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UNIT – I
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE ELEMENTS
V- BELT
Selection of V belts and pulleys
Determine your drive requirements. How much power do you need to transmit and at
what speed?
INTRODUCTION:
V- Belts are one type of flexible connectors for transmitting power from one pulley to
another pulley. Whose center distance is approx. 3M.thier cross section is trapezoidal. The
belts are operated on groove pulleys.
MATERIALS USED:
Cord
Fabric
Cotton
Rayon
POWER TRANSMISSION
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be
axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The
demands on a belt drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on
the theme. They run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against
load changes, albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt
engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears. Power
transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of tension
and belt velocity
P= (T1 -T2 ) v
Where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They
are related as:

TYPES OF V BELT
Generally V belts are classified into various grades based on their power transmitting
capacity as A, B, C, D and E. the cross sectional areas are increased order from A –E
SELECTION OF V BELTS AND PULLEYS
V belts are designed based on
1. Fundamental formula
2. Manufactures catalogues

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FUNDAMENTAL FORMULA:

2. Power Transmitted by belt

MANUFACTURES CATALOGUES

1. At first based on amount of power to be transmitted , select the type of belt

2. Calculate design power

Design power =

2. Pitch length L

4. Note inside length

5. Determine Belt rating
6. Design no of belts =

7. Correct the center Length

8. Also determine parameters of V groove pulleys using Manufactures data
Selection of Flat belts and pulleys
INTRODUCTION
Flat Belts are one type of flexible connectors for transmitting power from one pulley to
another pulley. Whose center distance is approx. 5-15m

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CHARACTERISTICS OF BELT:

TYPES OF FLAT BELT DRIVES:

1. Open belt drive
2. Cross belt drive
3. Quarter turn drive
4. Belt drive with idler pulley
5. Belt drive with many pulleys
DESIGN OF FLAT BELTS
1. Using fundamental formula
2. Using Manufactures catalogues
FUNDAMENTAL FORMULA:
3. Ratio of driving tensions=

4. Power Transmitted by belt

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MANUFACTURES CATALOGUES
1. How much power to be transmitted?
2. What may be the power transmitting capacity?
For determining the design power and belt rating, we must consider certain factors like
service, arc of contact and so on.
i. Arc of contact

ii. Load rating

The load ratings have been developed for 180° of arc of contact 10m/s belt speed
per mm width.
iii. Length of belt
Open belt drive & Cross belt drive

iv. Belt tensions

1. Belt of 3 plies – 1.5% of L
2. Belt of 4,5,6 plies – 1% of L
3. Belt of 8 plies – 0.5% of L
v. Pulley width
Generally the pulleys should be slightly wider than belt width.
POWER TRANSMISSION
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially
aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The
demands on a belt drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on
the theme. They run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against
load changes, albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt
engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears. Power
transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of tension
and belt velocity
P = (T1- T2) v

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where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They
are related as:

DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. From the given conditions like power, type of working conditions, diameters of pulleys,
speed ratio etc, determine maximum power
Design power = rated power x service factor x arc of contact factor
Select service factor based on nature of load and applications from PSG data book
2. Decide the type of belt
3. Then calculate the belt rating
4. Find the required width by design power by belt capacity and adopt the standard
available
5. Determine the length of belt based on type of drive and reduce certain amount
length
6. Find out the pulley dimension and draw the arrangement of belt drive.
Wire ropes and pulleys
SELECTION PROCEDURE
1. Based on the given data like nature of application, duty etc, select the type of
rope
2. Estimate the design load by multiplying the dead weight by three times design
factor.
3. Determine the net cross sectional area of the rope by choosing specific strength
of wire.

4. Find out the diameter of rope

5. Select the next standard dia of rope and note down the max breaking
strength.
6. Compute the load applied at normal working acceleration and starting etc. find
out the actual factor of safety by dividing the breaking strength by above loads

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7. For safe design the actual factor of safety should not be less than 5 at any
circumstances.
8. Then calculate the drum and pulley dimensions.
Selection of Transmission chains and Sprocket.
SELECTION PROCEDURE
1. Depending upon the amount of power to be transmitted and another working
conditions such as available space, chain speed, position of chain drive etc
2. Assuming the centre distance between the chain sprockets in terms of pitches
3. Calculate the developed load for breaking the chain using expression as
4. For determining pitch, choose suitable chain from PSG Data Book
5. Find out the actual factor of safety
6. Determine the induced stress over the projected area of the chain using the relation
as

7. Find the length of chain and provide allowance for initial sagging.
8. Evaluate the pitch diameter of pinion sprocket (d1) and wheel sprocket (d2)

9.Draw a neat sketch of chain drive with calculated specifications.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Design a V – Belt drive to the following specifications Power transmitted = 75kw
Speed of driving wheel = 1440rpm
Speed of driven wheel = 400rpm
Diameter of driving wheel = 300mm
Center distance = 2500mm
Service = 16hrs/day

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Solution
For the given power of 75 kw D type or E type belts are suited. Let us selected D type
belt.

Service factor = 1.5 (for heavy duty and 16 hrs/ day with ac motor high torque)
Pitch length

Now = 300 mm
The next standard pitch length = 7648mm
Corresponding inside length = 7569mm
Length factor = 1.05
Arc of contact

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Initial Tension = 0.75%L

Final center distance = 2788 mm
Specification Type of belt = D7569 50 IS294
Number of belts required = 8
Pitch diameter of small pulley = 1080mm
Center distance = 2788mm
2. Design a Flat belt drive to transmit 25 kw at 720 rpm to an aluminium rolling machine the
speed reduction being 3.0. The distance between the shaft is 3m.Diameter of rolling machine
pulley is 1.2m.
Solution:
Given

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Specification of the belt drive are

Dia of motor pulley are = 400mm
Dia of rolling machine pulley = 1200mm
Center distance = 30000 mm
Width of belt = 305mm
Width of the belt = 345 mm
Width of pulleys = 345mm
3.A roller chain is to be used on a paving machine to transmit 30 hp from the 4-cylinder
Diesel engine to a counter-shaft; engine speed 1000 rpm, counter-shaft speed 500 rpm. The
center distance is fixed at 24 in. The cain will be subjected to intermittent overloads of 100
%. (a) Determine the pitch and the number of chains required to transmit this power. (b)
What is the length of the chain required? How much slack must be allowed in order to have a
whole number of pitches? A chain drive with significant slack and subjected to impulsive
loading should have an idler sprocket against the slack strand. If it were possible to change
the speed ratio slightly, it might be possible to have a chain with no appreciable slack. (c)
How much is the bearing pressure between the roller and pin?
Solution:
(a) design hp = 2(30) = 60 hp intermittent

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4.In a coal-mine hoist, the weight of the cage and load is 20 kips; the shaft is 400 ft. deep.
The cage is accelerated from rest to 1600 fpm in 6 sec. A single 6 x 19, IPS, 1 ¾ -in. rope is
used, wound on an 8-ft. drum. (a) Include the inertia force but take the static view and
compute the factor of safety with and without allowances for the bending load. (b)
If N =1.35 , based on fatigue, what is the expected life? (c) Let the cage be at the bottom of
the shaft and ignore the effect of the rope’s weight. A load of 14 kips is gradually applied on
the 6-kip cage. How much is the deflection of the cable due to the load and the additional
energy absorbed? (d) For educational purposes and for a load of 0.2Fu , compute the energy
that this 400-ft rope can absorb and compare it with that for a 400-ft., 1 ¾ -in., as-rolled-1045
steel rod. Omit the weights of the rope and rod. What is the energy per pound of material in
each case?
Solution:

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UNIT –II

SPUR GEARS AND PARALLEL AXIS HELICAL GEARS

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SPUR GEAR:
1. Calculation of gear ratio (i):

where, NA and NB = speed of the driver and driven respectively, and ZA and ZB =
Number of teeth on driver and driven respectively.
2. Selection of material
Consulting Table 5.3, knowing the gear ratio i, choose the suitable material.
3. If not given, assume gear life (say 20000 hrs)
4. Calculation of initial design torque:
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
where, [Mt] = transmission torque
K = Load factor, Table 5.11
Kd = Dynamic load factor, Table 5.12
Assume K. Kd = 1.3 ( if not given)
5. Calculation of Eeq, [ϭb] and [ϭc]:
From table 5.20 Calculate Eeq
From table 5.16 Calculate Design bending stress [ϭb]
Calculate Design contact stress [ϭc] by
[ϭc] = CB . HB. Kcl (or) [ϭc] = CR . HRC. Kcl
where, CB CR = Coefficient of surface hardness from table 5.18
HB HRC = Hardness number
6. Calculation if centre distance (a):

7. Select number of teeth on gear and pinion:

On pinion, Z1 = Assume 21

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On gear, Z2 = i*Z1
8. Calculation of module:

Choose standard module from table 5.8

9. Revision of centre distance (m):

10. Calculate b, d1, v and ѱp :

Calculate face width, b = ѱ. a
Calculate pitch dia, d = m.z1
Calculate pitch line velocity,v = (πd1N1)/60
Calculate value of ѱp = b/d1
11. Selection of quality of gear:
Knowing the pitch line velocity and consulting table 5.22, select a suitable quality
of gear.
12. Revision of design torque [Mt]: Revise K:
Using the calculated value of ѱp revise the K value by using table 5.11
Revise Kd:
Using the selected quality if gear and pitch line velocity, revise the Kd
value
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
13. Check for bending:

14. Check for wear strength:

Calculate induced contact stress,

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15. if the design is not satisfactory (ϭb > [ϭb] and / or ϭc > [ϭc] ), then increase the
module of face width value of the gear material.
16. Check for gear:
a. Check for bending:

If Ϭb2 ≤ [Ϭb2], then design is safe.

b. Check for wear strength:
Calculate induced contact stress will be same for pinion and gear,
So, Ϭc2 = Ϭc
Compare Ϭc and [Ϭc]
If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe

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DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR HELICAL GEAR

1. Calculation of gear ratio (i):

where, NA and NB = speed of the driver and driven respectively, and ZA and
ZB = Number of teeth on driver and driven respectively.
2. Selection of material
Consulting Table 5.3, knowing the gear ratio i, choose the suitable material.
3. If not given, assume gear life (say 20000 hrs)
4. Calculation of initial design torque:
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
where, [Mt] = transmission torque
K = Load factor, Table 5.11
Kd = Dynamic load factor, Table 5.12
Assume K. Kd = 1.3 ( if not given)
5. Calculation of Eeq, [ϭb] and [ϭc]:
From table 5.20 Calculate Eeq
From table 5.16 Calculate Design bending stress [ϭb]
Calculate Design contact stress [ϭc] by
[ϭc] = CB . HB. Kcl (or) [ϭc] = CR . HRC. Kcl
CB CR = Coefficient of surface hardness from table 5.18
HB HRC = Hardness number
6. Calculation if centre distance (a):

7. Select number of teeth on gear and pinion:

On pinion, Z1 = Assume ≥ 21

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On gear, Z2 = i*Z1
8. Calculation of module:

Choose standard module from table 5.8

9. Revision of centre distance (m):

10. Calculate b, d1, v and ѱp :

Calculate face width, b = ѱ. a
Calculate pitch dia, d = (mn.z1)/ cos β
Calculate pitch line velocity,v = (πd1N1)/60
Calculate value of ѱp = b/d1
11. Selection of quality of gear:
Knowing the pitch line velocity and consulting table 5.22, select a suitable quality
of gear.
12. Revision of design torque [Mt]: Revise K:
Using the calculated value of ѱp revise the K value by using table 5.11

Revise Kd:
Using the selected quality if gear and pitch line velocity, revise the Kd
value
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
13. Check for bending:

Compare Ϭb and [Ϭb].

If Ϭb ≤ [Ϭb], then design is safe.

14. Check for wear strength:

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Calculate induced contact stress,

If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe.

15. If the design is not satisfactory (ϭb > [ϭb] and / or ϭc > [ϭc] ), then increase the
module of face width value of the gear material.

16. Check for gear:

Compare Ϭb2 and [Ϭb2].

If Ϭb2 ≤ [Ϭb2], then design is safe.
d.Check for wear strength:
Calculate induced contact stress will be same for pinion and gear,
So, Ϭc2 = Ϭc
Compare Ϭc and [Ϭc]
If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. The following particulars of a single reduction spur gear are given : Gear ratio
= 10 : 1; Distance between centres = 660 mm approximately; Pinion transmits
500 kW at 1800 r.p.m.; Involute teeth of standard proportions (addendum = m)
with pressure angle of 22.5°; Permissible normal pressure between teeth = 175 N
per mm of width. Find : 1. The nearest standard module if no interference is to
occur; 2. The number of teeth on each wheel; 3. The necessary width of the
pinion; and 4. The load on the bearings of the wheels due to power
transmitted.
Solution :
Given :
G = TG / TP = DG / DP = 10 ;
L = 660 mm ;
P = 500 kW = 500 × 103 W;
NP = 1800 r.p.m. ; φ = 22.5° ;
WN = 175 N/mm width
1. Nearest standard module if no interference is to occur
Let m = Required module,
TP = Number of teeth on the pinion,
TG = Number of teeth on the gear,
DP = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion, and
DG = Pitch circle diameter of the gear.
We know that minimum number of teeth on the pinion in order to avoid interference,

we already know that,

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L = (DG / 2) + (Dp / 2) = 5.5 Dp

We also know that
DP = m . TP
= DP / TP = 120 / 14
m = 8.6 mm
Since the nearest standard value of the module is 8 mm, therefore we shall take
m = 8 mm Ans.
2. Number of teeth on each wheel
We know that number of teeth on the pinion,
TP = DP / m = 120 / 8 = 15 Ans.
and number of teeth on the gear,
TG = G × TP = 10 × 15 = 150 Ans.
3. Necessary width of the pinion
We know that the torque acting on the pinion,
T = 60P/(2πN)
= 2652 N-m
Tangential load, WT = T/(DP/2)
= 2652 / (20.12 / 2)
T = 44200 N
WN = Wt/cosϕ
= 44200 / cos 22.5
W = 47 840 N
Since the normal pressure between teeth is 175 N per mm of width, therefore necessary
width of the pinion,
b = 47840 / 175
=273.4 mm Ans.
4. Load on the bearings of the wheels
We know that the radial load on the bearings due to the power transmitted,
WR = WN . sin φ
= 47 840 × sin 22.5°
= 18 308 N
= 18.308 kN An

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2. A bronze spur pinion rotating at 600 r.p.m. drives a cast iron spur gear at a
transmission ratio of 4 : 1. The allowable static stresses for the bronze pinion and cast
iron gear are 84 MPa and 105 MPa respectively. The pinion has 16 standard 20° full
depth involute teeth of module 8 mm. The face width of both the gears is 90 mm. Find
the power that can be transmitted from the standpoint of strength.
Solution.
Given :
NP = 600 r.p.m. ;
V.R. = TG / TP = 4 ;
σOP = 84 MPa = 84 N / mm2 ; σOG = 105 MPa = 105 N/mm2 ;
TP = 16 ;
m = 8 mm ;
b = 90 mm
We know that pitch circle diameter of the pinion,
DP = m.TP = 8 × 16 = 128 mm = 0.128 m
∴ Pitch line velocity, v = πDN/60
= 4.02 m/s
We know that for 20° full depth involute teeth, tooth form factor for the pinion, and
tooth form factor for the gear
yP = 0.154 – (.912/ Tp)
= 0.097
yG = 0.154 – (.912/ TG)
= 0.14
σOP × yP = 84 × 0.097 = 8.148
and σOG × yG = 105 × 0.14 = 14.7
Since (σOP × yP) is less than ( σOG × yG), therefore the pinion is weaker. Now using the
Lewis equation for the pinion, we have tangential load on the tooth (or beam strength of the
tooth),
WT = σwP.b.π m.yP
= (σOP × Cv) b. π m.yP (Q σWP = σOP.Cv)
= 84 × 0.427 × 90 × π × 8 × 0.097 = 7870 N
∴ Power that can be transmitted = WT × v
= 7870 × 4.02
= 31 640 W

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= 31.64 kW Ans.
3. A pair of helical gears are to transmit 15 kW. The teeth are 20° stub in diametral
plane and have a helix angle of 45°. The pinion runs at 10 000 r.p.m. and has 80 mm
pitch diameter. The gear has 320 mm pitch diameter. If the gears are made of cast steel
having allowable static strength of 100 MPa; determine a suitable module and face
width from static strength considerations and check the gears for wear, given σes = 618
MPa.
Solution.
Given :
P = 15 kW = 15 × 103 W;
φ = 20° ; α = 45° ;
NP = 10 000 r.p.m. ;
DP = 80 mm = 0.08 m ;
DG = 320 mm = 0.32 m ;
σOP = σOG = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2 ; σes = 618 MPa = 618 N/mm2
Module and face width
Let m = Module in mm, and b = Face width in mm.
Since both the pinion and gear are made of the same material (i.e. cast steel), therefore
the pinion is weaker. Thus the design will be based upon the pinion.
We know that the torque transmitted by the pinion,
T = (60P) / (2πN)
= 14.32 N-m.
Tangential tooth load on the pinion,
WT = T / (Dp/2)
We know that number of teeth on the pinion,
TP = DP / m = 80 / m
and formative or equivalent number of teeth for the pinion, TE = TP / cos3 α
= 226.4 / m
∴ peripheral velocity,
v = (π Dp Np) / 60
= 42 m/s
Velocity factor, Cv = 0.104

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Since the maximum face width (b) for helical gears may be taken as 12.5 m to 20 m, where m
is the module, therefore let us take b = 12.5 m
We know that the tangential tooth load (WT),
358 = (σOP . Cv) b.π m.y'P
= (100 × 0.104) 12.5 m × π m (0.175 – 0.0037 m)
= 409 m2 (0.175 – 0.0037 m)
= 72 m2 – 1.5 m3
Solving this expression by hit and trial method, we find that m = 2.3 say 2.5 mm Ans.
and face width, b = 12.5 m = 12.5 × 2.5 = 31.25 say 32 mm Ans.
Checking the gears for wear
We know that velocity ratio,
V.R. = DG / DP
= 320 / 80
=4
We know that the maximum or limiting load for wear,
Ww = (D bQK) / cos2a
= 5554 N
4. A helical cast steel gear with 30° helix angle has to transmit 35 kW at 1500 r.p.m. If
the gear has 24 teeth, determine the necessary module, pitch diameter and face width
for 20° full depth teeth. The static stress for cast steel may be taken as 56 MPa. The
width of face may be taken as 3 times the normal pitch. What would be the end thrust
on the gear? The tooth factor for 20° full depth involute gear may be taken as 0.154 –
0.912/T where TE represents the equivalent number of teeth.
Solution.
Given :
α = 30° ;
P = 35 kW = 35 × 103 W ;
N = 1500 r.p.m. ;
TG = 24 ;
φ = 20° ;
σo = 56 MPa = 56 N/mm2 ; b = 3 × Normal pitch = 3 pN
Module
Let m = Module in mm, and
DG = Pitch circle diameter of the gear in mm. We know that torque transmitted by the gear,
T = (60P) / (2πN)

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= 223x103 N-mm.
Formative or equivalent number of teeth,
TE = TP / cos3 α
= 37.
∴ Tooth factor, y' = 0.154 – 0.912/T
= 0.129
Tangential tooth load on the pinion,
WT = T / (Dp/2)
= 18600 / m peripheral velocity,
v = (π Dp Np) / 60
= 1.885m m/s
Velocity factor, Cv = 0.75 / (0.75 + v )
= 0.75 / (0.75 + 1.885m )
We know that tangential tooth load,
WT = (σo × Cv) b. π m.y' = (σo × Cv) 3pN × π m × y'
= (σo × Cv) 3 × pc cos α × π m × y'α)
= (σo × Cv) 3 π m cos α × π m × y'
.. (Q b = 3 pN)
... (Q pN = pc cos α
... (Q pc = π m)
Solving this equation by hit and trial method, we find that
m = 5.5 say 6 mm Ans
Pitch diameter of the gear
We know that the pitch diameter of the gear,
DG = m × TG = 6 × 24 = 144 mm Ans.
Face width
It is given that the face width,
b = 3 pN = 3 pc cos α = 3 × π m cos α
= 3 × π × 6 cos 30°
= 48.98 say 50 mm Ans.
End thrust on the gear
We know that end thrust or axial load on the gear,
WA = Wr tan a
= 1790 N

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UNIT – III

BEVEL AND WORM AND CROSS HELICAL GEARS

Design procedure for Bevel Gear:
1. Calculation of gear ratio (i) and pitch angle:

where, NA and NB = speed of the driver and driven respectively, and ZA and ZB = Number of
teeth on driver and driven respectively.
2. Selection of material
Consulting Table 5.3, knowing the gear ratio i, choose the suitable material.
If not given, assume gear life (say 20000 hrs)
3. Calculation of initial design torque:
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
where, [Mt] = transmission torque
K = Load factor, Table 5.11
Kd = Dynamic load factor, Table 5.12
Assume K. Kd = 1.3 ( if not given)
4. Calculation of Eeq, [ϭb] and [ϭc]:
From table 5.20 Calculate Eeq
Calculate Design bending stress [ϭb]
[ϭb] = (1.4 Kbl/n.Kσ) σ-1, for one rotation
[ϭb] = (Kbl/n.Kσ) σ-1, for both rotation
Calculate Design contact stress [ϭc] by [ϭc] = CB . HB. Kcl (or)
[ϭc] = CR . HRC. Kcl
where, CB CR = Coefficient of surface hardness from table 5.18
HB HRC = Hardness number
5.Calculation if cone distance (a):

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6. Select number of teeth on gear and pinion:

7. Calculation of module:

Choose standard module from table 5.8

8. Revision of cone distance (m):

9. Calculate b, d1av, v and ѱy

Calculate face width, b = R/ѱy
Calculate pitch dia, d1av = mav.z1
Calculate pitch line velocity, v = (πd1avN1)/60
Calculate value of ѱp = b /d1av
10. Selection of quality of gear:
Knowing the pitch line velocity and a consulting table 5.22, select a suitable quality
of gear.
11. Revision of design torque [Mt]: Revise K:
Using the calculated value of ѱy revise the K value by using table 5.11
Revise Kd:
Using the selected quality if gear and pitch line velocity, revise the Kd
value.
[Mt] = Mt . K. Kd
12. Check for bending:
Calculate induced bending stress,

Compare Ϭb and [Ϭb].

If Ϭb ≤ [Ϭb], then design is safe.
13. Check for wear strength:
Calculate induced contact stress,

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If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe.

If the design is not satisfactory (ϭb > [ϭb] and / or ϭc > [ϭc] ), then increase the
module of face width value of the gear material.
15. Check for gear:
Check for bending:
Using Ϭb1.y1 and Ϭb1..y1, Ϭb2 =

Compare Ϭb2 and [Ϭb2].

If Ϭb2 ≤ [Ϭb2], then design is safe.
Check for wear strength:
Calculate induced contact stress will be same for pinion and gear,
So, Ϭc2 = Ϭc
Compare Ϭc and [Ϭc]
If Ϭc ≤ [Ϭc], then design is safe
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WORM GEAR:
1. Selection of the material
2. Calculation of teeth:
Assume Z1 depending upon the number of stat.
Z2 = i X Z1
3. Calculation of diameter factor and lead angle
q = d1/mx
If not given assume q= 11
ɤ = tan-1 (z1/q)
4. Calculation of Tangential load:
Ft = (p/v) x Kt
5. Calculation of Dynamic load:
Fd = Ft / cv
6. Calculation of Beam strength:

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Fs = π mx b [ϭb] y
7. Calculation of Axial load:
Calculate axial load by equating Fd and F
8. Calculate b, d2, v.
9. Recalculation of beam strength
Fs = π mx b [ϭb] y1
10. Recalculation of dynamic load
Fd = Ft / cv
11. Check for beam strength:
If Fd ≤ Fd, design is satisfactory.
12. Calculation for maximum wear load:
Fw = d2. b . Kw
13. Check for wear strength:
If Fd ≤ Fw, design is satisfactory.
14. Calculate power loss and area:
15.Calculate basic dimensions.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. For continuous duty in a speed reducer, two helical gears are to be rated at 7.4 hp at
a pinion speed of 1750 rpm; mw  2.75 ; the helix angle 15o ; 20o F.D. teeth in the
normal plane; let N p  21 teeth, and keep b  2Dp . Determine the pitch, face, N g , and
the material and heat treatment. Use through-hardened teeth with a maximum of 250
BHM (teeth may be cut after heat treatment).
Solution:

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su  329,892  89,676 psi

Use C1050, OQT 1100 F,

su  122 ksi , BHN  248  250

Ans.

Pd  6

b  7 in

N g  mw N p  2.7521  58

Material. C1050, OQT 1100 F

2. A pair of helical gears, subjected to heavy shock loading, is to transmit 50 hp at

1750 rpm of the pinion.; mg  = 15 ; minimum Dp = 4 3/4 in. ; continuous service,
24 hr/day; 20o F.D. teeth in the normal plane, carefully cut; through-hardened to a
maximum BHN = 350. Decide upon the pitch, face width, material and its treatment.

Solution:

Fig. AF 19, vm  2176 fpm

Permissible error = 0.0014 in

Use carefully cut gears, e  0.001in , Pd  5 as standard

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Table AT 25,

Steel and steel, 20o FD

C  1660

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for 24 hr/day service, heavy shock loading

Nsf  1.75

0.32955s  1.755203

s  27,629 psi

use sn  su 3

su  327,629  82,887 psi

Table AT 9

Use 4150, OQT 1200 F,

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su  159ksi , BHN  331 350

Ans.
Pd  5
b  5 in
Material. 4150, OQT 1200 F

3. Two helical gears are used in a single reduction speed reducer rated at 27.4 hp at a
motor speed of 1750 rpm; continuous duty. The rating allows an occasional 100 %
momentary overload. The pinion has 33
teeth. Pdn  10 , b  2 in. , n  20 ,   20 , mw  2.82 . For both gears, the teeth are
carefully cut from SAE 1045 with BHN = 180. Compute (a) the dynamic load, (b) the
endurance strength; estimate K f  1.7 . Also decide whether or not the 100 % overload
is damaging. (c) Are these teeth suitable for continuous service? If they are not suitable
suggest a cure. (The gears are already cut.)

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UNIT – IV
GEAR BOXES
DESIGN OF GEAR BOXES
Standard progression
When the spindle speed are arranged in geometric progression then the ratio
between the two adjacent speeds is known as step ratio or progression ratio.
Step ratio

Basic series : Step ratio (φ)

R5 : 1.58
R10 : 1.26
R20 : 1.12
R40 : 1.06
R80 : 1.03

Preferred basic series

Basic series Preferred number
R5 (φ=1.6) 1.00, 1.60, 2.50, 4.00, 6.30,10.00
R10 (φ=1.26) 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30, 8.00, 10.00
R20 (φ=1.12) 1.00, 1.06, 1.25, 1.18, 1.60, 1.25, 2.00, 2.24, 2.50, 2.80, 3.15,
3.55, 4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.60, 6.30, 7.10, 8.00, 9.00, 10.00
R40 (φ=1.06) 1.00, 1.06, 1.18, 1.25, 1.32, 1.18, 1.40,1.60, 1.70, 1.25,1.80,
1.90, 2.00, 2.10, 2.24, 2.36, 2.50, 2.65, 2.80, 3.00, 3.15, 3.35, 3.55, 4.00, 4.25,
4.50, 4.75, 5.00, 5.30, 5.60, 6.00, 6.30, 6.70, 7.10, 7.50, 8.00, 8.50, 9.00, 9.50,
10.00
Design of gear box
1. Selection of Spindle speed:
Find the standard step ratio by using the relations,

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2. Structural formula
It can be selected based on the number of speed:
Number of speed Structural formula
3(1) 2(3)
6 2(1) 3(2)

2(1) 2(2) 2(4)

8 4(1) 2(4)

9 3(1) 3(3)
3(1) 2(3) 2(6)
12 2(1) 3(2) 2(6)
2(1) 2(2) 3(4)

3(1) 3(3) 2(5)

14 4(1) 2(4) 2(6)

15 3(1) 3(3) 2(6)

4(1) 2(4) 2(8)

16 2(1) 4(2) 2(8)
2(1) 2(2) 4(4)

3(1) 3(3) 2(9)

18 3(1) 2(3) 3(6)
2(1) 3(2) 3(6)
3. Ray Diagram
The ray diagram is the graphical representation of the drive arrangement in
general from. In other words, The ray diagram is the graphical representation of

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the structural formula. The basic rules to be followed while designing the gear
box as
Transmission ration (i):

For stable operation the speed ratio at any stage should not be greater
than 8.
Nmax / Nmin ≤ 8
4. Kinematic Layout:
The kinematic arrangement shows the arrangement of gears in a gear box.
Formula for kinematic arrangement,
n = p1(X1) . p2(X2)
5. Calculation of number of teeth.
In each stage first pair,
Assume, driver Zmin ≥ 17,

Assume Z = 20 (driver)

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Solved Problems:

1. Design a gearbox with 12 speeds from a source of motor with a speed of 1600. The
required speed range is from 160 rpm to 2000 rpm.

Given:
n = 12
Nmin = 160 rpm
Nmax = 2000 rpm

Step - 1 “Calculation of Step ratio”

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Solution:

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UNIT-V
DESIGN OF CAM, CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
Introduction
A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that
the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. The use
of a clutch is mostly found in automobiles. A little consideration will show that in order to
change gears or to stop the vehicle, it is required that the driven shaft should stop, but the
engine should continue to run. It is, therefore, necessary that the driven shaft should be
disengaged from the driving shaft. The engagement and disengagement of the shafts is
obtained by means of a clutch which is operated by a lever.
Types of Clutches
Following are the two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice :
1. Positive clutches, and
2. Friction clutches
Positive Clutches
The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of
a positive clutch is a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another
through a direct contact of interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is
permanently fastened to the driving shaft by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is
movable and it is free to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning
relatively to its shaft by means of feather key. A square jaw type is used where engagement
and disengagement in motion and under load is not necessary. This type of clutch will
transmit power in either direction of rotation. The spiral jaws may be left-hand or right-hand,
because power transmitted by them is in one direction only. This type of clutch is
occasionally used where the clutch must be engaged and disengaged while in motion. The use
of jaw clutches are frequently applied to sprocket wheels, gears and pulleys. In such a case,
the non-sliding part is made integral with the hub.
Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts
and machines which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in
cases in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of
friction is used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper
speed without excessive slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is
used to connect the engine to the drive shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be taken
so that the friction surfaces engage easily and gradually bring the driven shaft up to proper
speed. The proper alignment of the bearing must be maintained and it should be located as
close to the clutch as possible. It may be noted that :

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1. The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the
load with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
2. The heat of friction should be rapidly
3. The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably
uniform distribution of pressure.
Material for Friction Surfaces
The material used for lining of friction surfaces of a clutch should have the following
characteristics:
1. It should have a high and uniform coefficient of friction.
2. It should not be affected by moisture and oil.
3. It should have the ability to withstand high temperatures caused by slippage.
4. It should have high heat conductivity.
5. It should have high resistance to wear and scoring.
DESIGN OF A DISC OR PLATE CLUTCH
Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an axial thrust (W) .Forces on
a disc clutch.
Let T = Torque transmitted by the clutch,
p = Intensity of axial pressure with which the contact surfaces are held together,
r1 and r2 = External and internal radii of friction faces,
r = Mean radius of the friction face, and
μ = Coefficient of friction.
Consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr
We know that area of the contact surface or friction surface = 2π r.dr
∴ Normal or axial force on the ring,
δW = Pressure × Area = p × 2 π r.dr
and the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
∴ Frictional torque acting on the ring, Fr = μ × δW = μ.p × 2 π r.dr
Tr = Fr × r = μ.p × 2 π r.dr × r = 2 π μ p. r2.dr
We shall now consider the following two cases :
1. When there is a uniform pressure, and
2. When there is a uniform axial wear.

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1. Considering uniform pressure. When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the
entire area of the friction face then the intensity of pressure,
p = W / π – [(r1)2 - (r2)2]
where W = Axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together.
We have discussed above that the frictional torque on the elementary ring of radius r and
thickness dr is
Tr = 2π μ.p.r2.dr

∴Integrating this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total friction torque.
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch,

2. Considering uniform axial wear. The basic principle in designing machine parts that are
subjected to wear due to sliding friction is that the normal wear is proportional to the work of
friction. The work of friction is proportional to the product of normal pressure ( p) and the
sliding velocity (V). Therefore,∝ ∝
Normal wear Work of friction = p.V
or p.V = K (a constant) or p = K/V ...(i)
It may be noted that when the friction surface is new, there is a uniform pressure distribution
over the entire contact surface. This pressure will wear most rapidly where the sliding
velocity is maximum and this will reduce the pressure between the friction surfaces.
This wearing-in process continues until the product p.V is constant over the entire surface.
After this, the wear will be uniform.
Let p be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch.
Since the intensity of pressure varies inversely with the distance, therefore
p.r = C (a constant) or p = C/r ...(ii)
and the normal force on the ring,
δW = p.2πr.dr
= (C/r) 2π r dr
=2πC.dr
∴ Total force acing=on the friction surface,
R = (r1 + r2)/2 = Mean radius of the friction surface.

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BRAKE
Introduction
A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a
moving machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the process of
performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving member or
potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc.
The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is
dissipated in the surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the
brake drum) so that excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place. The design or
capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors :
1. The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,
2. The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces,
3. The peripheral velocity of the brake drum
4. The projected area of the friction surfaces, and
5. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.
The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used
to keep the driving and driven member moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a
moving member or to control its speed.
Energy Absorbed by a Brake
The energy absorbed by a brake depends upon the type of motion of the moving body.
The motion of a body may be either pure translation or pure rotation or a combination of both
translation and rotation. The energy corresponding to these motions is kinetic energy. Let us
consider these motions as follows :
1. When the motion of the body is pure translation. Consider a body of mass (m) moving
with a velocity v1 m / s. Let its velocity is reduced to v2 m / s by applying the brake.
Therefore, the change in kinetic energy of the translating body or kinetic energy of
translation,
E1 = (1/2) m [(v1)2 - (v2)2]
This energy must be absorbed by the brake. If the moving body is stopped after applying the
brakes, then v2 = 0, and
E1 = (1/2) m (v1)2
2. When the motion of the body is pure rotation. Consider a body of mass moment of inertia I
(about a given axis) is rotating about that axis with an angular velocity ω1 rad / s. Let its
angular velocity is reduced to ω2 rad / s after applying the brake. Therefore, the change in
kinetic energy of the rotating body or kinetic energy of rotation,
E2 = (1/2) I [(ω1)2 - (ω2)2]

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This energy must be absorbed by the brake. If the rotating body is stopped after applying the
brakes, then ω2 = 0, and
E1 = (1/2) I (ω1)2
3. When the motion of the body is a combination of translation and rotation. Consider a body
having both linear and angular motions, e.g. in the locomotive driving wheels and wheels of a
moving car. In such cases, the total kinetic energy of the body is equal to the sum ∴of the
kinetic energies of translation and rotation.
Total kinetic energy to be absorbed by the brake,
E = E1 + E2
Sometimes, the brake has to absorb the potential energy given up by objects being
lowered by hoists, elevators etc. Consider a body of mass m is being lowered from a height
h1 to h2 by applying the brake. Therefore the change in potential energy,
E3 = m.g (h1 – h2)
Heat to be Dissipated during Braking
The energy absorbed by the brake and transformed into heat must be dissipated to the
surrounding air in order to avoid excessive temperature rise of the brake lining. The upon the
mass of the brake drum, the braking time and the heat dissipation capacity of the brake. The
highest permissible temperatures recommended for different brake lining materials are given
as follows :
1. For leather, fibre and wood facing = 65 – 70°C
2. For asbestos and metal surfaces that are slightly lubricated = 90 – 105°C
3. For automobile brakes with asbestos block lining = 180 – 225°C
Since the energy absorbed (or heat generated) and the rate of wear of the brake lining
at a particular speed are dependent on the normal pressure between the braking surfaces,
therefore it is an important factor in the design of brakes. The permissible normal pressure
between the braking surfaces depends upon the material of the brake lining, the coefficient of
friction and the maximum rate at which the energy is to be absorbed. The energy absorbed or
the heat generated is given by
E = Hg = μ.RN.v
= μ.p.A.v (in J/s or watts) ...(i)
where μ = Coefficient of friction,
RN = Normal force acting at the contact surfaces, in newtons,
p = Normal pressure between the braking surfaces in N/m2,
A = Projected area of the contact surfaces in m2, and
v = Peripheral velocity of the brake drum in m/s.

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The heat generated may also be obtained by considering the amount of kinetic or potential
energies which is being absorbed. In other words,
Hg = EK + EP
where EK = Total kinetic energy absorbed, and
EP = Total potential energy absorbed.
The heat dissipated (Hd) may be estimated by
Hd = C (t1 – t2) Ar ...(ii)
where C = Heat dissipation factor or coefficient of heat transfer in W /m2 / °C
t1 – t2 = Temperature difference between the exposed radiating surface and
the surrounding air in °C, and
Ar = Area of radiating surface in m2.
The value of C may be of the order of 29.5 W / m2 /°C for a temperature difference of
40°C and increase up to 44 W/m2/°C for a temperature difference of 200°C.
The expressions for the heat dissipated are quite approximate and should serve only as
an indication of the capacity of the brake to dissipate heat. The exact performance of the
brake should be determined by test.
It has been found that 10 to 25 per cent of the heat generated is immediately
dissipated to the surrounding air while the remaining heat is absorbed by the brake drum
causing its temperature to rise. The rise in temperature of the brake drum is given by
t = Hg / (m.c) ...(iii)
where t = Temperature rise of the brake drum in °C
Hg = Heat generated by the brake in joules,
m = Mass of the brake drum in kg, and
c = Specific heat for the material of the brake drum in J/kg °C.
In brakes, it is very difficult to precisely calculate the temperature rise. In preliminary
design analysis, the product p.v is considered in place of temperature rise. The experience has
also shown that if the product p.v is high, the rate of wear of brake lining will be high and the
brake life will be low. Thus the value of p.v should be lower than the upper limit value for the
brake lining to have reasonable wear life. The following table shows the recommended values
of p.v as suggested by various designers for different types of service.

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SOLVED PROBLEMs
1. A single plate clutch with both sides effective; is required to transmit 25 kw at 900
rpm. t hw outer diameter of the plate is 350 mm. the maximum intensity of pressure
over the friction surface is not to exceed 0.1 N/mm2 . considering uniform wear criteria
and assuming coefficient of friction as 0.25; determine (i) the inner diameter of the plate
(ii) axial force required to engage the clutch.
Given;
P= 25 kw ; N =900 rpm ;2r =350 mm ; P max = 0.1 N/mm2 ; µ = 0.25
Sol:-
I. Inner diameter of the plate

Subtracting the relation (ii) in (i) and using the values,

r2 [(0.175)2 – r2] = 0.001689
0.031r2 - r2 3 = 0.001689 By trial and error method,
r2 = 0.136m
II. Axial force required to engage the clutch (F)
= 2 π* 0.1 *106 * 0.136* (0.175 – 0.136 ) * 2
= 6665.2 N
2. A multiple – disc clutch transmits 50 kw of power at 1400 rom. Axial intensity of
pressure not to exceed 0.12 1 N/mm2, and the coefficient of friction of the friction
surfaces is 0.12. the inner radius of the discs is 80 mm, and is .7 times the outer radius.
Determine number of disc required to transmit the given power. Assume uniform wear
condition.
Given;
P = 60 kw; N = 1400rpm; P max = 0.15 N/mm2; µ = 0.12; r2 = 80mm; r1 = r2/ 0.7

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3. A cone clutch with asbestos friction lining, transmits 25 kw at 600 rpm. The
coefficient is 0.25 and the maximum intensity of pressure is 0.25 N/ mm2. The semi cone
angle is 12.50. the outer diameter of friction lining is 250 mm . Considering uniform
wear theory. Determine
i. the inner diameter of the friction lining,
ii. the face width of friction lining and
iii.the force required to engage to the clutch.
Given;
P = 25kw; N = 600rpm; P max = 0.25 N/mm2; µ = 0.25; α = 12.50; 2r1 = 250mm

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4. A single block brake is shown in figure. The diameter of the drum is 300 mm and
the angle of contact is 900. If the operating force of 600N is applied at the end of a lever
and the coefficient of friction between the drum and lining is 0.3 determine the torque
that may be transmitted by the block brake.
Given;
L = 550mm; x= 250mm; a = 50mm; r = 2θ; 900 = π / 2 rad ; F = 600 N; µ = 0.3
Sol;
In the present case the angle of contact is greater than 600. Hence, the equivalent coefiicient
of friction is given by,

Torque transmitted by the brake , Tf = Ff * r

= (466.4 * 150 ) / 1000 = 70N-mS

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