal
1. Irrigation canal A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply water for the
purpose of agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.
2. Power canal A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power is termed as power canal.
3. Feeder canal As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other canals or branch
canals.
4. Carrier canal A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both irrigation canal and
feeder canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other canals as well as provides water for direct irrigation.

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 138

5. Navigation canal A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is known as
navigation canal. The water level required in a navigation canal is generally a lot higher to accommodate
large ships, vessels, etc
3.3 Based on Type of Boundary Surface of Canal
1. Alluvial canal 2. Non-alluvial canal 3. Rigid Surface canal
1. Alluvial canal If the canal is excavated in alluvial soils such as silt, sand, gravel, etc. then it is said to be an
alluvial canal.

2. Non-alluvial canal If the boundary surface of the canal is of non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, rock, etc.
then it is said to be a non-alluvial canal.
3. Rigid Surface canal Rigid surface canals also come under non-alluvial canals but here the boundary surface
of the canal is lined artificially with a hard layer of lining material such as cement, concrete, stones, etc.
3.4 Based on Discharge

1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary canal
4. Minor distributary canal
5. Field canal
1. Main canal
The main canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir. It carries water in large amounts to feed the
branch and distributary canals. Due to conveying of very high discharge through the main canal it is not
recommended to do direct irrigation from it.
2. Branch Canal
The branch canal takes off from main canals at regular intervals. These canals supply water to major and
minor distributary canals. The discharge of the branch canal is generally over 5 m3
/sec.
In the case of branch canals also, direct irrigation is not recommended unless their water carrying capacity is
very low.
3. Major Distributary Canal
Major distributary canal takes off from the branch canal or in some cases from the main canal. They supply
water to minor distributaries and field channels. A canal is said to be major distributary when its discharge
lies between 0.25 to 5 m3
/sec.
4. Minor Distributary Canal
Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes directly from branch canals
depending upon the discharge of canals. Their discharge is generally below 0.25 m3
/sec.
These canals supply water to the field channels.
5. Field Channels
Field channels also known as watercourses are small channels excavated by cultivators in the irrigation field.
These channels are fed by the distributary canals and branch canals through canal outlets.
Based on Canal Alignment

1. Ridge canal
2. Contour canal
3. Side-slope canal
1. Ridge Canal
A canal aligned along the ridgeline or watershed line of an area is said to be ridge canal or watershed canal.
Since it is running at the peak altitude of the area, irrigation on both sides of the canal up to a larger extent of
the area is possible. There is no interception of natural drains on ridge lines hence, no cross drainage works
are required for this type of canal.
2. Contour Canal
Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 139
A canal aligned roughly parallel to the contours of the area is called a contour canal. This type of canal can be
seen in hilly regions. Since it is parallel to the contour line, the ground on one side of the canal is higher and
hence irrigation is possible only on the other side of the canal. A contour canal has to pass the drainage and
hence cross drainage works are required to be provided.

3. Side-slope Canal
A canal aligned nearly perpendicular to the contour of the area is called a side-slope canal. It is located
neither on the ridgeline nor on the valley line but is approximately in between them. It is parallel to the
natural drainage line and hence no cross drainage works are required. The bed slope of side slope canal is
very steep

Losses of water in canals

When water continuously flow through a canal, losses takes place due to seepage,
deep percolation and evaporation. These losses should be properly accounted for ,
otherwise lesser quantity of water will be available for agriculture. Water loss in
canal can be broadly classified under 3 categories.
a) Evaporation loss
b) Transpiration loss(through the weeds and vegetation on the bank of the
channels)
c) Percolation loss
(a)Evaporation Losses
The loss due to evaporation is generally a small percentage of total loss in canal. It hardly
exceeds 1 to 2 % of total water entering into a canal. The evaporation loss depends upon

(i) Climatic factor :-Temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.

(ii) Canal factors:-Water surface area ,water depths, velocity of flow etc. Maximum
losses in there summer season , when temperature is high and wind velocity are also high.
Similarly losses are maximum in canals due to wider surface area ,swallower water depths
and low velocity. The average evaporation loss per day may vary from 4 mm to 10 mm.

(b) Transpiration Loss

There is a little loss of water through the plants, vegetation and the weeds on the bank of
the canal. However this can be controlled by keeping the banks clean from the growth of
vegetation and the weeds.
(c) Percolation losses
Percolation loss constitute major portion of loss in a canal. The seepage losses are due to

Perennial irrigation
In perennial system of irrigation, constant and continuous water supply is ensured
to the crop in accordance with the crop requirements, throughout the crop period.
In this system of irrigation, water is supplied through storage canal head works
and canal distribution system.

Canal Alignment
A canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be irrigated, with
shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including cost of drainage works is minimum.
A shorter length of canal ensures less loss of head due

Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 140

to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to seepage and evaporation, so that additional area
may be brought under cultivation. A canal may be aligned as a contour canal, a side slope canal or
a ridge canal according to the type of terrain and culturable area.
Irrigation canals can be aligned in any of the three ways:

(i) Watershed Canal

(ii) Contour Canal
(iii) Side slope Canal

Watershed Canal
The dividing line between the catchment area of two drains or streams is called watershed. Thus
between two major streams, there is the main watershed which divides the drainage areas of the two.
Similarly , between any tributary and the main stream and also between any two tributaries there are
subsidiary watersheds, dividing the drainage between the two streams on either side.
For canal system in plain areas, it is often necessary as well as advantageous to align all channels on
the watersheds of the areas, they are designed to irrigate. The canal which is aligned along any natural
watershed, is called a watershed canal. In such a canal, water flows by gravity, either side of the canal,
directly or through small irrigation channels.
Moreover, cross drainage works avoided as the natural drainage will never cross a watershed, because
all the drainage flows away from the watershed. Sometimes watershed may have to abandoned in
order to bypass localities settled on the watershed.
(Alignment of a watershed canal aligned along the watershed)
Contour Canal
The above arrangement of providing the watershed is not possible in hilly areas. In the hills, the river
flows in the valley, while the watershed or the ridge line may be hundreds of meters above it. It
becomes uneconomical to take the canal on top of such ridge. The canal in such cases, is generally
aligned parallel to the contours of the area except that the longitudinal slopes required to generate
sufficient flow velocity , are given to it.
The maximum designed slope that can be provided in the canal without generating excessive velocity,
is generally less the available country slope. The difference is accommodated by providing canal falls
at suitable places. A contour channel irrigates only on one side because the areas on the other side is
higher.
As the drainage flow is at right angle to the ground contours, such a channel would definitely have to
cross drainage lines. Suitable cross drainage works are then provided.

Side slope Canal

A side slope channel is that which is aligned at right angles to the contours. i.e. along the side slopes.
Such a channel is parallel to the natural drainage flow and hence, doesn’t intercept cross drainage and
no cross drainage works are required.

Canal lining
Canal Linings are provided in canals to resist the flow of water through its bed and sides. These can be
constructed using impervious or fairly impervious lining material of sufficient strength such as
compacted earth, cement, concrete, plastics, boulders, bricks etc. The main advantage of canal lining is
to protect the water from seepage loss.
Advantages of Canal Lining

Seepage Reduction
Prevention of Water Logging

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 Increase in Commanded Area
Increase in Channel Capacity
Less Maintenance
Safety Against Floods
1. Seepage Reduction
The main purpose behind the lining of canal is to reduce the seepage losses. In some
soils, the seepage loss of water in unlined canals is about 25 to 50% of total water supplied. The cost of canal lining is high
but it is justifiable for its efforts in saving of
most of the water from seepage losses. Canal lining is not necessary if seepage losses
are very small.
2. Prevention of Water Logging
Water logging is caused due to phenomenal rise in water table due to uncontrolled seepage in an unlined canal. This seepage
effects the surrounding ground water table
and makes the land unsuitable for irrigation. So, this problem of water logging can
be surely prevented by providing proper lining to the canal sides.
3. Increase in Commanded Area
Commanded area is the area which is suitable for irrigation purpose. The water
carrying capacity of lined canal is much higher than the unlined canal and hence
more area can be irrigated using lined canals.
4. Increase in Channel Capacity
Canal lining can also increase the channel capacity. The lined canal surface is
generally smooth and allows water to flow with high velocity compared to unlined
channel. Higher the velocity of flow greater is the capacity of channel and hence
channel capacity will increase by providing lining.
On the other side with this increase in capacity, channel dimensions can also be
reduce to maintain the previous capacity of unlined canal which saves the cost of the project.
5. Less Maintenance
Maintenance of lined canal is easier than unlined canals. Generally there is a problem
of silting in unlined canal which removal requires huge expenditure but in case of
lined canals, because of high velocity of flow, the silt is easily carried away by the
water.
In case of unlined canals, there is a chance of growth of vegetation on the canal
surface but not in case of lined canals. The vegetation affect the velocity of flow and
water carrying capacity of channel. Lined canal also prevents damage of canal surface
due to rats or insects.
6. Safety against Floods
A line canal always withstand against floods while unlined canal may not resists and
also there is chance of occurring of breach which damages the whole canal as well as surrounding areas or fields. But among
the all concrete canal linings are good against floods or high velocity flows.
Types of Canal Linings
Canal linings are classified into two major types based on the nature of surface and they are:

1. Earthen type lining

2. Hard surface lining
1. Earthen Type lining
Earthen Type lings are again classified into two types and they are as follows:
Compacted Earth Lining
Soil Cement Lining
Compacted Earth Lining
Compacted earth linings are preferred for the canals when the earth is available near the site of
construction or In-situ. If the earth is not available near the site then it becomes costlier to
construct compacted earth lining.
Compaction reduces soil pore sizes by displacing air and water. Reduction in void size increases

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the density, compressive strength and shear strength of the soil and reduces permeability. This is
accompanied by a reduction in volume and settlement of the surface. Proper compaction is essential to
increase the stability and frost resistance (where required) and to decrease erosion and seepage losses.
: Compacted Earth Lining
Soil Cement Lining
Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement and water, which harden to a
concrete-like material. The cement content should be minimum 2-8% of the soil by volume. However,
larger cement contents are also used.
In general, for the construction of soil-cement linings following two methods are used.
Dry-mix method
Plastic mix method
For erosion protection and additional strength in large channels, the layer of soil-cement is sometimes
covered with coarse soil. It is recommended the soil-cement lining should be protected from the weather
for seven days by spreading approximately 50 mm of soil, straw or hessian bags over it and keeping the
cover moistened to allow proper curing. Water sprinkling should continue for 28 days following
installation.

1. Cross-section of an irrigation canal

1.1 Components of cross-section:
1) Side slopes
2) Berms
3) Freeboard
4) Banks
5) Service roads
6) Back Berm or Counter Berms
7) Spoil Banks
8) Borrow Pits

Side Slopes: The side slopes should be such that they are stable, dependingupon the type
of the soil. A comparatively steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in filling,
as the soil in the former case shall be more stable.

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Hydraulics and irrigation Engg 144
 Advantage of Berms:
a) Help the channel to attain regime conditions.
b) Give additional strength to the banks and provide protection againsterosion
and breaches.
c) Protect the banks from erosion due to wave action.
d) Provide a scope for future expansions of the canal.

2) Freeboard: The margin between FSL (full supply level) and bank

level is known as freeboard. The amount of freeboard depends upon the size of the
channel. The generally provided values of freeboard are given in the table below:

Banks: The primary purpose of banks in to remain water. This can be used as means of
communication and as inspection paths. They should be wide enough, so that a minimum cover
of 0.50 m is available above the saturation line.

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 CHAPTER-4
WATER LOGGING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
When water table reaches upto or near to ground level then such a land is called as water logged. Due to
water logging productivity of land gets affected. Water logging can be also referred as saturation of soil
with excess of water.

4.2 Effects of water logging :

1. Creation of anaerobic conditions near the root zone :
Excess of water prevents circulation of air. This will destroy bacteria which will thrive oy under aerobic conditions and
ultimately leads in reduction of nitrates and other chemicals and thus affects the yield of crops.
2. Normal cultivation operations such as tilting, ploughing cannot be easily carried out.
3. Water logging leads to salinity
Various salts comes to the ground surface along with water resulting in deposition of salts in root zone of crop.
Concentration of these salts has a corroding effects on the roots, which reduces osmotic activity of the plants and thus
reduces the plant growth and the plants ultimately fades away. Such soil is called as saline soil. Also Read : Bearing
Capacity of Soil and Its Importance

4.3 Causes of water logging.

Over and intensive irrigation.
Improper drainage of the surface runoff which results in rise in water table by percolation. Infiltration
of water into soil from nearby rivers.
Nature or subsoil which may not allow free and easy flow of subsoil water.
Seepage of water from canals.
Submergence of the area by floods.
Excess of rainfall.
Irregular or flat ground profile.
Bad effect on community health due to damp climate and breeding conditions for mosquitoes.

4.4 Methods to control water logging.

1. Adequate surface drainage :
Quick removal of rain water by suitable surface or open drain is very important measure.
2. Efficient under-drain :
Providing tile drains at suitable depths below the surface of the ground to dispose of excess of subsoil water.
3. Controlling loss of water by seepage from the canals :
This includes lowering the F.S.L of the canal. By lining the canal with suitable impervious material. By using irrigation
water economically and keeping the intensity of irrigation flow.
4. Increasing the outflow and preventing the inflow :
This is effected by improving the flow conditions of the existing natural drainage and providing artificial open or
subsurface grid.

5. Changing the system of irrigation :

If the system of irrigation is not proper for the given area then it is very much important to change the irrigation system
as per the conditions

6. Pumping out surplus water :

To prevent the water logging of land it is very much important to pump out the excess of surplus water from time to time
to maintain the fertility and productivity of the land.

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7. Prevention of seepage from reservoir :
Reservoir’s should be properly maintained to prevent the seepage of water from the reservoir.

8. Lining of field channels :

Proper lining of canals and channels should be done. If the channel is made proper watertight by providing
lining then seepage loss can be reduced upto quiet extent.

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 CHAPTER-5
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS AND REGULATORY STRUCTURES

Diversion headworks is a structure constructed across a river for the purpose of raising the water level in
the river so that it can be diverted into the off taking canals. It is also known as canal headworks and performs the
following functions.

 It raises the water level on upstream side.

 Other uses of this is to regulates the supply of water into canals.
 It controls the entry of silt into canals.
 It provides some pondage creating small pond.
 It helps in controlling the vagaries of river.

5.1 Component parts of Weir/Barrage

A diversion headwork ( or weir) usually consists of the following components.

 Weir ( or barrage) proper

 Under sluice
 Divide wall
 Fish ladder
 Control head regulator
 Silt excluder, silt ejector
 River training works: guide banks, marginal bunds
 A typical layout of weir or barrage is shown in the figure

Typical Layout of Diversion Headworks

5.2 Weir or barrage

5.2.1Weir :-

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A weir is a raised concrete ( or masonary) crest wall constructed across the river width. It may be provided with a
small shutter on its top. Most of the raising water (ponding) is done by solid wall and very little by shutters.

5.2.2 Barrage

If ponding of water is achieved by shutters or gates then it is called barrage. It has low crest wall with high gates.

5.2.3 Under sluices

The weir proper I constructed in the middle portion of diversion head works. At the ends under sluices are provided
adjacent to the anal head regulators. A comparatively less turbulent pocket of water is created near the canal head
regulator by constructing under sluice portion of the [Link] undersluices are the openings provided in the weir
wall with their crest at low level. These openings are controlled by gates.

5.3 Functions of under sluices

 To accertain well maintained river channel near canal head regulator.

 To scour away silt deposited in front of heat regulator;

 To pass a portion of flood (10 to 20%) of design flood during rainy season.

 Help in impounding fair amount of flood to secure full storage.

 They are used for quick lowering the u/s high flood evel.

5.4 Divide wall

The divide wall is masonary or a concrete wall constructed at right angle to the axis of the weir and sepatares the
weir proper from the under sluices. It extends from beyond the end of the head regulator on u/s side to loose
protection of the under sluice on d/s side.

5.4.1Functions of divide wall:-

 To separate the under sluice portion from weir proper portion.

 Increase the effectiveness of the under sluices portion.

 To prevent cross current and flow parallel to the weir.

 Divide wall incidentally acts as one of the side walls of the fish ladder.

 To isolate pocket u/s of head regulator to facilitate scouring operation.

5.5 Fish ladder

Large rivers are generally inhibited by several types of fish, many of which are migratory such fish has found to be
moving from u/s hill to d/s in the beginning of winter season in search of warmer water and return to their spawning
ground u/s, slightly before monsoon in May and June. If no arrangement is made in weir or a dam to enable their
migration their life goes in danger. So, for easy moment of the fish from u/s to d/s and again from d/s to u/s fish
ladder is constructed. Typical plan of fish ladder is shown in the figure.

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5.6 Canal head regulator

A canal head regulator is provided at the head of each main canal off taking from diversion headwork.

It should be so aligned that its axis makes an angle of 90o to 120o with the axis of weir as shown in the figure.

5.6.1 Functions of canal head regulator

 It regulates the supply of water into canal.

 It controls entry of silt into canal.

 It prevents the river flood from entering the canal.

CHAPTER-6

CROSS DRAINAGE WORK

6.1 Definition:

A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream. Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains and other canals.
The various types of structures that are built to carry the canal water across the above mentioned
obstructions or vice versa are called cross drainage works. It is generally a very costly item and
should be avoided by:

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  Diverting one stream into another.
 Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams.

6.2 Types of cross drainage works

Depending upon levels and discharge, it may be of the following types:

6.2.1 Cross drainage works carrying canal across the drainage:

the structures that fall under this type are:

1. An Aqueduct
2. Siphon Aqueduct

Aqueduct:

When the HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal
such that the drainage water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as Aqueduct.

 In this, canal water is carried across the drainage in a trough supported on piers.
 Bridge carrying water
 Provided when sufficient level difference is available between the canal and natural and canal bed is
sufficiently higher than HFL.

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Siphon Aqueduct:

In case of the siphon Aqueduct, the HFL of the drain is much higher above the canal bed, and water
runs under siphonic action through the Aqueduct barrels.

The drain bed is generally depressed and provided with pucci floors, on the upstream side, the
drainage bed may be joined to the pucca floor either by a vertical drop or by glacis of 3:1. The
downstream rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1. When the canal is passed over the drain, the
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canal remains open for inspection throughout and the damage caused by flood is rare. However
during heavy floods, the foundations are susceptible to scour or the waterway of drain may get
choked due to debris, tress etc.

Cross drainage works carrying drainage over canal.

The structures that fall under this type are:

 Super passage
 Canal siphon or called syphon only

Super passage:

 The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing over the

irrigation canal is known as super passage. This structure is
suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the flood surface level
of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage
 A super passage is similar to an aqueduct, except in this case the drain is
over the canal.
 The FSL of the canal is lower than the underside of the trough
carrying drainage water. Thus, the canal water runs under the
gravity.
 Reverse of an aqueduct

Canal Syphon:

 If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is siphoned under the other, then the hydraulic
structure at crossing is called “canal siphon”. For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned under
the Rasul-Qadirabad (Punjab, Pakistan) link canal and the crossing structure is called “L.J.C siphon”
 In case of siphon the FSL of the canal is much above the bed level
of the drainage trough, so that the canal runs under the siphonic
action.
 The canal bed is lowered and a ramp is provided at the exit so that
the trouble of silting is minimized.
 Reverse of an aqueduct siphon

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  In the above two types, the inspection road cannot be provided along the canal and a separate
bridge is required for roadway. For economy, the canal may be flumed but the drainage trough
is never flumed.

CHAPTER-7

DAM
Types of Impounding structures - Gravity dam – Forces on a dam -Design of Gravity dams; Earth
dams, Arch dams- Diversion Head works - Weirs and Barrages.

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7.1 Impounding structure
• Impounding structure or dam means a man-made device structure, whether a dam across
a watercourse or other structure outside a watercourse, used or to be used to retain or
store waters or other materials.
• The term includes: (i) all dams that are 25 feet or greater in height and that create an
impoundment capacity of 15 acre-feet or greater, and (ii) all dams that are six feet or
greater in height and that create an impoundment capacity of 50 acre-feet or greater.
7.2 Diversion headwork.
• Any hydraulic structure, which supplies water to the off-taking canal, is called a headwork.
• A diversion headwork serves to divert the required supply in to the canal from the river.
7.3 The purposes of diversion headwork.
1. It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area can be increased.
2. It regulates the intake of water in to the canal.
3. It controls the silt entry in to the canal.
4. It reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
5. It stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies.
7.4 Weir
The weir is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level and divert the water in to
the canal. If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies, it is called a
storage weir.
7.5 The component parts of diversion headwork
▪ Weir or barrage
▪ Divide wall or divide groyne
▪ Fish ladder
▪ Head sluice or canal head regulator
▪ Canal off-takes
▪ Flood banks
▪ River training works.
7.6 Dam
A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store the suppliy for a longer duration

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and release it through designed outlets.

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7.7 Types of Dams
7.7.1 Based on Materials of Construction

▪ Rigid.
▪ Non-Rigid.
7.7.2 Based on Structural Behaviour
▪ Gravity Dam.
▪ Arch Dam.
▪ Buttress Dam.
▪ Embankment Dam.
7.7.3 Based on Functions
▪ Storage Dam.
▪ Detention Dam.
▪ Diversion Dam.
▪ Coffer dam.
7.7.4 Based on Hydraulic Behaviour
▪ Over Flow Dam.
▪ Non Over Flow Dam.
7.7.5 General Types
▪ Solid gravity dam (masonry, concrete, steel and timber)
▪ Arch dams
▪ Buttress dams
▪ Earth dams
▪ Rockfill dams
▪ Combination of rockfill and earth dams
7.8 Gravity dam
• A gravity dam is a structure so proportioned that its own weight resists the forces
exertedupon it. It requires little maintenance and it is most commonly used.
• A Gravity dam has been defined as a “structure which is designed in such a way that its
ownweight resist the external forces”.
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• This type of a structure is most durable and solid and requires very less maintenance.
• Such dams are constructed of masonry or Concrete.
• However, concrete gravity dams are preferred these days and mostly constructed.
• The line of the upstream face or the line of the crown of the dam if the upstream face is
sloping, is taken as the reference line for layout purpose etc. and is known as the Base line

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 of the dam or the “Axis of The Dam” When suitable conditions are available such dams can
be constructed up to great heights.
7.8.1 The different components of a solid gravity dam are
• Crest.
• Free Board.
• Heel.
• Toe.
• Sluice Way.
• Drainage Gallery.
7.8.2 Typical cross section of gravity Dam:

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 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side
Toe: contact on the downstream side
Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest
Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.
Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam. This
helps in keeping the river bed dry.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to
downstream side
Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir side.
7.8.3 Forces Acting on Gravity Dam
The Various external forces acting on Gravity dam may be:
▪ Water Pressure
▪ Uplift Pressure
▪ Pressure due to Earthquake forces
▪ Silt Pressure
▪ Wave Pressure
▪ Ice Pressure
▪ The stabilizing force is the weight of the dam itself
7.8.4 Self weight of the Dam
Self weight of a gravity dam is main stabilizing force which counter balances all the external forces
acting on it.
For construction of gravity dams the specific weight of concrete & stone masonry shouldn’t be less
than 2400 kg/m3 & 2300 kg/m3 respectively.
The self weight of the gravity dam acts through the centre of gravity of the.
Its calculated by the following formula – W =γm X Volume
Where γm is the specific weight of the dam’s material.
7.9 Water pressure
• Water pressure on the upstream side is the main destabilizing force in gravity dam.
• Downstream side may also have water pressure.
• Though downstream water pressure produces counter overturning moment, its magnitude
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 is much smaller as compared to the upstream water pressure and therefore generally not
considered in stability analysis.

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 • Water Pressure is the most major external force acting on a gravity dam.
• On upstream face pressure exerted by water is stored upto the full reservoir level. The
upstream face may either be vertical or inclined.
• On downstream face the pressure is exerted by tail water. The downstream face is always
1 2
inclined. It is calculated by the following formula – P= γ w x h
2

Where γw is the unit weight of water & h is the height of water.

7.9 Uplift water pressure

• The uplift pressure is the upward pressure of water at the base of the dam as shown in Figure
29.3. It also exists within any cracks in the dam.
• The water stored on the upstream side of the dam has a tendency to seep through the soil
below foundation.
• While seeping, the water exerts a uplift force on the base of the dam depending upon the
head of water.
• This uplift pressure reduces the self weight of the dam.
• To reduce the uplift pressure, drainage galleries are provided on the base of the dams.
1
• It is calculated by the following formula – U = γ w
2 xhxB

Where ‘B’ is the width of the base of the dam.

7.10 Wave Pressure
When very high wind flows over the water surface of the reservoir, waves are formed which exert
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pressure on the upstream part of the dam.
The magnitude of waves depend upon –
▪ The velocity of wind.
▪ Depth of Reservoir.
▪ Area of Water Surface.

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 It is calculated by the following formula - Pv=2.4 γw xh w

Where ‘hw ’ is the wave height.

7.11 WIND PRESSURE :

• The top exposed portion on the dam is small & hence the wind pressure on this portion of
dam is negligible.
• But still an allowance should be made for the wind pressure at the rate of about 150 kg/m 2
for the exposed surface area of the upstream & downstream faces.
7.12 SEISMIC FORCES :
• Dams are subjected to vibration during earthquakes.
• Vibration affects both the body of the dam as well as the water in the reservoir behind the
dam.
• The most danger effect occurs when the vibration is perpendicular to the face of the dam.
• Body Forces: Body force acts horizontally at the center of gravity and is calculated as:
Pem=α x W

• Water Force: Water vibration produces a force on the dam acting horizontally & calculated
by: Pew = 2 C α h2
e
3

7.14 ELEMENTRY PROFILE

• When water is stored against any vertical face, then it exerts pressure perpendicular to the
face which is zero at top & maximum at bottom.
• The required top thickness is thus zero & bottom thickness is maximum forming a right
angled triangle with the apex at top, one face vertical & some base width.
• Two conditions should be satisfied to achieve stability
• When empty - The external force is zero & its self weight passes through C.G. of the
triangle.
• When Full - The resultant force should pass through the extreme right end of the
middlethird.
σc
The limiting condition is – h=
γ (1+ S)
• where, σc=alowbecompresiv tresc=allowable compressive stress
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7.15 Practical Profile
• Various parameters in fixing the parameters of the dam section are,
• Free Board –IS 6512, 1972 specifies that the free board will be 1.5 times the wave
heightabove normal pool level.
• Top Width – The top width of the dam is generally fixed according to requirements of
theroadway to be provided. The most economical top width of the dam is 14 % of its
height.

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 • Base Width – The base width of the dam shall be safe against overturning, sliding & no
tension in dam body.
For elementary profile –
h
• When uplift is considered, B=
√S
h
• When uplift isn’t considered B=
√ S−1
7.16 Low Gravity Dam
• A low gravity dam is designed on the basis if of elementary profile, where the resultant force
passes through the middle-third of its base.
• The principal stress is given by – σc=alowblecompres iv tres = γ H (S – C + 1) Where, σc=alowblecompres iv tres=principal stress, γ=unit
weight, S=Specific Gravity and C=A constant.
• The principal stress varies with ‘H’ as all other terms are constant. To avoid failure of the
dam the value of ‘σc=alowblecompres iv tres’ shouldn’t exceed allowable working stress(f). F = γ H (S – C + 1)
7.17 High Gravity Dam
• The high gravity is a complicated structure, where the resultant force may pass through a
point outside the middle-third of the base.
• The section of the dam is modified by providing extra slope on the upstream and
downstream side.
f – Where, f=allowable working
• The condition for the high gravity dam are H >
w( S+1)

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 7.18Failure of Gravity Dam

Failure of gravity dams are caused due to,

Sliding – It may take place on a horizontal joint above formation,

REFERENCES: FLUID MECHANICS (R.K BANSAL)

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING ([Link])

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