DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

B.Tech ECE & EEE I year / I Semester

Model University Theory Examination
Biology for Engineers
Answer Key
PART A
1. Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
 Autotrophs: Organisms that produce their own food using light or chemical energy.
 Heterotrophs: Organisms that consume other organisms for energy.
Total: 2 points
2. Ammonotelic Organisms
 Answer: Organisms that excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia.
 Example: This is common in aquatic animals like fish and amphibians, as ammonia is
highly toxic and requires a large amount of water to be safely excreted.
Total: 2 point
3. Physical Gene Mapping vs. Genetic Mapping
 Physical Gene Mapping: Determines the physical location of genes on a
chromosome.
 Genetic Mapping: Determines the relative positions of genes based on recombination
frequency.
Total: 2 points
4. Complementation in Human Genetics
 Answer: When two mutations in different genes restore a normal phenotype in the
heterozygous condition.
Total: 1 point
5. Biomolecule
 Answer: Organic molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids.
  Characteristics: Complex structure, composed of C, H, O, N, sometimes S and P,
building blocks of cells, perform biological functions.
Total: 5 points
6. Monomeric Units and Polymerization
 Monomeric Units: Small molecules that form polymers.
 Polymerization: The process of linking monomers to form polymers.
Total: 2 points
7. DICOM Image Formats in Medical Imaging
 Answer: Standard format for storing and transmitting medical images.
Total: 1 point
8. Purines and Pyrimidines in DNA
 Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G).
 Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T).
Total: 4 points
9. Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions
 Endergonic Reactions: Require energy input (e.g., Photosynthesis).
 Exergonic Reactions: Release energy (e.g., Cellular respiration).
Total: 4 points
10. Characteristics of Single-Celled Organisms
 Answer: Simple structure, diverse, asexual reproduction, adaptable.

PART B
11. Explain the Five Kingdoms of Molecular Taxonomy.
Answer:
The Five Kingdoms of molecular taxonomy classify life forms based on differences in cell
structure, mode of nutrition, and genetic makeup. These are:
1. Monera: Includes all prokaryotic organisms, such as bacteria and archaea. They lack a
true nucleus and organelles.
2. Protista: Consists of eukaryotic organisms that are mostly unicellular. This group
includes protozoa, algae, and slime molds. They have a true nucleus and organelles.
3. Fungi: Eukaryotic, mostly multicellular organisms with cell walls made of chitin.
They are primarily decomposers and include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.
 4. Plantae: Multicellular, photosynthetic organisms with cell walls made of cellulose.
They include all types of plants.
5. Animalia: Multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls. This kingdom
includes all animals.
Molecular taxonomy uses genetic information, such as DNA and RNA sequences, to classify
organisms more accurately than morphological characteristics alone.

12. Differentiate between Bird Flight and Aircraft Flight.

Answer:
Bird Flight:
 Mechanism: Birds fly by flapping their wings, which generates lift. Their wings are
flexible, allowing for various flight patterns such as soaring, gliding, and hovering.
 Control: Birds control flight using their tail feathers and by altering wing shape and
angle, which allows for quick changes in direction and speed.
 Energy: Birds primarily rely on the energy from muscles, powered by aerobic
respiration, to sustain flight.
 Structure: Bird wings are made of bones, muscles, and feathers. The wing structure is
lightweight, and feathers provide the necessary lift and control.
 Adaptation: Birds have evolved over millions of years for efficient flight, with
adaptations such as hollow bones and specialized respiratory systems.
Aircraft Flight:
 Mechanism: Aircraft fly by engines providing thrust and wings generating lift through
their fixed airfoil shape. The airfoil design forces air to move faster over the top of the
wing, creating lower pressure and lifting the aircraft.
 Control: Aircraft control flight using ailerons, rudders, and elevators to manage roll,
pitch, and yaw. This is achieved through mechanical systems.
 Energy: Aircraft rely on fuel-powered engines, such as jet engines or propellers, to
generate the necessary thrust for flight.
 Structure: Aircraft wings are rigid and usually made of metal or composite materials.
They are designed to be strong enough to withstand the forces of flight.
 Technology: Aircraft design is a product of human engineering and technology,
optimized for different flight conditions and purposes.

13. Explain Mendel’s Law of Segregation and Independent Assortment in Genetics.

Mendel’s Law of Segregation:
  This law states that during the formation of gametes (egg and sperm), the two alleles
for a gene segregate, or separate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each
gene. This segregation occurs during meiosis, where the homologous chromosomes
are separated into different gametes.
 For example, in a plant with one allele for purple flowers (P) and one for white
flowers (p), each gamete will receive either P or p, but not both.
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment:
 This law states that genes for different traits assort, or segregate, independently of one
another during gamete formation. This means the inheritance of one trait generally
does not affect the inheritance of another, assuming the genes are on different
chromosomes.
 For example, the gene for flower color (P/p) and the gene for seed shape (R/r) are
inherited independently, resulting in different combinations of these traits in the
offspring.
These laws form the basis of classical genetics, explaining how traits are inherited from one
generation to the next.

14. Write a Short Note on Single Gene Disorders in Humans.

Answer:
Single-gene disorders are caused by mutations in a single gene. These disorders follow
Mendelian inheritance patterns, meaning they can be inherited in a dominant, recessive, or
sex-linked manner. Examples include:
1. Cystic Fibrosis: A recessive disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, leading
to thick mucus production and affecting the respiratory and digestive systems.
2. Sickle Cell Anemia: A recessive disorder caused by a mutation in the HBB gene,
leading to abnormal hemoglobin formation, which causes red blood cells to sickle and
leads to various complications like pain and organ damage.
3. Huntington’s Disease: An autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in the
HTT gene, leading to progressive neurodegeneration, usually manifesting in mid-
adulthood.
4. Hemophilia: A sex-linked disorder (often X-linked) caused by mutations in genes
responsible for blood clotting factors, leading to excessive bleeding.
These disorders are often diagnosed through genetic testing and family history, and their
management may involve gene therapy, medication, or supportive care depending on the
disorder.

15. Explain the Lock-and-Key and Induced-Fit Models of Enzyme-Substrate

Interaction.
Answer:
Lock-and-Key Model:
 This model suggests that the enzyme’s active site is exactly complementary to the
shape of the substrate, similar to a lock and key. The substrate fits into the active site
without needing any modification, leading to the formation of the enzyme-substrate
complex and subsequent catalysis.
Induced-Fit Model:
 In this model, the active site of the enzyme is not a perfect fit for the substrate
initially. Instead, when the substrate approaches, the enzyme undergoes a
conformational change to accommodate the substrate. This model explains how
enzymes can be flexible and how they can catalyze reactions with substrates that are
not an exact fit.
Both models describe how enzymes interact with substrates to lower the activation energy of
biochemical reactions, but the induced-fit model provides a more dynamic view of enzyme
activity.

16. Discuss the Michaelis-Menten Equation and Its Parameters, Km and Vmax.
Answer:
The Michaelis-Menten equation describes the rate of enzymatic reactions by relating the
reaction rate (v) to the substrate concentration ([S]):
v=Vmax[S]Km+[S]v = \frac{V_{max} [S]}{K_m + [S]}v=Km+[S]Vmax[S]
Where:
 Vmax: The maximum reaction rate achieved by the enzyme when the substrate
concentration is very high, indicating that all active sites of the enzyme molecules are
fully occupied by the substrate.
 Km: The Michaelis constant, which is the substrate concentration at which the
reaction rate is half of Vmax. It reflects the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate; a
lower Km indicates higher affinity.
The Michaelis-Menten equation is fundamental in enzyme kinetics, helping to characterize
how enzymes behave under different substrate concentrations and how efficiently they
catalyze reactions.

17. Describe the Hierarchical Structure of DNA from Single-Stranded to Nucleosomes.

Answer:
The structure of DNA is organized into several hierarchical levels:
 1. Single-Stranded DNA: DNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides, each composed
of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G).
2. Double Helix: Two single strands of DNA twist around each other to form the double
helix, with the nitrogenous bases pairing (A with T, C with G) to stabilize the
structure.
3. Nucleosomes: The double helix wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes,
which resemble "beads on a string." This packaging helps to organize and condense
DNA within the nucleus.
4. Chromatin: Nucleosomes further coil and fold to form chromatin, a more condensed
structure that allows DNA to fit within the cell nucleus while remaining accessible for
processes like replication and transcription.
5. Chromosomes: During cell division, chromatin further condenses to form
chromosomes, which are the most condensed form of DNA. Chromosomes ensure the
accurate distribution of genetic material to daughter cells.
This hierarchical structure is essential for DNA’s function in storing, transmitting, and
expressing genetic information.

18. Discuss the Universality of the Genetic Code and Its Implications for Evolution.
Answer:
The genetic code is nearly universal across all forms of life, meaning that the same codons
(three-nucleotide sequences) generally specify the same amino acids in different organisms.
This universality suggests a common evolutionary origin for all life on Earth, as the genetic
code must have been established early in the history of life.
Implications for Evolution:
 Conserved Evolution: The universality of the genetic code supports the idea that all
living organisms share a common ancestor, from which they have diversified over
time.
 Gene Transfer: The conservation of the genetic code allows for horizontal gene
transfer across species, a process that can contribute to evolution and adaptation.
 Biotechnology: The universality allows scientists to manipulate genes from one
organism and express them in another (e.g., using bacterial systems to produce human
insulin),
19. Explain in details the hierarchy in the structure of protein.

Proteins are complex molecules that play critical roles in biological systems. Their structure
is hierarchical and can be divided into four distinct levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary structures. Each level of structure is crucial for the protein's function, and
disruptions at any level can lead to malfunction or disease.
1. Primary Structure (1°)
 Definition: The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids,
linked together by peptide bonds in a linear chain.
 Importance: This sequence determines the protein's overall shape and function. Even a
single change in the amino acid sequence (due to a mutation) can have significant
effects on the protein’s activity. For example, sickle cell anemia results from a single
amino acid substitution in the hemoglobin protein.
2. Secondary Structure (2°)
 Definition: The secondary structure refers to the local folding or coiling of the amino
acid chain into specific patterns, primarily due to hydrogen bonding between the
backbone atoms of the polypeptide chain.
 Common Structures:
o Alpha-helix (α-helix): A right-handed coil where the peptide backbone winds
around an imaginary axis, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
o Beta-sheet (β-sheet): Consists of beta strands connected laterally by at least
two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a sheet-like structure.
o Beta-turns and loops: These structures connect alpha-helices and beta-sheets
and are essential for the compact folding of proteins.
 Importance: Secondary structures contribute to the protein's overall 3D shape and are
critical for the stability and function of the protein.
3. Tertiary Structure (3°)
 Definition: The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of a single
protein molecule, formed by the folding of its secondary structures into a compact
globular form.
 Stabilizing Interactions:
o Hydrophobic interactions: Nonpolar side chains tend to cluster in the interior
of the protein, away from water.
o Hydrogen bonds: Between side chains or between side chains and the
backbone.
o Disulfide bridges: Covalent bonds between sulfur atoms in cysteine residues,
adding significant stability.
o Ionic interactions: Between oppositely charged side chains.
o Van der Waals forces: Weak attractions between all atoms, contributing to the
overall stability.
 Importance: The tertiary structure determines the protein's functional properties, such
as the active site of an enzyme or the binding site of a receptor.
4. Quaternary Structure (4°)
 Definition: The quaternary structure refers to the arrangement and interaction of
multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in a multi-subunit protein.
 Examples:
o Hemoglobin: Consists of four subunits, two alpha and two beta chains, which
work together to bind and release oxygen.
o Insulin: Comprised of two chains, A and B, linked by disulfide bonds.

12. Explain the process of identification and classification of single-celled organisms.

dentification and Classification of Unicellular Organisms
Unicellular Organisms:
 Evolved from a single cell and are known as microorganisms.
 All life processes occur within a single cell.
Characteristics:
1. Reproduce asexually.
2. Can be eukaryotes or prokaryotes.
3. Found in various habitats.
4. Use whip-like structures for movement.
5. Nutrients enter/exit via diffusion.
Types of Unicellular Organisms:
 Prokaryotes:
o No true nucleus, small size (0.1 to 5.0 µm).
o Peptidoglycan cell wall; uses flagella for movement.
o Examples: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria.
 Eukaryotes:
o Have a membrane-bound nucleus, larger size.
o Includes plant and animal cells.
o Examples: Protozoa, Protista.
Nutrition:
 Feed on other organisms or liquids.
 Digestion is intracellular.
Reproduction:
 Reproduce by binary fission, budding, or encysting.
Respiration:
 Respire aerobically or anaerobically via diffusion.
Examples:
 Bacteria: E. coli, Streptococcus.
 Protozoa: Amoeba, Paramecium.
 Algae: Diatoms, Dinoflagellates.
 Fungi: Yeast, Penicillium.
Bacteria Classification:
 Eubacteria: True bacteria, autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Archaebacteria: Thrive in extreme conditions (e.g., methanogens, halophiles,
thermoacidophiles).
Protozoa Classification:
 Amoeboid: Use pseudopodia for movement (e.g., Amoeba).
 Flagellated: Have flagella (e.g., Trypanosoma).
 Ciliated: Use cilia for movement (e.g., Paramecium).
 Sporozoans: Non-motile, produce spores (e.g., Plasmodium).
Fungi:
 Classified based on spore formation (e.g., Rhizopus, Penicillium).
Algae:
 Photosynthetic, important producers in aquatic environments (e.g., Chlamydomonas,
Volvox).