Copyright © 2025 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2025 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved.
05

MATERIALS SCIENCE

KEY TAKEAWAYS Overview

° Materials science is a foundational technology that From semiconductors in computer chips to plas-
underlies advances in many other fields, including tics in everyday objects, materials are everywhere.
robotics, space, energy, and synthetic biology. Knowing how to synthesize and process them, as
well as understanding their structure and properties,
° Materials science will exploit artificial intelligence has helped to shape the world around us. Materials
as another promising tool to predict new mate- science contributes to the development of stronger,
rials with new properties and identify novel uses lighter, and more flexible materials that improve
for known materials. everything from battery electrodes to medical
implants and from automobiles to spacecraft.
° Future progress in materials science requires new
funding mechanisms to more effectively tran- It is a broad field. At Stanford University, for exam-
sition from innovation to implementation and ple, faculty working on materials science research
access to more computational power. programs are found in many departments, includ-
ing Materials Science and Engineering, Chemical
Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Bioengineering,
Chemistry, and Physics.

Researchers in materials science study the properties

and behavior of materials to understand and pre-
dict their structure and performance under various

77

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 conditions. Their goal is to develop new materials and several other complementary methods, under-
with desirable properties and improve existing ones lies these four areas.
by understanding how the structure of a material
influences its properties and how processing it can
Basics of Materials Science
change its structure and therefore its performance.
This knowledge can then be used to design new All materials are composed of atoms. The periodic
materials with desirable properties for specific uses. table of the elements (figure 5.1) lists all the known
types of atoms. Certain atoms can be combined
Broadly speaking, materials science and engineer- with others into molecules that have vastly different
ing research focuses on four major areas. The first properties than the individual atoms involved. For
is the study of the structure of materials to under- example, table salt consists of sodium and chlorine,
stand how they are composed and organized from which are elements. Sodium burns on contact with
atomic to macroscopic scales. The second involves water, and chlorine is a poisonous gas, yet the table
verifying the properties of materials, such as their salt we consume every day is a completely different
conductivity, strength, and elasticity. The third area substance.
covers analysis and benchmarking of how materials
perform in specific situations. The final one involves There are two important points to note about the
assessing how materials can be fabricated and man- periodic table. First, there are a lot of elements —
ufactured. Characterization of materials, or the gen- ninety-two naturally occurring ones and twenty-six
eral process by which their structure and properties that can be observed only in laboratory conditions.
are ascertained through spectroscopic, microscopic, That’s a lot of building blocks from which different

FIGURE 5.1 The periodic table of the elements

Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1 1 2
H He
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period

4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 55 56 * 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7 87 88 * 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra * Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

* 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
* 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
* Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

Source: Adapted from Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

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materials and molecules can be synthesized, and an of macromolecules often mean the material is more
astronomically large number of different compounds flexible, making many plastics possible. Research
are possible. The challenge for materials science is on new macromolecular structures can be used to
to sift through this vast array of possibilities to find develop plastic materials that are easier to recycle
the ones that are useful. Machine-learning (ML) or have advantageous mechanical properties while
algorithms can accelerate this process by predicting weighing less than metals.
the properties of materials and identifying promising
candidates for synthesis, significantly reducing the
time and resources required for experimental test-
ing. (More detail on this subject is provided later in
this chapter.) Key Developments
The second important point is that the elements in Some interesting present-day applications of materi-
the periodic table are lined up in a certain order. als science are discussed below.
Those in the same column have properties that are
often similar in key ways. This means insights devel-
Flexible Electronics
oped through experimentation or calculation on
one element also apply, with some modifications, Flexible or stretchable electronics involves the cre-
to another element above or below it in the peri- ation of electrical devices that can bend, stretch, and
odic table. deform without compromising their performance.
Such electronics can be used as wearable, skinlike
Atoms can be arranged spatially in various ways. A devices. For example, “electronic skin,” or e-skin,
crystal, for example, is the result of arranging atoms can conform to real skin and sense things such as
in a periodically repeating lattice. The silicon wafer temperature and pressure, as well as encode
at the heart of the semiconductor industry is one these into electrical signals.1 A “smart bandage”
such crystal; more precisely, it’s a slice of a single with integrated sensors to monitor wound condi-
silicon crystal. tions and with electrical stimulation can acceler-
ate the time needed to heal chronic wounds by
Molecules, which are composed of atoms, can, in 25 percent.2
turn, be linked together into structures called mac-
romolecules (see figure 5.2). These can occur natu- Recent research has also shown the development of
rally, as is the case for proteins, DNAs, and cellulose, integrated circuits on soft and flexible substrates can
or they can be synthesized artificially and used to drive a micro-LED (light-emitting diode) screen that
create things such as polymers/plastics. Long chains can read out a braille array ten times more sensi-
tively than human fingertips.3 The latest version of
this device is many times smaller than previous itera-
tions and operates three orders of magnitude faster
than them.
FIGURE 5.2 Objects of study in materials science
Composites This performance is achieved using a combination
Inorganic Organic Plastics of carbon nanotubes (tubular molecules made up
of carbon atoms), a one-dimensional conductor,
Atom Molecules Macromolecules
and a flexible polymer substrate. This substrate
encases the carbon nanotubes and maintains a con-
nected internal electrical circuit while bending and

05 Materials Science 79

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 deforming. The transistors it uses are built onto this method known as continuous liquid interface pro-
pliable substrate and enable the device to power duction (CLIP) uses directed ultraviolet (UV) light to
the micro-LED display. form structures from a polymer resin (see figure 5.3).4
A key aspect of CLIP is its use of an oxygen-permeable
Commercialization will require more work to elimi- window placed above a UV light projector that pre-
nate variations in electrical properties of the device’s vents the resin from curing in unwanted places.
circuits when mounted on a moving host, as well
as work to eliminate its susceptibility to moisture. Especially at high speeds, 3-D printing struggles with
Still, the research team responsible for this invention producing small features. The 3-D printing process
envisions using it to make biocompatible probes for requires several components, including the material
the brain and gut that are more capable and energy resin, the light source, and the build platform where
efficient than current ones. This could pave the way an object is printed, to perform in concert. That is
to more complex and longer-lasting brain-machine technically challenging, but by printing on a tensioned
interfaces. film made from polyethylene terephthalate that’s fed
through a CLIP printer, it’s possible to 3-D print very
small particles at a pace of one million a day from a
Additive Manufacturing
single machine.5
One of the most promising advances in materials pro-
cessing over the past fifteen years is additive man-
Nanotechnology
ufacturing, colloquially known as 3-D printing. The
technology comes in different forms. For instance, a Nanotechnology is a large and growing subfield of
materials science. Size has a profound impact on the
properties of a material. Figure 5.4 compares the
length of a water molecule (below a nanometer), a
human hair (roughly 105 nanometers), and a human
FIGURE 5.3 A CLIP-based 3-D printer created a eyeball (at 107 nanometers). A structure is typically
miniature print of the Eiffel Tower
referred to as nanoscale if at least one of its dimen-
sions is in the 1-to-100-nanometer range.

In the past twenty years, nanoscience and nano­

technology have attracted enormous interest for two
reasons. First, many significant biological organ-
isms, such as viruses and proteins, are nanoscale
in size. Second, it turns out that the properties
of nanoscale materials — including their elec-
tronic, optical, magnetic, thermal, and mechan-
ical properties — are often very different from the
same material in bulk form.6 Materials that are
smaller than about 100 nanometers in one dimen-
sion, two dimensions, or all dimensions are called
nanosheets, nanowires, and nanoparticles, respec-
tively (see figure 5.5). Somewhat more complex
shapes include nanotubes, which are flexible hollow
tubes made of carbon atoms, and nanorods, which
Source: Carbon Inc. / John Tumbleston are slightly wider, rigid structures.

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FIGURE 5.4 The size of nanoscale objects example of how size affects a material’s properties
because their optoelectronic properties differ from
in nanometers those of the same bulk material. The diameter of
10-1
H quantum dots determines the color of light that they
O Water
molecule produce, with larger ones emitting longer wave-
lengths. This enables tunable light emission based
1 H
on the desired application.

Antibody Some current uses of the technology include the

Nanoscale 10
following:

Medical imaging Quantum dots can improve

102 Virus biomedical imaging by, for example, acting as flu-
orescent markers that make it possible to selec-
tively label biological structures in vitro and in vivo.8
103 Bacterium Biocompatible nanomaterials can also be employed
as optical probes that sense mechanical forces and
electrical fields in biological organisms, remov-
104 ing the need for bulky, specialized equipment and
Cancer cell
making new experiments possible.9

105 Solar cells Quantum dots’ ability to absorb differ-

Human hair ent frequencies of light means they can potentially
capture more of the solar spectrum, boosting the
106 performance of solar panels.10

Sensors Quantum dots can be used in sensors for

Human detecting chemicals and biological substances.11
107
eyeball
Anticounterfeiting When they are embedded in
product labels, quantum dots can help defend against
108
counterfeiting.12

Apart from applications related to quantum dots,

other examples of applications of nanomaterials
include the following:

Quantum dots — for which the Nobel Prize in Pharmaceutical delivery An injectable polymer-
Chemistry was awarded in 2023 — have garnered nanoparticle hydrogel has been developed to pre-
public attention through their use in televisions. cisely control the delivery of drugs, proteins, and
They are metallic, carbonaceous, or semiconductor cells.13 The efficacy of insulin administration can also
spherical nanocrystals that emit bright monochro- be improved through this research.14 Among other
matic light in response to excitation by a light source innovative uses, nanoparticles can be engineered to
with a higher energy, such as blue light from the permeate the blood–brain barrier, delivering drugs
back panel in a display.7 Quantum dots are a model to treat neurodegenerative diseases.15

05 Materials Science 81

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 FIGURE 5.5 Dimensionality of nanomaterials

0-D 1-D 2-D

nanoparticle nanowire nanosheet Bulk

Nanotechnology (at least one dimension <100 nm) >100 nm

Vaccine stabilization Nanoassemblies can be used nanowires solve this problem and deliver a tenfold
to stabilize certain types of vaccines — that is, protect increase in battery capacity.19
their components from degradation — by encapsu-
lating them.16 In this form, it is easier to inject a vaccine Catalysis Catalysts are important anywhere a
into the human body and to ensure its release over chemical reaction must be speeded up to be useful.
time inside the body in a controlled manner. This is For example, catalytic converters in cars use platinum
especially useful for mRNA vaccines such as the ones and palladium catalysts to rapidly break down carbon
developed for COVID-19. monoxide into carbon dioxide (CO2). Nanomaterials
are particularly well suited for this role.20 This is
Smart windows Silver nanowires arranged into a because their high surface-to-volume ratio allows
thin film on a window become a transparent conduc- many more active catalytic sites to participate in a
tive surface. Running a current through the film can reaction than would be the case for the same mate-
then change the opacity of the window electrically.17 rial in bulk. Nanomaterials can also be chemically
architected to catalyze various reactions. Advances
Two-dimensional (2-D) semiconductors, graphene, have been made in converting CO2 to value-added
carbon nanotubes, and nanoscale materials These chemicals using electrified nanoparticle catalysts and
are at the forefront of the next generation of high- in employing palladium catalysts for the combustion
tech electronic devices. Active research efforts are of methane, which could improve the efficiency of
designing new methods to integrate 2-D or carbon electricity generation from the gas.21 Nanocatalysts
nanotube semiconductors into electronics that are have also been used to improve the rate at which
currently silicon-based to improve their energy effi- hydrogen can be produced from water through elec-
ciency and heat management.18 (A 2-D semiconduc- trolysis.22 These approaches still face challenges,
tor is a semiconductor with atomic-scale thickness.) including developing catalysts that are sufficiently
active and stable — as well as cheap enough — to
Higher-capacity batteries High-performance lith- inexpensively produce hydrogen in large quantities.23
ium battery anodes have been developed by inte-
grating silicon nanowires as an anode material. When
Biosensing
bulk silicon is used as an anode, it undergoes signifi-
cant changes in volume as a battery charges and dis- Detecting pathogenic bacteria usually takes a long
charges, often leading to mechanical failure. Silicon time, often involving culture-based methods or

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 One of the foremost challenges of materials science as
a discipline is the vast number of possible materials and
material combinations that can be used and the associated
time and cost involved in synthesis and characterization.

polymerase chain reaction, a lab technique that repro- of complex materials. Databases such as the
duces DNA sequences for study. A new method has Materials Project led by Lawrence Berkeley National
been developed that uses Raman spectroscopy — Laboratory represent a significant effort,26 but they
a means of analyzing chemical structures — to rapidly still have limitations in terms of the range of prop-
identify pathogenic bacteria in blood samples based erties covered. To truly understand and predict the
on their unique optical signatures when exposed to properties of materials, such as their thermal con-
laser light.24 This system creates nanodroplets from ductivity or optical characteristics, more accurate,
blood samples, with each droplet containing only comprehensive, and tailored databases are needed.
a few cells. Adding gold nanorods to these drop- Among their many applications, these could help
lets makes it easier to detect dangerous bacteria accelerate the development of materials that enable
because the rods adhere to suspect cells and amplify researchers to overcome bottlenecks in chip assem-
their signature in a spectrographic analysis. An ML bly as semiconductors continue to be miniaturized.
algorithm can then use the results to determine if a
pathogen is present. Several major industry efforts are already underway
to harness artificial intelligence (AI) for materials
exploration. Google DeepMind’s Graph Networks
The Application of Artificial Intelligence in
for Materials Exploration project aims to use neural
Materials Science
networks — ML models that process data in ways
One of the foremost challenges of materials science similar to human brains—to predict new materials.
as a discipline is the vast number of possible materi- Other companies like IBM, Citrine Informatics, and
als and material combinations that can be used and MaterialsZone are combining materials science exper-
the associated time and cost involved in synthesis tise with data science and AI to accelerate materials
and characterization. ML offers promising solutions development and optimize product design.
by leveraging experimental and computational data
on the properties of materials.25 ML algorithms can In addition to those mentioned above, some other
recognize patterns in existing data and make gen- current applications of ML in materials science
eralized predictions about new materials. While this include the following:
approach has been successful with relatively simple
materials, much remains to be done when dealing Knowledge discovery The technology has been
with complicated ones. used in materials science to examine the scientific
literature for hidden relationships and predict new
ML provides a starting point for further exploration, material properties. For example, researchers using
but additional data is needed to make ML-informed an ML model were able to analyze patterns in scien-
solutions more accurate, especially in the case tific abstracts.27 The model was trained to calculate

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 FIGURE 5.6 The A-Lab combines AI-guided synthesis with automated materials characterization

Source: © 2023 The Regents of the University of California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

the probability that a material’s name would co-occur identify key factors for better performance.28 They dis-
with the word thermoelectric in the analyzed text. covered that lower oxygen content in the solvent leads
The researchers then identified abstracts involving to improved battery cycling and used this insight to
other materials that had words with close semantic develop new electrolytes that improved the process.
relationships to thermoelectric but that had never
been studied as such. Remarkably, their model’s top Automated labs To address the challenge of lim-
predictions were eight times more likely to be stud- ited experimental data, there is growing interest in
ied as thermoelectrics in the succeeding five years developing autonomous laboratories that can rapidly
compared to randomly chosen materials. This demon- synthesize and characterize materials at scale. For
strates the potential of AI to uncover latent knowledge example, the A-Lab developed by researchers at the
in existing scientific literature and to guide future University of California–Berkeley is a robotic platform
research directions. that combines AI-guided synthesis with automated
characterization to enable materials discovery (see
Battery electrolyte design Improving electrolyte figure 5.6).29 The A-Lab system consists of several key
design in batteries can enhance their performance, components:
but predicting and designing effective electrolytes
is challenging because of their complexity. ML has ° A robotic arm that picks, weighs, and mixes
been applied to a data-driven electrolyte design for dry chemical precursors, which are compounds
lithium-metal batteries. Liquid electrolytes play an needed for use in chemical reactions
important role in determining how well these bat-
teries can cycle, or charge and discharge. Researchers ° A sample preparation station where the precur-
used models to analyze electrolyte compositions and sors are turned into a slurry

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° A conveyor belt system that transports the sam- issues. Such criticisms highlight the need for con-
ples to different stations tinued validation and human oversight in AI-driven
materials research.
° An oven to allow precursors to react, with the
environment determined by an ML algorithm Although much remains to be done, this field
undoubtedly has great promise for optimizing com-
° A grinding station where the product is turned plex material properties. For instance, in the future,
into a fine powder automated laboratories may be able to accurately
predict new materials, balancing the need for quick,
° Automated characterization equipment to vali- high-volume calculations with the desire for precise,
date morphology and elemental distribution high-quality real-world results. They may also be able
to predict and create actual material samples with suf-
The A-Lab demonstration showcased the potential ficient accuracy to reduce the amount of human effort
for autonomous materials synthesis and characteriza- needed to confirm the automated analysis.
tion. Out of 58 targeted materials, the authors claimed
36 successful syntheses and 7 partial successes. This The integration of AI and ML into materials science pres-
high-throughput approach could significantly accel- ents immense opportunities for accelerating discovery
erate the process of validating computational predic- and innovation. By combining advanced algorithms
tions and generating new experimental data to train with expanded databases, automated experimenta-
ML models. tion, and increased computational resources, research-
ers aim to navigate the vast landscape of possible
materials more efficiently than ever before.

Over the Horizon Challenges of Innovation and

Implementation
Machine Learning in Materials Science
The materials science research infrastructure does
Over the horizon, there is the hope that ML-guided not adequately support the transition from research
approaches will dramatically shorten the timescale for to real-world applications at scale. Such transitions
materials discovery and enable the design of mater­ generally require construction of a small-scale pilot
ials optimized for specific applications. Continued project to demonstrate the feasibility of potential
development of both bottom-up computational large-scale manufacturing. At this point, the tech-
approaches and top-down experimental data-driven nology is too mature to qualify for most research
methods will be needed to bridge the gap between funding — because basic science does not address
fundamental material parameters and real-world issues related to scaling up — but not mature enough
device performance. to be commercialized by actual companies. Neither
government nor venture capital investors are partic-
Computational approaches will need to be vali- ularly enthusiastic about financing pilot projects, so
dated. For example, the A-Lab described above has different forms of funding are required to bridge this
faced some criticism from the scientific community. gap between bench-scale research and company-
One critique centered on concerns about the accu- level investment. Such support could also establish
racy of its characterization work and claims of new national rapid prototyping centers, where academic
material synthesis,30 pointing to errors in the A-Lab’s researchers can find the help and tools neces-
analysis that included poor and incorrect fits of struc- sary to build prototypes and pilot plants for their
tural models to the experimental data, among other technology.

05 Materials Science 85

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 Historically, the United States has led the world in
nanotechnology, but the gap between it and China
has narrowed.

Past research processes are also ill-suited to rapid the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) created
transitions to real-world applications. Such pro- a Nanotechnology Regulatory Science Research Plan
cesses emphasize sequential steps. The standard in 2013.31 Today, FDA regulation and review of nano-
process has been to characterize a material and then technology is governed by Executive Order 13563.32
proceed to a simple demonstration of how it might Outside of biomedicine, regulation of and infrastruc-
be used. Today, addressing big societal challenges ture for nanomaterials research from the government
calls for a more scalable, system-level approach that side is based largely in agencies of the National
involves extensive rapid prototyping and fast, reli- Nanotechnology Initiative, which include the
able demonstrations to provide feedback on the Department of Energy, the National Cancer Institute,
potential value of specific materials and to fill in the National Institutes of Health, the National Institute
knowledge gaps. of Standards and Technology in the Department of
Commerce, and the National Science Foundation.
Current infrastructure makes this difficult. For exam-
ple, in collaborations with a medical school, it is often
TOXICITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
necessary to bring almost-finished products to clin-
Nanoparticles raise particular concerns because their
ical tests to validate the true impact of a new medi-
small size may enable them to pass through various
cal device using innovative materials. With typically
biological borders such as cell membranes or the
less than a thirty-minute window to place a device
blood–brain barrier, potentially affecting biological
on a patient and gather data, any malfunction, such
systems in harmful ways. Nanoscale particles inhaled
as a sudden equipment failure or a loose wire, can
into the lungs, for example, may lodge themselves
jeopardize an entire experiment and potentially halt
there permanently, causing severe health outcomes,
future patient interactions. Lab-assembled devices
including pulmonary inflammation, lung cancer, and
may not meet this standard of reliability, even if they
penetration into the brain and skin.33
do demonstrate the value of the underlying science.

Moreover, because engineered nanoparticles are,

Policy, Legal, and Regulatory Issues by definition, new to the natural environment, they
pose unknown dangers to humans and the environ-
REGULATION OF PRODUCTS INCORPORATING ment. These concerns include managing the risk of
NANOMATERIALS incorporating nanomaterials into products that enter
As with regulation in other areas of technology, mater­ the environment at the end of their life cycles. As
ials science faces concerns about the appropriate nanomaterials are employed in, and considered for,
balance between the need to ensure public safety electronic and energy products, it is paramount that
and the imperative to innovate quickly and leap- they safely degrade or can be recycled at the end of
frog possible competitors. In the biomedical space, a product’s life. Policy will be particularly important

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in shaping responsible end-of-life solutions for prod- extensive databases. However, better access to
ucts incorporating them. computing power is essential for researchers in
materials science to generate and analyze databases
Finally, end-of-life considerations that take into effectively. Greater access to data, including to data-
account environmental sustainability and resource bases that might not always be openly available to
conservation are inherently a part of developing and academics, is also needed.
distributing new materials. This is especially impor­
tant for plastics and materials containing per- and One additional area where policymakers could have
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which pose signif- a significant impact is in bridging the gap between
icant environmental and health risks. Material devel- the scientific community and makers of compu-
opers can incorporate recyclability into their design tational hardware. Frequent changes in comput-
processes. For PFAS and other persistent chemicals, ing architectures can lead to a loss of productivity
the US Environmental Protection Agency strategic for researchers because code must be constantly
road map of October 2021 provides guidance for updated. Improved collaboration with hardware
their use and disposal and calls for research into safe manufacturers and other providers of computing
alternatives and effective degradation methods.34 resources could ensure scientific needs are better
aligned with advances in computing technology,
enhancing overall research efficiency.
FOREIGN COLLABORATION AND COMPETITION
Historically, the United States has led the world in nano-
technology, but the gap between it and China has nar-
rowed. Notably, in 2016, the president of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences openly announced Beijing’s
NOTES
ambition to compete in the field of nanotechnology.35 1. Weichen Wang, Yuanwen Jiang, Donglai Zhong, et al., “Neuro­
morphic Sensorimotor Loop Embodied by Monolithically Inte-
grated, Low-Voltage, Soft E-Skin,” Science 380, no. 6646 (2023):
As great power competition intensifies, many re­ 735–42, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade0086.
searchers are concerned that fundamental research 2. Yuanwen Jiang, Artem A. Trotsyuk, Simiao Niu, et al., “Wire-
could now be subject to export controls. Policy less, Closed-Loop, Smart Bandage with Integrated Sensors and
Stimulators for Advanced Wound Care and Accelerated Healing,”
ambiguity can inadvertently hinder innovation by Nature Biotechnology 41 (2023): 652–62, https://doi.org/10.1038
creating obstacles for non-US researchers wishing /s41587-022-01528-3.
to contribute to work in America and by deterring 3. Donglai Zhong, Can Wu, Yuanwen Jiang, et al., “High-Speed
and Large-Scale Intrinsically Stretchable Integrated Circuits,”
international collaborations with allies and partners Nature 627 (March 2024): 313–20, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586
who are important for advancing the field. In nano- -024-07096-7.
materials, for example, researchers in South Korea 4. John R. Tumbleston, David Shirvanyants, Nikita Ermoshkin,
et al., “Continuous Liquid Interface Production of 3D Objects,”
are making significant strides with biomedical appli- Science 347, no. 6228 (March 2015): 1349–52, https://doi
cations and ones for consumer electronics. There .org/10.1126/science.aaa2397; Kaiwen Hsiao, Brian J. Lee, Tim
is an urgent need for clarification of these policies, Samuelsen, et al., “Single-Digit-Micrometer-Resolution Contin-
uous Liquid Interface Production,” Science Advances 8, no. 46
particularly those delineating fundamental research (November 2022), https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq2846.
and export-controlled research. 5. For more on polyethylene terephthalate, see Polymershapes,
“PET Plastic Film,” accessed October 13, 2023, https://www
.polymershapes.com/pet-plastic-film/; Jason M. Kronenfeld, Lukas
Rother, Max A. Saccone, et al., “Roll-to-Roll, High-Resolution 3D
INFRASTRUCTURE FOR ML-ASSISTED Printing of Shape-Specific Particles,” Nature 627 (March 2024):
MATERIALS SCIENCE 306–12, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07061-4.
The United States benefits from having some of the 6. Hui Pan and Yuan Ping Feng, “Semiconductor Nanowires
and Nanotubes: Effects of Size and Surface-to-Volume Ratio,”
world’s largest supercomputing resources, which are ACS Nano 2, no. 11 (November 2008): 2410–14, https://doi
essential not only for ML but also for developing .org/10.1021/nn8004872; Anna C. Balazs, Todd Emrick, and

05 Materials Science 87

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of Chemical Engineering and Professor of
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Engineering

Dr. Stefano Cestellos-Blanco

SETR Fellow and Postdoctoral Scholar in Chemical
Engineering

Dr. Lukas Michalek

SETR Fellow and Postdoctoral Scholar in Chemical
Engineering

05 Materials Science 89

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