THE CRADLE HIGH SCHOOL, BENIN

YEAR 10 CHEMISTRY NOTE

EASTER TERM, 2024/2025

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS/CONTENTS

1-5 Kinetic Theory of Matter/Gas Laws

6-7 Carbon and its Compounds

8-9 Mixtures and Standard Separation Techniques

10 Acids, Bases/Alkalis, and Salts

11 REVISION

12 EXAMINATION

WEEK 1-5

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• Explain the Kinetic Theory of matter/gases

• Define Gas Laws

• Give at least,the five (5) common and relevant gas laws, and explain them

• Give the mathematical expressions of the gas laws mentioned above with their
derivations

• Sample calculations on gas laws

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER/GASES:

The kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of small or tiny particles that are in random
motion, and that have spaces between them. This means that, whatever phase or state matter is in, it is
made up of separate, moving or vibrating particles.

This theory sounds pretty simple, but it actually explains a lot about the physical properties of matter and
how it behaves. One might be surprised to learn that the particles of a solid are actually moving, just not
enough for one to see or observe it. This type of vibrational movement is why a solid will not change
shape no matter what kind of container it is put into.

Know that liquid particles have more energy than solid particles. The extra energy in this state allows the
particles to move around more freely, and they spread out more than those of a solid, putting more space
between their particles. This is why a liquid will take the shape of its container up to its surface

And since gases have even more energy than liquids, their particles move around a lot more, too. This is
why a gas will expand to fill its entire container, not just to its surface like a liquid. Not only do the
particles of a solid not move very much, but they're also held very close to each other by strong attractive
forces. These forces are what hold the particles in place and are what give a solid its fixed size and shape.

On the other hand, the particles of a gas are so far apart that the attractive forces between them are
assumed to be negligible. The particles of a gas are viewed as independent from each other, meaning
that the gas is the opposite of a solid and has neither a fixed size nor shape.

Since the movement of liquid particles is in between a solid and a gas, the attractive forces between its
particles are also in a middle range of the other two phases. Liquid particles have more freedom than
solid particles, which is why a liquid can flow freely.

More so, gases can be studied by considering the small scale action of individual molecules or by
considering the large scale action of the gas as a whole. We can directly measure, or sense, the large
scale action of the gas. But to study the action of the molecules, we must use a theoretical model. The
model, called the kinetic theory of gases, assumes that the molecules are very small relative to the
distance between molecules. The molecules are in constant, random motion and frequently colliding with
each other and with the walls of their containing vessels.

The individual molecules possess the standard physical properties of mass, momentum, and energy. The
density of a gas is simply the sum of the mass of the molecules divided by the volume which the gas
occupies. The pressure of a gas is a measure of the linear momentum of the molecules. As the gas
molecules collide with the walls of their vessels, the molecules impart momentum to the walls, producing
a force that can be measured.
 The force divided by the area is defined to be the pressure. The temperature of a gas is a measure of the
mean kinetic energy of the gas. The molecules are in constant random motion, and there is an energy
(mass x square of the velocity) associated with that motion. The higher the temperature, the greater the
motion.

In a solid, the location of the molecules relative to each other remains almost constant. But in a gas, the
molecules can move around and interact with each other and with their surroundings in different ways.

As mentioned above, there is always a random component of molecular motion. The entire fluid can be
made to move as well in an ordered motion (flow). The ordered motion is superimposed, or added to, the
normal random motion of the molecules. At the molecular level, there is no distinction between the
random component and the ordered component. We measure the pressure produced by the random
component as the static pressure. The pressure produced by the ordered motion is called DYNAMIC
PRESSURE. And BERNOULLI'S EQUATION tells us that the sum of the static and dynamic pressure is the
total pressure which we can also measure.

Gas Laws: These are sets or groups of laws or principles that govern the behaviours of gases under
varying or prevailing conditions.

SOME TYPES OF GAS LAWS:

1. Boyle's law (by Robert Boyle).

2. Charles' law (by Jacques Charles)

3. Combined gas law or General gas law

4. Graham's law of diffusion

5. Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes (by Joseph -Luois Gay-Lussac).

6. Avogadro's Hypothesis or Hypothesis (by Amedeo Avogadro).

7. Ideal gas law or Ideal gas equation or Equation of state

8. Dalton's law of partial pressure (by John Dalton), etc.

BOYLE'S LAW

Boyle's law states that the volume of a given or fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure
provided the temperature remains constant.

That is, v & 1/p (T = a constant)

OR

Boyle's law states that the pressure of a given or fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
provided the temperature remains constant.

That is, p & 1/v (T = a constant).

=> V = k/P

V1 = k1/P1

Then, K1 = P1V1
And also, K2 = P2V2

If k1 = k2

Then, P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyle's law equation for calculations).

NOTE : Boyle's law is a volume - pressure law.

 Photograph of Robert Boyle

Sample Calculations
1. A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atmospheres. If the pressure is reduced to 0.5
atmospheres without a change in temperature, what would be the volume of the balloon?

Solution

V1 = 2.0L
V2 = ?
P1 = 3atm
P2 = 0.5atm
Using P1V1= P2V2
V2 = P1V1/P2
= 3atm X 2.0L/0.5
= 6X5
V2 = 30 L ans.

2. At a constant temperature, a gas has volume of 10cm3 at pressure of

100mmHg. If the volume of the gas is doubled, what will be its new
pressure?
 Solution

V1 = 10cm3
V2 = 2 x 10 = 20cm3
P1 = 100cm3
P2 = ?
Using P1V1= P2V2
P2 = P1V1/V2
= 10 X 100/20
= 50cm3 ans.

CHARLES' LAW
Charles' law states that the volume of a given or fixed mass of gas is
directly to its absolute or kelvin temperature provided the pressure remains
constant.
That is, V & T (P = a constant).
V = kT
k1 = V1/T1
And also, k2 = V2/T2
If k1 = k2
Then V1/T1 = V2/T2 (Charles' law equation for calculations).
 Note: Charles' law is a volume-temperature law.

Photographs of Jacques Charles

Q1. Calculate the decrease in temperature (in Celsius) when 2.00 L at 21.0 °C is compressed to 1.00 L.

Solution

V1 = 2L
V2 = 1L
T1 = 0°C
T2 = ?
Using V1/T1 = V2/T2
T2 = V2T1/V1
 = 1 X 0/2
T2 = 0°C ans.

COMBINED GAS LAW/GENERAL GAS EQUATION

Combined Gas Law states that the volume of a given or a fixed mass of a
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure and directly proportional to its
absolute or kelvin temperature.
That is, V & T/P.
V = kT/P
k = PV/T
If k1 = P1V1/T1
And k2 = P2V2/T2
So, if k1 = k2
Then P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 (Combined gas law for calculations)
Note that the combined gas law is made up of Boyle's law and Charles' law.
That is, combined gas law is a volume-pressure-temperature law.

GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION

Graham's law of diffusion states that the rate (r) of diffusion of a gas is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density or vapour density (d)
provided the pressure and temperature remain constant.
That is, r & 1/√d
r = k/√d
k = r√d
k1 = r1√d1
k2 = r2√d2
If k1 = k2
Then r1√d1 = r2√d2
r1/r2 = √d2/√d1
= √d2/d1
= √M2/M1 (Graham's law for calculations).

Photographs of Thomas Graham

GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES

Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes states that when gases react, they do so in volumes which
bear a simple ratio to one another, and to the volume of the product(s) formed if gaseous, provided the
temperature and pressure remain constant.

Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes helps to explain the experimental facts about how gaseous
atoms combine. Below are some examples of chemical reactions that demonstrate the law :

a). N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

1 vol. 3 vols. 2 vols.

From the above equation, it implies that, 1 volume of nitrogen (N2) combines with 3 volumes of hydrogen
(H2) to form 2 volumes of ammonia (NH3).

b). 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

2 vols. 1 vol. 2 vols.

The above equation means 2 volumes of hydrogen (H2) combine with 1 volume of oxygen (O2) to form 2
volumes of steam (H2O).

C). Cl2(g) + H2(g) → 2HCl(g)

1 vol. 1 vol. 2 vols.

The equation above implies that 1 volume of chlorine gas (Cl2) combines with 1 volume of hydrogen (H2)
to form 2 volumes of hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Consider the chemical equation of the chemical reaction given below:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g).

i). Calculate the volume of steam/vapour produced from 20cm3 of hydrogen and 20cm3 of oxygen mixed
together.

Solution: 2H2(g) + O2(g) --------> 2H2O(g)

2vols 1vol 2vols
20cm3 10cm3 20cm3
Therefore, the volume of steam/vapour produced = 20cm3 ans.
Note also, that the volume of the residual gases
= volume of excess oxygen + volume of steam/vapour produced
= 10cm3 + 20cm3
= 30cm3 ans.

Photographs of Gay Lussac

ii). State the name of the gas that was in excess and the volume.
 Solution

Oxygen gas was in excess and by 20cm3 -10cm3 = 10cm3 ans.

AVOGADRO'S HYPOTHESIS/AVOGADRO'S LAW

Avogadro's law states that at constant temperature and pressure, equal volumes (v) of different or all
gases contain an equal number of molecules(n).

The specific number of molecules in one gram-mole of a substance, defined as the molecular weight in
grams, is 6.02 x 10^23, a quantity called Avogadro’s number (NA), or the Avogadro's constant (L). For
example, the molecular weight of hydrogen is 2.00, so that one gram-mole of hydrogen has a mass of
2.00 grams and contains 6.02 × 10^23 molecules.

Avogadro's law is at times referred to as AVOGADRO'S HYPOTHESIS or AVOGADRO'S PRINCIPLE or

AVOGADRO-AMPERE'S HYPOTHESIS.

That is, V & n

V = kn

k = V/n

For k1 = V1/n1

Also, k2 = V2/n2

If k1 = k2

Then, V1/n1 = V2/n2 (Avogadro's law for calculations).

Or V1/m1 = V2/m2.

Avogadro's number (NA) has a numerical value = 6.02 x 10^23.

Avogadro's Constant (L) is equivalent to Avogadro's Number (NA).

It might interest you at this point, to know that the Avogadro's Hypothesis/law was given by Amadeo
Avogadro, an Italian physicist who stated, in 1811, that the volume of any gas is proportional to the
number of molecules of the gas (measured in Moles – symbol mol). In other words if the amount of gas
increases, so does its volume.

NOTE : Avogadro's law is a volume -number of molecules law.

The above picture/photograph is Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro,
who gave the Avogadro's law.

IMPLICATIONS/CONSEQUENCES OF AVOGADRO'S LAW BRING TRUE:

The molar volume(Mv)/molar gas volume (GMv) of all ideal/perfect gases at 0°C (273k) and 1 atm
(760mmHg) pressure is 22.4l/22.4dm3.

1. If pressure and temperature of a gas are constant, when the amount of gas increases, the volume
increases.

2. If pressure and temperature of a gas are constant, when the amount of gas decreases, the volume
decreases.

LIMITATIONS OF AVOGADRO'S LAW:

1. Although Avogadro's law is perfectly applicable to perfect/ideal gases, it provides only approximate
relationships at best. Furthermore, the deviation of real gases from ideal behavior increases at high
pressure and low temperatures.

2. It is important to understand that gases with molecules composed of relatively low molecular weights
(such as hydrogen and helium) obey the Avogadro's law to a greater extent than heavier molecules.

APPLICATIONS/USES AVOGADRO'S LAW:

1. It explains Gay-Lussac’s law

2. It determines the atomicity of the gases

3. It determines the molecular formula of a gaseous compound

4. It gives the relationship between gram molecular mass and gram molecular volume of gas
5. It determines the relationship between molecular mass and vapor density of a gas

Sample Calculations:
Q1: Given that 5.00 L of a gas contains 0.965 mol of molecules. What will be the new volume of the gas if
the quantity is increased to 1.80 mol, assuming pressure and temperature are held constant?

Solution: V1/n2 = V2/n

5/1.8 = V2/0.965

V2 = 5 x 0.965/1.8

= 9.33L ans.

Q2: 2.4 moles of a helium gas fills up an empty balloon to the volume of the 2.5 dm3. What would be the
volume of the balloon if an additional 1.6 moles of a helium gas is added? (Assume that the temperature
and pressure are kept constant).

Solution: n1 = 2.4 mol, n2 = 2.4 mol +1.6 mol = 4.0 mol, V1 = 2.5 dm3,
V2 = ?
Using V1/n1 = V2/n2
V2 = (V1 x n2)/n1
Hence, the final volume of the balloon (V2) = (2.5 x 4)/2.4
= 10/2.4
= 4.17 dm3 ans.
EVERYDAY EXAMPLES OF AVOGADRO'S LAW

•Respiration: When we respire, we breathe in oxygen. The more we breathe, the more our lungs will
expand.

•Deflation: When the air is released from an inflated tyre, the number of moles decreases. The shape of
the tyre also changes since its volume decreases.

The process of respiration is a perfect example of Avogadro's Law. When a person inhales, an increase in
the molar amount of air in the lungs is accompanied by an increase in lung volume (lung expansion). A
figure detailing the change in volume caused by an increase in the number of gas molecules is shown
below.

Another common example of Avogadro's Law is the deflation of car tires. When the air trapped inside the
tyre escapes, the number of moles of air present in the tyre is reduced. This reduces the volume occupied
by the gas, causing the tyre to lose its shape and deflate.
ASSIGNMENT:
Q1. 5.40 L sample at 25°C and 2.50 atm of pressure contains 0.7 mole of a gas. If an additional 0.26 mole
of gas at the same pressure and temperature is added, calculate the final volume of the gas.

Q2. 2.00 moles of helium gas fill up an empty balloon to a volume of 2.53L. What would be the volume of
the balloon if an additional 1.56 moles of helium gas is added at constant temperature and pressure?

Q3. 40 g of nitrogen gas is kept in a 2.56L container. The gas exerts a pressure of 2.3 atm on the
container. If the pressure is kept constant, what is the final amount of gas in grams present in the
container if gas is added until the volume has increased to 4.0 L?

Q4. 5.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.965 mol. If the amount of gas is increased to 1.80 mol, what
new volume will result (at an unchanged temperature and pressure)?

Q5. A cylinder with a moveable piston contains 2.00 g of helium, He, at room temperature. More helium
was added to the cylinder and the volume was adjusted so that the gas pressure remained the same.
How many grams of helium were added to the cylinder if the volume was changed from 2.00 L to 2.70 L?
(The temperature was held constant.

Q6. A balloon contains a certain mass of neon gas. The temperature is kept constant, and the same mass
of argon gas is added to the balloon. What happens?

Q7. A flexible container at an initial volume of 5.120 L contains 8.500 mol of gas. More gas is then added
to the container until it reaches a final volume of 18.10 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the
gas remain constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the container.

Q8. If 0.00810 mol neon gas at a particular temperature and pressure occupies a volume of 214 mL, what
volume would 0.00684 mol neon gas occupy under the same conditions?

Q9. A flexible container at an initial volume of 6.13 L contains 7.51 mol of gas. More gas is then added to
the container until it reaches a final volume of 13.5 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the gas
remain constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the container.

Q10. A container with a volume of 25.47 L holds 1.050 mol of oxygen gas (O2) whose molar mass is
31.9988 g/mol. What is the volume if 7.210 g of oxygen gas is removed from the container, assuming the
pressure and temperature remain constant?

Q11. What volume (in L) will 5.5 g of oxygen gas occupy if 2.2 g of the oxygen gas occupies 3.0 L? (Under
constant pressure and temperature.)

Q12. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 2.00 g of helium, He, at room temperature. More helium
was added to the cylinder and the volume was adjusted so that the gas pressure remained the same.
How many grams of helium were added to the cylinder if the volume was changed from 2.00 L to 2.50 L?
(The temperature was held constant).

Q13. A flexible container at an initial volume of 6.13 L contains 8.51 mol of gas. More gas is then added
to the container until it reaches a final volume of 15.5 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the
gas remain constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the container.

Q14. At a certain temperature and pressure, one mole of a diatomic H2 gas occupies a volume of 20 L.
What would be the volume of one mole of H atoms under those same conditions?

IDEAL GAS LAW/IDEAL GAS EQUATION/VAN-DER-WAAL'S FORCES

Ideal Gas Law states that the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure and directly proportional to the product of the
amount/number of molecules and absolute temperature.
The mathematical expression for Ideal gas law is given as: V & nT/P
=> V = nRT/P
PV = nRT
Note that the Ideal gas law is derived from three (3) other gas laws or that
it is a combination of other three (3) gas laws, namely:
1. Boyle's law = V & 1/P (Temperature = a constant).
2. Charles's law = V & T (Pressure = a constant).
3. Avogadro's law = V & n (Temperature and Pressure = constants).
Hence, Ideal gas law = V & nT/P (from the three gas laws above, V is
common).
=> Ideal gas law : PV = nRT (where R = universal gas constant).
WHAT ABOUT IDEAL OR PERFECT GASES?

• Ideal gases do not exist in reality. They are hypothetical gases proposed to simplify calculations

• Ideal gases are theoretical gases composed of a set of randomly-moving point particles that interact
only through elastic collisions.

• In Ideal gases, the gas molecules move freely in all directions, and collision between them is considered
to be perfectly elastic, which implies no loss in the kinetic energy due to the collision.

• Although there is no ideal gas, all real gas tends to approach that property when the density gets low
enough. This is possible because the molecules of the gas are so far apart from one another that they do
not interact with each other. Thus, the ideal gas concept helps us in studying real gases.

LIMITATIONS OF IDEAL/PERFECT GASES:

1. This equation holds well as long as the density is kept low.

2. This equation is applicable for single gas or even a mixture of multiple gasses where ‘n’ will stand for
the total moles of gas particles in the given mixture.
1. A sample of helium gas at 25°C is compressed from 200 cm3 to 0.240 cm3. Its pressure is now 3.00
cm Hg. What was the original pressure of the helium

Solution

Using Ideal gas equation

That is, PV = nRT
P1 = ?

V1 = 200 cm3

n1 = n

T1 = T

P2 = 3.00 cm Hg

V2 = 0.240 cm3

n2 = n
T2 = T

P2V2 = nRT

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 = P2V2/V1

P1 = 3.00 cm Hg x 0.240 cm3/200 cm3

P1 = 3.60 x 10-3 cm Hg

EVALUATION:

1. State Boyle's law

2. Derive the mathematical expression for Graham's law of diffusion.

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Explain in details, the following gas laws:

a. Amonton's law
b. Dalton's law of partial pressure
2. Give the formula for converting/changing
a. Temperature in °C to Kelvin/absolute temperature.
b. Temperature in Kelvin to °C
3. Give the value for
a. Standard temperature (st)
b. Standard pressure (sp)
c. Standard volume (sv) or Molar volume (Mv) or Gas Molar volume (GMv)
d. Universal gas constant (R)

WEEK 6-7

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Explain the structure of carbon: tetravalency ,catenation, allotropy and isotopy

• Explain gasification of coke(carbon); its products,uses and synthetic gases

• Give the oxides of carbon, their uses and chemical test for CO2

• Explain the term Coal, types, industrial distillation of coal; its products and their uses

• Explain the term petroleum, main sources, hydrocarbon, its classes and importance.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is a solid non-metallic element. It belongs to group IVA and period

2 of the Periodic Table. Carbon has four (4) valence electrons in its
outermost shell (electron-shell). Valence electrons are used for formation
of chemical bonds during chemical bonding or chemical combination or
chemical reactions/changes.

THE NATURE OF CARBON:

• Tetravalency is the tendency or ability of an element to possess four(4)

valence electrons for chemical bonding. Carbon is tetravalent in nature,
meaning that, for carbon to be stable, it must form four (4) bonds with
other atoms of elements. The tetravalency of carbon is one of its
characteristics that makes it possible for carbon to form wide range of
compounds especially organic compounds.

• Catenation is the ability of certain elements to form a long chain frame-

work to which other elements are attached to. Carbon is one of the
elements with high catenation level. That is why carbon is found in many
organic compounds.

• Allotropy is defined as the existence of two or more elements in various

forms in the same physical state.

Elements that exhibit allotropy:

1. Sulphur
2. Phosphorus

3. Oxygen

4. Hydrogen

5. Tin

6. Carbon,etc.

Allotropes are the various forms of elements in the same physical state.
Examples of allotropes: allotropes of

1. PHOSPHORUS :

Red phosphorus, brown phosphorus, white phosphorus & black

phosphorus.

2. OXYGEN :

Dioxygen/ordinary oxygen (O2) and trioxygen/ozone (O3).

3. TIN :

White tin and grey tin.

4. HYDROGEN:

Ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen.

5. SULPHUR :

(a) Crystalline allotropes of sulphur are :

(b) Non-crystalline allotropes of sulphur are :

6. CARBON :

(a) Crystalline allotropes of carbon are graphite and diamond.

(b) Non-crystalline allotropes of carbon are coal, carbon black, soot, wood
charcoal, animal charcoal, sugar charcoal,etc.
GASIFICATION OF COKE (CARBON) : This is defined as the process of
passing steam/vapour and hot air over red hot coke in order to produce
"water gas" and "producer gas" respectively.

WATER GAS/SYNTHETIC GAS : Water gas or syngas is produced by

passing steam/vapour (H2O(g)) over red-hot coke (C).

That is, C(s) + H2O(g) ----------> CO(g) + H2(g).

The components/compositions of water gas is CO(g) + H2(g).

70% of the components of water gas is combustible or support

burning/combustion thereby making water gas a better gaseous fuel or
industrial heating fuel than the producer gas.

PRODUCER GAS: Producer gas is produced by passing hot air (N2 + O2)
over red-hot coke (C).

That is, C(s) + N2(g) + O2(g) -----------> CO2(g) + N2(g).

The compositions of producer gas is CO2(g) + N2(g).

Only 30% of the components/compositions of the producer gas is

combustible (i.e., CO2) since nitrogen gas (N2) is not combustible or does
not support burning/combustion. This renders producer gas not to be a
good industrial gaseous fuel or a fuel gas.

Gasification of coke takes place or occurs in a PRODUCER FURNACE/

PLANT.

OXIDES OF CARBON:

There are two (2) oxides of carbon, namely:

a). Carbon (II) oxide, i.e. CO : is poisonous. It is used as a reducing agent in

the extraction of iron from its ore and other metals.
b). Carbon (IV) oxide, i.e. CO2 : is used by plants for photosynthesis.

TEST FOR CO2:

CO2 turns lime water milky and the milkiness disappears in excess CO2.

COAL:Coal is a fossil fuel. It contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It also contains nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulphur. It occurs in the solid state.

THE FOUR (4) TYPES OF COAL :

1. PEAT : Contains less than 40 to 55% carbon and more impurities. Contains sufficient volatile matter
and lot of moisture. It produces more smoke, hence more pollution. It burns like wood, gives less heat,
emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.
2. LIGNITE/BROWN COAL: It is a lower grade of coal. Intermediate stage. Dark to black brown. Moisture
content is high (over 35%). It undergoes SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. Creates fire accidents in mines.
It is lighter in colour than the higher ranks of coal. It has the lowest carbon content out of all the coal
ranks (25%-35%). It has a high moisture content. It is mainly used in electricity generation.

3. BITUMINOUS COAL/SOFT COAL: It has slightly lower carbon content than anthracite (45%-86%). The
wide range of carbon content in bituminous coal warrants its use for both electricity and steel production.
It can be identified through its shiny lustre and layered texture.

4. ANTHRACITE/HARD COAL: This type of coal contains the highest amount of carbon out of all coal
ranks (86%-97%). It is brittle and lustrous. It is used mostly in industries due to its high heat value. It is
also known as the pure form of coal.
USES OF COAL :

1. Coal is used as fuel in factories and homes.

2. Coal is used to obtain coke, coal gas and coal tar.

3. Coal is used in thermal power plants for generation of electricity.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL:

Destructive Distillation of Coal : This is defined as the process of heating coal in the absence of air to
produce coke, ammoniacal liquor, coal tar and coal gas.

PYROLYSIS is a process of destructive distillation of organic material in a closed vessel, atmosphere

devoid of oxygen and at temperature range of 500-900°C.

PRODUCTS/FRACTIONS OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL:

1. Coke

2. Ammoniacal liquor

3. Coal tar

4. Coal gas

COKE: It is a solid black substance. It is nearly a pure form of carbon. It is used in the fabrication of steel,
extraction of metals, as a reducing agen and as a fuel.

COAL TAR : It is a black liquid with an unpleasant smell. Its products are used to make plastics, paints,
vanishes, roofing and surfacing or taring of roads.

COAL GAS: It is an excellent gaseous fuel with a high calorific value. In industries, it is majorly used as a
fuel, heat and light sources.
APPLICATIONS OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION:

1. Destructive distillation can be employed to obtain methanol and turpentine from wood. Furthermore,
the destructive distillation of wood is also known to leave behind a residue of solid charcoal, a substance
that has a wide range of commercial applications.

2. The destructive distillation of wood is also known to produce several other compounds of commercial
value, such as terpenes and tar.

3. One of the most prominent applications of destructive distillation is in the processing of coal in order
to obtain several commercially important compounds such as coke, ammonium hydroxide, coal gas, and
coal tar.

4. The waste processing of polymers via destructive distillation can afford their constituent monomers,
which can be reused in suitable processes.

PETROLEUM/CRUDE OIL:
Petroleum is a thick, dark and viscous complex mixture of hydrocarbons that occurs beneath the Earth's
crust.

SOME FRACTIONS OF PETROLEUM/CRUDE OIL:

1. Kerosene
2. Diesel
3. Paraffin wax
4. Paraffin oil
5. Petrol
6. Bitumen/coal tar

HYDROCARBONS:
Hydrocarbons : These are organic compounds that contain hydrogen and
carbon only. Hydrocarbons are also referred to as BINARY compounds or
substances because they contain just two elements: hydrogen and carbon.

THE MAIN SOURCES OF HYDROCARBONS:

1. Petroleum/crude oil
2. Coal
3. Natural gas

CLASSES OF HYDROCARBONS:
1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons : This class of hydrocarbon is subdivided into two
(2), namely:
a). Acyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons
b). Alicyclic or cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons
2. Aromatic hydrocarbons

FAMILIES OF HYDROCARBONS:
1. Alkanes
2. Alkenes
3. Alkynes
ALKANES: These are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain carbon
-carbon single bonds. They have general molecular formula of CnH2n+2
(where n is greater than or equal to 1).
Below are some examples of members of the alkanes' family:
1. Methane = CH4
2. Ethane = C2H6 or CH3CH3
3. Propane = C3H8 or CH3CH2CH3
4. Butane = C4H10 or CH3CH2CH2CH3
5. Pentane= C5H12 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
6. Hexane = C6H14 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
7. Heptane = C7H16 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
8. Octane = C8H18 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
9. Nonane = C9H20 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
10. Decane = C10H22 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
ALKENES: These are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they contain
carbon -carbon double bonds. They have general molecular formula of
CnH2n (where n is greater than or equal to 2).
Below are some examples of members of the alkenes' family:
1. Ethene = C2H4 or CH2=CH2
2. Propene = C3H6 or CH3CH=CH2
3. Butene = C4H8 or CH3CH2CH=CH2
4. Pentene = C5H10 or CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
5. Hexene = C6H12 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH=CH2

ALKYNES: These are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they contain

carbon -carbon triple bonds. They have general molecular formula of
CnH2n -2 (where n is greater than or equal to 2).
Below are some examples of members of the alkynes' family:
1. Ethyne= C2H2
2. Propyne = C3H4
3. Butyne = C4H6
4. Pentyne = C5H8
5. Hexyne = C6H10

TEST FOR SATURATION AND UNSATURATION:

The alkanes do not decolourise the reddish-brown colour of the bromine
water. The alkenes and alkynes decolourise the reddish-brown colour of the
bromine water.

EVALUATION:

1. What are hydrocarbons?

2. Give the general molecular formula for
a. Aromatic hydrocarbons
b. Alkanes
c. Alkenes
d. Alkynes

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Draw the structures of a). Graphite and b). Diamond

2. State the uses of a). Graphite b). Diamond
3. State the characteristic properties of a). Graphite b). Diamond
4. Explain Acheson process
5. How would you distinguish between the alkenes and the alkynes?

WEEK 8-9

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• Give types of standard separation techniques, explain and draw them.

• State the applications of standard separation techniques.

• Classify substances into pure and impure substances and state the criteria for purity.

MIXTURES AND STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES:

Standard separation techniques for mixtures are methods used for

separating mixtures into their components/constituents.

TYPES OF STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURES:

1. Sieving

2. Filtration

3. Evaporation or Heating to dryness

4. Decantation

5. Centrifugation

6. Magnetism or magnetic method

7. Chromatography

8. Precipitation

10. Crystallization

11. Fractional crystallization

12. Distillation
13. Fractional distillation

14. Floatation

15. Frostation

16. Separating funnel

17. Sedimentation

18. Winnowing

19. Handpicking

20. Threshing

FILTRATION:

Filtration : This is defined as a separation technique for the separation of solid particles or groups of solid
particles from their liquids in mixtures using a filter paper and a filter funnel.

Note that the liquid that passes through the filter paper is called the FILTRATE while the solid particles
left on the filter paper are called the RESIDUES.
EVAPORATION:

Evaporation: This is defined as a separation technique in which the mixture is heated in order to remove
the liquid/solvent part of the mixture either partly or completely while the solute is retained.

However, this separation method is not suitable for solutes that are decomposed by heating such as
copper (II) sulphate.

DECANTATION:

Decantion : This is defined as a crude way or method of separating insoluble solids from liquids by
pouring/decanting off the liquid. Here, the liquid component of the mixture is not important. Applications
of this technique is found in the separation of sliced yam from the rinsing water, rice from rinsing
water,etc.

SUBLIMATION:

Sublimation: This is defined as a separation technique used for separating a mixture of solids containing
a component which sublimes but the other component does not sublime by heating the mixture. Some
examples of substances that sublime include: camphor, iodine crystals, ammonium chloride, dry ice
(solid CO2), etc.
A cotton-stoppered inverted funnel is placed over the mixture. When the mixture is heated, the heat-liable
solid sublime and turn into a gas, and travel to the top of the inverted funnel. Once the hot gas touches
the cooler funnel, it solidifies back into a solid. The solid can then be scrapped off and collected in
another container from the funnel.

MAGNETISM/MAGNETIC SEPARATION:

Magnetization/Magnetic Attraction: This is defined as a separation method used for the separation of
magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials by means of a magnet. Examples include: the
separation of pins from sand, nails from rice,etc.

SEPARATING FUNNEL/SEPARATORY FUNNEL:

Separating funnel : This is defined as a separation technique used mainly for separating two immiscible
liquids into their components. The mechanism involves taking advantage of the unequal density of the
particles in the mixture. Examples include: oil and water, kerosene and water, etc. can easily be separated
using the separating funnel technique.

SEDIMENTATION:

Sedimentation : This is defined as a separation method whereby heavier impurities/particles present in a

liquid usually water settle down at the bottom/base of the containing vessel of the mixture.
Sedimentation process may at times, be time consuming for the particles to completely settle down.

SIEVING:
Sieving : This is defined as a separation technique used for separating solid particles of different sizes by
the use of a sieve of different mesh sizes/pores.

HANDPICKING:
Handpicking: This method of separation involves simply picking out all the unwanted
substances/particles with hand and separating them from useful ones. The separated substances may
be an impurity that has to be thrown away or useful as well.
WINNOWING:
Winnowing: This separation technique is used when the grains are collected from the process of
threshing, it needs to be cleared out of husks and chaffs before it is turned into flour. Normally the
separation of the mixture is carried out with the help of wind or blowing air. The husk and chaff are blown
away by the strong wind when the farmers drop the mixture from a certain height to the ground. The
heavier grains are then collected in bags or sacs.

THRESHING:
Threshing: This separation technique mostly used during the period of harvesting of crops. With this
separation method, the stalks are separated from the grains by beating the dry stalks to shake off the
dried grains.

DISTILLATION:

Distillation: This is defined as a process of separating liquid mixtures with wide boiling points. The
components of the liquid mixture are first of all heated, vaporized, condensed and then isolated.
CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Paper Chromatography : This separation technique is used to separate a mixture of solutes (or liquids)
with different solubilities and degree of adsorption. This method uses a porous or absorbant medium (e.g.
paper or jel) and a solvent which can move over the material. Paper chromatography is commonly used
for separating a mixture of dyes in ink or different types of sugars.

To carry out paper chromatography, a rectangular piece of filter paper is got and a line of 2cm is drawn on
the paper. Pencil is used to draw the line instead of ink, as ink may redissolve and there will be no
reference line left at the end of the experiment.

Place a drop of sample ink or mixture on the line. Let the sample dry before placing more sample on the
same spot. Place the other known components (e.g. red, blue and green dye if we are separating ink
samples) on the line, with a distance away from the first ink sample, for comparison.
The chromatography paper is then placed in a suitable organic solvent such as ethanol. The solvent will
“run” up the chromatography paper after some time.

As the solvent travels up the paper, the dyes are dissolved in the solvent. Since some dyes are more
soluble, they travel up the paper faster than the rest. The less soluble dyes are absorbed more strongly on
the paper near the pencil line. This means that identical dyes will travel the same distance along the
length of the paper.

As the solvent reaches near the top of the paper, the chromatographic paper is removed and the location
where the solvent stops running is marked . By comparing the ink sample with the colour dyes, one can
infer or deduce the composition of the ink sample as containing red, blue and green dyes.

EVALUATION:

1. What is sieving?

2. Give the types of chromatography

3. What is "seeding" in crystallization?

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Explain the following separation technique: a). Floatation b). Frostation

c). Crystallization d). Fractional distillation e). Fractional crystallization f).
Precipitation g). Centrifugation

2. Give the applications or uses of the separation techniques mentioned in

Q1 above.

3. Draw and label the devices or set-ups for the techniques mentioned in
Q1 above .

WEEK 10

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• Define the terms: acids, bases, alkalis and salts as well as stating their characteristic
properties,uses &reactions.

• State the methods of preparing acids, bases, alkalis and salts.

• Explain Neutralization reactions, how acid-base indicator works & relative acidity and
alkalinity (pH - scale).

• Give the types of acids, bases, alkalis, salts and the rules for solubility of salts in
water.

ACIDS, BASES/ALKALIS AND SALTS:

ACIDS:

Acid: This is defined as a chemical substance that ionizes to produce

hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ions.

That is, HCl(aq) --------> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

OR

Acid: This is defined as a chemical substance that dissolves in water to

produce oxonium ions or hydroxonium ions (H3O+) as the only positive
ions.
That is, HCl(aq) +! H2O(l) -------------> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS:

1. Dilute acids have sour taste.

2. Concentrated acids are corrosive.

3. Dilute acids turn blue litmus paper red.

TYPES OF ACIDS:

1. Mineral/inorganic acids, e.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, etc.

2. Natural/organic acids, e.g. citric acid, ascorbic acid, lactic acid, ethanoic
acid, etc.

PREPARATION OF ACIDS:

1. From dissolution of acid anhydrides such as SO2, SO3, CO2, NO2, PO4,
etc. in water. Examples include:

a). SO2(g) + H2O(l) -----> H2SO3(aq)

b). SO3(g) + H2O(l) ------> H2SO4(aq)

c). CO2(g) + H2O(l) -------> H2CO3(aq)

d). 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) -------> HNO3(aq) +. HNO2(aq)

Note that NO2 is an example of a MIXED ACID ANHYDRIDE. This is

because it produces two (2) types of acids when dissolved in water, namely:

a). Trioxonitrate (V) acid (HNO3)

b). Dioxonitrate (III) acid (HNO2)

2. From direct combination of constituent elements, e.g.

a). H2(g) + Cl2(g) -------> 2HCl(g)

b). H2(g) + Br2(g) --------> 2HBr(g)

c). H2(g) + F2(g) --------> 2HF(g)

BASES:

Base: This is defined as a chemical substance that ionizes to produce

hydroxide ions (OH-) as the only negative ions.

That is, NaOH(aq) ---------> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

OR

Base: This is defined as a chemical substance that neutralizes an acid to

form salt and water only.

That is, NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -------> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

TYPES OF BASES:

1. Strong bases : e.g. NaOH, KOH, LiOH, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, etc.

2. Weak bases : e.g. NH3(aq)/NH4OH, etc.

ALKALIS: These are basic soluble hydroxides. Examples include: NaOH,

KOH, LiOH, etc.

NOTE: All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES/ALKALIS:

1. Dilute bases turn red litmus paper blue.

2. Concentrated bases are corrosive.

3. Bases are slippery/soapy to touch.

4. Dilute bases have bitter taste.

PREPARATION OF BASES/ALKALIS:

1. From Combination of constituent elements, e.g.

a). 4Na(s) + O2(g) --------> 2Na2O(s)

b). 4K(s) + O2(g) ---------> 2K2O(s)

c). 2Ca(s) + O2(g) ---------> 2CaO(s)

d). 2Mg(s) + O2(g) ----------> 2MgO(s)

2. From dissolution of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals in water, e.g.

a). 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -----> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

b). 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -------> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

c). Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ------> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

SALT : This is defined as a chemical substance that is formed when the

hydrogen ion(s) of an is partially/incompletely or wholly/completely
replaced by metallic ions or ammonium ions (NH4+).

TYPES OF SALTS:

1. Normal/neutral salts
2. Acid salts

3. Basic salts

4. Double salts

5. Complex salts

NORMAL/NEUTRAL SALTS : These are salts formed from the reactions

between strong acids and strong bases. They are neutral to litmus papers.
Examples include : NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, etc.
ACID SALTS : These are salts formed from the reactions between strong
acids and weak bases or by an incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion
of an acid. They turn blue litmus paper red. Examples include: NaHSO4,
KHSO4, NH4Cl, etc.
BASIC SALTS: These are salts formed from the reactions between weak
acids and strong bases or by an incomplete replacement of the hydroxide
ions of a base. They turn red litmus paper blue. Examples include: Ca(OH)

PROPERTIES OF SALTS:
1. Efflorescence
2. Deliquescence
3. Hygroscopy

EFFLORESCENCE: This is defined as a process whereby certain

compounds/substances on exposure to the atmosphere lose part or all of
their water of crystallization. Examples of efflorescent substances include:
Na2CO3.10H2O, etc.
DELIQUESCENCE: This is defined as a process whereby certain
compounds/substances on exposure to the atmosphere absorb water/
moisture much enough to dissolve in it to form solutions. Examples of
deliquescent substances include: NaOH pellets, etc.
HYGROSCOPY: This is defined as a process whereby certain compounds/
substances on exposure to the atmosphere absorb water or moisture but
not much to dissolve in it to form solutions. The substances become sticky.
Examples of hygroscopic substances include: CaO, etc.

METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS:

1. By neutralization reactions. Examples include:
a). HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ------> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
b). H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) ------> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
c). HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) -------> NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2. By direct combination of constituent elements:

a). 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ------> 2NaCl(aq)
b). 2K(s) + Cl2(g) -------> 2KCl(aq)

3. By action of acids on active/reactive metals :

a). 2Na(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) -----> 2NaHSO4 + H2(g)
b). 2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) -------> 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)

RULES FOR THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS IN WATER:

1. Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble . There are few exceptions to this
rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion (NH4+) are also soluble.

2. Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.

3. Salts containing Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble. Important exceptions to this rule are halide salts of
Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and Hg2Cl2 are insoluble.

4. Most silver salts are insoluble. AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2) are common soluble salts of silver; virtually all
others are insoluble.
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Important exceptions to this rule include CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4,
Ag2SO4 and SrSO4 .

6. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group I elements are soluble.
Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of transition
metals and Al3+ are insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Co(OH)2 are not soluble.

7. Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS, FeS, ZnS, and Ag2S. Arsenic,
antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also insoluble.

8. Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO3, SrCO3, and BaCO3) are insoluble, as
are FeCO3 and PbCO3.

9. Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and BaCrO4.

10. Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble.

11. Fluorides of BaF2, MgF2 and PbF2 are often insoluble in water.

EVALUATION:

1. What are mixtures?

2. Differentiate between miscible and immiscible liquids.

3. Give two (2) examples each of a). Miscible b). Immiscible

4. How are immiscible liquids separated?

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Explain the following terms as associated with acids and bases:

a).strong acids/bases. b). concentrated acids/bases c).dilute acids/bases
d).weak acids/bases.

2. Define the term a). pH b). pH - scale c). Solubility d). Unsaturated
solutions e). Saturated solutions f). Supersaturated solutions.

3. a). What does pH stand for? b). Give the equation for pH c). What is
solubility curve?

4. Give the importance of pplications or uses of solubility curve.