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Subject Psychology
Paper No and Title Paper no. 1: Cognitive Science
Module No and Title Module no.9: Observational Learning
Module Tag PSY_P1_M9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Observational Learning
4. The Four Components of Observational Learning
4.1 Attention
4.2 Retention
4.3 Motor Reproduction
4.4 Reinforcement and motivation
5. Observational Learning compared to Imitation
6. Reciprocal Determinism
7. Application
8. Cognition and Conditioning
9. Summary
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
MODULE 9: Observational Learning
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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to:
Describe Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory.
Define key terms such as observational learning, modeling, imitation, reciprocal
determinism and so forth.
State observational learning (modeling) processes in terms of the role of attention,
retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement.
Learn about the importance of observational learning in various areas of everyday life
2. Introduction
In the previous modules, we had focussed on relatively basic ways of learning. We studied,
Classical conditioning that occurs through the formation of associations (Module-3) and Operant
Conditioning, in which behaviour changes as a result of rewarding or punishing consequences
(Module-3.1 and 3.2). In both the types of learning, we emphasized the relationship between
stimuli and responses, and avoided making reference to the organism that was ‘playing’ a part in
the learning processes. To understand this better, let us go back to the learning theorists once
again. The learning theorists usually developed their concepts by experimenting with animals in
physical settings. In their experiments, they created contrived situations and watched how animals
ran through mazes, solved puzzle boxes and pressed levers in Skinner boxes. It is important to
note that these situations were not social. Skinner and others then showed that the same principles
also apply to learning in social contexts. Just as rats learn to press lever to get food, people learn
to interact with others to obtain social rewards. However, over years people have questioned this
analogy and contended if human behaviour can be equated with animal behaviour. Albert
Bandura (1961, 1962, 1963a, 1963b) in particular argues this and states that all learning that we
are capable of, does not necessarily take place by direct contact or interaction of a person with the
environment. In fact, much of the learning actually comes about because we imitate and observe
the behaviour of others in our environment, or gather information to mentally solve a problem.
This type of cognitive learning is explored in this chapter as observational learning.
3. Observational Learning
Observational learning is a part of learning that occurs when a learner watches and replicates the
behaviour of a model. Bandura demonstrated that children learn a great deal by imitating the
kinds of models that were present in their environment. He described this type of learning by
conducting numerous studies on the capacity of children to learn through modeling. As stated
above, Observational learning requires a model whose behaviour is modeled and imitated. This
social model can be a parent, sibling, teacher, friend, TV model whose behaviour the learner
observes, remembers and imitates. A social model is significantly important in observational
learning because it facilitates cognitive process behavior. It helps the learner encode what they
observe and store it in memory for later imitation. Observational learning suggests that an
individual’s environment, cognition, and behaviour all integrate and ultimately determine how the
individual functions.
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
MODULE 9: Observational Learning
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To understand this better, let us share Bandura’s television viewing experiment. In his 1961
study, Bandura investigated whether children’s behaviours would be influenced by those they
observed; he investigated if social behaviours (i.e. aggression) can be acquired by imitation.
Under controlled conditions, boys and girls aged between 3 to 6 years old were exposed to
aggressive models on Television. The children were divided into three situations. Each child was
assigned to one of the three conditions, which meant that each child saw the same film but with
different endings. A set of children, watched on television, an adult model behave aggressively-
punched, sat, shouted at a toy called ‘Bobo doll’. In this aggression-rewarded condition, the
model was praised and given treats at the end of the film. Another set of children were exposed to
an aggressive model who was punished at the end of the film and finally the third set of children
which constituted the control group, saw the model neither rewarded nor punished for his
aggressive behaviour.
Source: http://stanford.edu/dept/psychology/bandura/images/bandura-bobo_doll.jpg
Figure 1: Children who watched models behave aggressively with the Bobo doll later imitated
specific acts of aggression and took out aggression on the Bobo doll.
Immediately after the film, each child was escorted into a room with a ‘Bobo doll’ and other toys.
The experimenters observed the child through a one-way mirror and noted the child’s aggressive
behaviour on the doll. The results of the study indicated that children imitated the violent
behaviour of adults. The children who were exposed to the aggressive model being rewarded at
the end of the film, exhibited around twice as many aggressive behaviours than the children
exposed to the aggressive model being punished or to the model that was neither punished nor
rewarded. Those who had seen the model being punished for aggression on the Bobo doll,
exhibited significantly fewer imitations than did those in the other two groups. The findings
support Bandura's Social Learning Theory, that is, children learn social behaviour such as
aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behaviour of
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
MODULE 9: Observational Learning
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another person. Thus, imitation and observation help people, especially children to acquire new
behaviours. Central to Social Learning Theory is the identification of which types of models and
reinforcements are more likely to be imitated.
The study also demonstrates that children’s behaviour was influenced by indirect or Vicarious
experience. In other words, what they observed of another persons experience, left an impact on
their own behaviour. Observation teaches us the probable consequences of new behaviour; we
notice what happens when others try it. Bandura calls this process vicarious learning and
reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement also is a cognitive process. We formulate expectations
about the outcomes of our own behaviour without any direct action on our part.
When new behaviour is acquired through observation alone, the learning appears to be cognitive.
The behaviour that is learned through observation may or may not be manifested as actual
behaviour immediately after observation. When for example a child watches her teacher and later
imitates her perfectly, she must have relied on some inner representation of the behaviour which
guides her own performance. Thus, Bandura unlike Skinner, believes that learning theory must
include internal cognitive variables due to which this child had been able to remember and
consequently behaved in a certain fashion later. This brings us to the components of
Observational Learning.
4. The Four Components of Observational Learning
Bandura (1986) listed four processes that influence observational learning. Let us now look more
closely at these observational learning processes-
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
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Four
Components of
Observational
Learning
Attention Retention Motor Reinforcement
Reproduction and
Processes Motivation
Figure 1: Four Components of Observational Learning
4.1 Attention: Before anything can be learned from a model, the model must be attended to. We
selectively pay attention to what's happening around us. Models often attract our attention
because there are distinctive characteristics of the models that a person identifies with. Research
demonstrates that those models will be attended to more often who are similar to the observer (i.e.
same sex, age), are respected, have high status, success, prestige and power, competence and are
attractive (Bandura, 1971, p.17). Television is particularly successful in presenting models with
engaging characteristics and influences us (Bandura, 1977, p.25).
4.2 Retention: For information gained from observation to be useful, it must be retained.
Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time.
Since at times we imitate models sometimes after we have observed them, we must have ways of
remembering their actions in symbolic form. Bandura states that there are retentional processes in
which information is stored symbolically in two ways-imaginally (often visual) and verbally.
Once information is cognitively stored, it can be retrieved long after the observational behaviour
has taken place. This process depends on the observer's ability to structure the information in an
easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.
4.3 Motor Reproduction Processes: To reproduce behaviour accurately, the person must have
the necessary motor skills i.e. the Observer must be physically and/intellectually capable of
producing the act. Motor and behavioural skills will determine what has been learnt cognitively
and will be translated into performance. A person may watch monkeys sway from tree to tree by
using their tails but despite learning it cognitively, it cannot be translated into action. One needs
to posses the necessary motor apparatus to make certain responses possible. For example, a child
may watch his father or a circus juggler use saw and juggle respectively but cannot imitate these
actions on account of lack of physical strength and skill.
Bandura maintains that in case one possess the physical apparatus to make appropriate responses,
then there is a period of cognitive rehearsal, where the model compares his actions and
behaviours against their cognitive representation of the modeled experience. Any discrepancies
between one’s own behaviour and the memory of the model’s behaviour triggers corrective action
that creates a “feedback” loop, which can be used gradually to match one’s behaviour with that of
a model by utilizing self-observation and self-correction.
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
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4.4 Reinforcement and Motivation: In Bandura’s theory, reinforcement creates an expectation
in observers that if they act like a model who has been seen being reinforced for certain activities,
they will be reinforced also. It also acts for translating learning into performance. The
motivational processes provide a motive for utilizing what has been learned.
However, one may observe a model and thereby acquire new knowledge but may or may not
perform the responses. For example, a boy may hear and learn some abusive words from adult
(say a neighbour) but may not use them himself. Since we imitate others if we are likely to gain
rewards for that performance; if the boy sees this adult getting rewarded for using abusive
language, he may imitate him. But if he sees him getting punished, he is less likely to imitate him.
According to Bandura, an observer may simply observe the consequences of the behaviour of
others, storing the information symbolically and utilizing them when it is advantageous to do so.
This is vicarious learning or reinforcement. Here, Bandura departs from the reinforcement
theorists in the use of reinforcement and punishment. For him not just actual reinforcements and
punishments but also information on anticipated consequences can also determine behaviour.
5. Observational Learning Compared to Imitation
In the text above, you may feel that imitation and observational learning can be used
interchangeably. However, Bandura made a distinction between the two concepts. To understand
this better, let us take an example. Suppose you drive down a street and the car in front of you hits
a pothole. Based on your observation of the car, you manoeuvre in order to miss the hole and
avoid damaging your car. Here, you learned from your observation, but did not imitate what you
had observed. What you learned, according to Bandura, was the information, which was
cognitively processed. . This information and consequently observational learning is much more
complex than imitation, which ordinarily involves mimicking another person’s action.
Human action is complex and to understand it fully, we have to understand the person, the
environment and the person’s behaviour itself in totality. The next section explores how Bandura
understands the same through Reciprocal Determinism.
6. Reciprocal Determinism
According to Bandura, the person, the environment and the person’s behaviour, all interact to
produce the person’s subsequent behaviour. Bandura (1986, p.24) summarizes this three way
interaction as follows-
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
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In the above figure P is the person, E is the environment and B is the person’s behaviour. This is
referred to as Reciprocal Determinism. It can be inferred from this that behaviour influences the
person and the environment and the environment and the person influence the behaviour. To say
simply, how we act on the environment influences us and the environment through
reinforcements and punishments determine how we behave. Bandura (1977) further states that
behaviours of individuals also create environments. But Bandura maintained that any one of these
components may be more influential at any given time. For example, a loud noise in the
environment may momentarily have the greatest impact on a person’s behaviour. Reciprocal
determinism will help understand how Bandura’s Observational learning may be applied to real
life situations.
7. Application
According to Bandura, we imitate and learn through observation. Especially children can acquire
a lot of behaviours through imitation and observational learning. Bandura’s model thus is
important to understand the contribution of modelling, imitation, observational learning in child
rearing and education. As demonstrated by the television viewing and learning of aggression by
children experiment, children imitate and learn by observing role models. Hence, during
socialization children can be taught to avoid inappropriate behaviours and engage in pro-social
behaviours. For appropriate behaviours they can be given rewards and reinforcements and for
inappropriate behaviours, punishments can be an option. Since children observe reinforcements
and punishments associated with different behaviours, giving consistent reinforcements and
punishments help them decide what is expected of them.
Sensitive Modeling
Modeling can have several effects on observers. New responses can be acquired by watching a
model being reinforced for certain actions. The theory helps us understand the role of sensitive
modeling in front of children. Children tend to imitate the most powerful models in their
environment. They learn sex roles through observing models such as parents, teachers, elder
siblings, playmates and so forth. As also demonstrated by the study of children and television
viewing, media images leave long-lasting impacts on children. Hence, what images are portrayed
in media-television, films, and newspapers leaves a strong influence on children and even adults.
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If models engage in acts of smoking, drinking and aggression, and they are rewarded for such
acts, children will tend to believe that such acts bring favourable rewards and hence must be
adopted. On the contrary, if such acts are discouraged through punishments, children will code
them as unfavourable and avoid themselves engaging in the same. They can be encouraged for
pro-social behaviours through modeling. If the models practice what they preach, children and
adults find them more believable and worthy of trust. Moral conduct of models are internalized
by children who make these their own standards of good behaviour.
Similarly, Bandura’s theory can guide teachers to models skills such as problem-solving
strategies, moral codes, performance standards to their students. Teacher’s feedbacks in form of
praise and criticisms form basis for evaluation of self-efficacy and hence teachers need to be
careful in providing feedbacks. She may encourage students for their efforts and achievement of
sub-goals so that they put in efforts. Their performance, behaviour and environment become key
factors in helping them evaluate themselves, which is elaborated further in the next sections.
Self- Regulation of Behaviour
Humans learn performance standards (along with many other things) from direct and vicarious
experiences. These performance standards form the basis of self-evaluations. These standards
arise from one’s direct experience of praise and positive reinforcements of other kinds or they
may also arise by vicariously observing those behaviours for which others have been reinforced.
A person may thus learn to place high value of behaviours that bring effective and desired
rewards. This lead them to perform in certain fashion and also evaluate oneself on that
performance. Bandura believed that intrinsic reinforcement and motivation that comes from self-
evaluation is much more influential than extrinsic reinforcement and motivation given by others.
Performances are partly governed by self-reinforcements, the evaluations we make of our own
behaviours and anticipated self-reactions. These are dependent on one’s internalized standards of
performance and conduct and by perceived self-efficacy. Each person perceives one’s self-
efficacy and sets performance goals in tandem with it. If a person’s performance in a given
situation meets or exceeds one’s standards, the person will evaluate it positively. However, if one
falls short of one’s standards, then it will be evaluated negatively. These internalised performance
standards or perceived self efficacy plays an important role in self-regulated behaviour. Perceived
self-efficacy refers to one’s belief concerning what one is capable of doing and it arises from a
variety of sources such as personal accomplishments and failures and motivational factors.
Persons with high perceived self efficacy try more, and persist longer at a task than persons with
low perceived self efficacy. Beliefs that people have about themselves guide their sense of pride,
self-worth and self-satisfaction. However, it is not necessary that one’s perceived self efficacy
may correspond completely with one’s real efficacy.
6. Cognition and Conditioning
Bandura’s theory later became popular as the Social Cognitive theory. He recognized humans as
unique, dynamic, information processing, problem solving social organisms. Whether we learn
through direct experience or through vicarious learning, we do so in social settings involving
other people. We develop our cognitions, including our standards of performance and for moral
judgement, on the basis of our observations and interaction with other people. Bandura (1999)
emphasized that human agency, conscious planning and intentional execution of actions influence
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future events. Humans are characterised by intentionality and forethought. Intentionality involves
planning a course of action for some specific purpose and forethought entails anticipating the
consequences of our intentions. Thus Social cognitive theory does not support conditioning
people and recognizes the key role played by their cognition in social situations.
9. Summary
Observational learning occurs when a learner watches and replicates the behaviour of a
model.
Bandura states that learning actually comes about by imitation, observation of the
behaviour of others in our environment and because we gather this information to
mentally solve a problem.
Imitation and observational learning help individuals acquire new behaviours.
Observational learning involves attention, retention, motor and behavioural abilities and
reinforcements and motivation.
An individual’s environment, cognition, and behaviour all integrate and ultimately
determine how an individual functions.
Social Learning Theory helps understand which types of models and reinforcements are
more likely to be imitated.
Observation of another person’s experience leaves an impact on our own behaviour. This
learning by indirect experience is called Vicarious learning.
Reciprocal Determinism means that the person, the environment and the person’s
behaviour, all interact to produce the person’s subsequent behaviour.
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 1: Cognitive Science
MODULE 9: Observational Learning
