TCW

MODULE 1
What is globalization?
After centuries of technological progress and
advances in international cooperation, the
world is more connected than ever because of
globalization. Globalization is a phenomenon
used to describe the growing interdependence
of the world’s economies, cultures, and
populations, brought about by cross-border
trade in goods and services, technology, and Does it mean that all countries around the
flows of investment, people, and information. globe are becoming the same?
Globalization according to some scholars: Globalization is not simply homogenization; on
the contrary, it enhances cultural identity. First,
People are not mere objects of cultural
influences, but subjects who can reject or
integrate culture. Besides, with the
development of science and technology,
people are closer than before. The sense of
“togetherness” brought with globalization is not
at all in conflict with diversity. In the new era of
globalization, people become much more
concerned about the uniqueness and
Globalization according to various disciplines: particularity of their own culture.
Globalization promotes
interdependencies. Various countries have built
economic partnerships to facilitate these
movements over many centuries through the
growing interdependence of the world’s
economies, cultures, and populations, brought
about by cross-border trade in goods and
services, technology, and flows of investment,
You should always remember that the term people, and information.
globalization has several contending meanings Other important concepts related to
Globalization
because it varies across different disciplines.
However, in the absence of a generally
 Glocalization. This term is used to
accepted definition of globalization, it can be describe a product or service that is developed
seen or understood as either a process, a and distributed globally but is also adjusted to
accommodate the user or consumer in a local
condition or an ideology. market.
 Liberalization. This refers to the removal of
barriers and restrictions imposed by national
governments to create an open and borderless
world economy.
 Internationalization. This refers to
activities by entities such as corporations, states,
international organizations, private
organizations and even individuals with
reference to national boarders and national
governments.
 Universalization. Denotes a process of
spreading various objects, practices and
experiences to the different parts of the world.
If Western modernity spreads and destroys local
cultures, this variant of universalization is called
Westernization, Americanization or
Mcdonaldization.
 Theoretical Paradigms associated with stable internal politics. Regarded as powerful
Globalization and developed centers of the system.
The above-mentioned approaches are just Comprises of Western Europe, North America,
some of the major theoretical underpinnings and Japan.
that seek to provide a clear conceptualization 2. The Peripheral Nations referring to those nations
of globalization. While it cannot be denied that in the world system that are forced to
the formulation of these theories have resulted specialized in the export of unprocessed raw
in seemingly endless academic debates materials and food to the core nations. This also
centered on the correct way of interpreting refers to regions that have been forcibly
globalization, they have also helped us in subordinated to the core through colonialism or
correcting some of the wrong notions and other means. It includes Latin America, Africa,
misconceptions about globalization. It is truly Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.
that the concept of globalization is very 3. Semi-peripheral, these are nations that fall in
complicated because it affects the life of every between the core and peripheral nations,
individual in the society. being most industrialized than the peripheral
but less industrialized in than of the core. states
and regions that were previously in the core
and are moving down the hierarchy, or those
that were previously in the periphery and are
moving up. Like, Argentina, China India, Brazil,
Mexico, Indonesia, and Iran.
Global Capitalism Theory
As globalization broadened, its literature has
This theory treats globalization as a novel stage
also boomed and resulted in the generation of
in the evolving system of the world capitalist.
several theories and conceptual frameworks.
According to Sklair (2000, 2002), this theory
Each of these theories gives us a distinct way of
espoused the “transnational practices” (TNPs)
interpreting social realities that form part of the
as operational categories for the analysis of
phenomenon of globalization. The theoretical
the transnational phenomena. Like for
paradigms to be discussed below serves as the
example TNPs: monetary remittances migrant
function of a lens that we can use to get a clear
entrepreneurship collective transfer of
view of globalization.
resources or products.
World System Theory
Example of Transnational Capitalist Class:
Immanuel Wallerstein argues that the modern
 Executives of transnational Corporations
world system emerged as early as the 1500s
 Globalizing bureaucrats
through a series of economic transitions and
now connects all countries through a single  Politicians, Professionals
division of labor. Immanuel Wallerstein pointed  Consumerist Elites in the media
out that core countries in the developed world  Commercial sector
extract labor and raw materials from Moreover, according to Robinson (2003, 2004),
peripheral ones. Capital according to Globalization creates new forms of
Wallerstein, now accumulates through an ever- transnational class relations across borders and
expanding network of trade routes, property new forms of class cleavages globally and
rights, and labor agreements that within countries, regions, cities, and local
simultaneously connect the world while communities, in ways quite distinct from the old
reinforcing its inequalities. adheres the idea national class structures and international class
that capitalism has created a global enterprise conflicts and alliances.
that swept the 19th century leading to the The Theory of Network Society School of Taught
present time.
This paradigm does not subscribe to the
Characteristics of World System Paradigm
contention that capitalism fuels globalization;
The centrality and immanence of the inter-state Instead, it put forth the premise that technology
system and inter-state rivalry to the and technological change are the causes that
maintenance and reproduction of the world comprise globalization.
system. This system creates a geographic One of the proponents of this theory
division of labor. was Manuel Castells wherein he suggests that
the rules of global capitalism have changed to
1. Core Nations, are those most modernized embrace the new information technologies.
nations, having diversified economies and Power now flows not from corporations or
states, but through the informational flows and The Theory of Global Paradigm
codes that connect those corporations and
states and the world. Castells added that the Emphasizes the rapid growth of the mass media
advancement of the Information Age doe and resultant global cultural flows and images.
does not necessarily mean that the world has
Focuses on phenomena such as globalization
become flat; rather with technological
advance, he argues, come new global forms and religion, nation and ethnicity, global
of inclusion, fragmentation, and integration. consumerism, global communications, and

Moreover, Anthony Giddens, another globalization of tourism. The concept

proponent of this theory, suggest that McDonaldization popularized by Ritzer
globalization has led to the creation of a describes the sociocultural processes by which
‘global risk society.’ Human social and
the principles of the fast-food restaurant came
economic activities, especially in modernity,
produces various risks such as pollution, crime, to dominate more and more sectors of the US
new illnesses, food shortages, market crashes, and later world society.
wars, etc. and societies have become more
responsible for managing the risks of their The Global Economy
activities intentionally, or, more often than not,
Globalization is defined as the ongoing
unintentionally produce.
economic, technological, social, and political
In the era of globalization, however, human integration of the world that began after the
activities have become connected across the
globe, so that events in one part of the world Second World War. At this point in your
create consequences for people in many other continuous search for knowledge on
areas of the globe. globalization, there is a need to analyze
David Harvey, in his now-classic 1990 study “The the actors that facilitate economic
Condition of Post-Modernity”, argues that:
globalization. Let us define first economic
globalization represents a new burst of time-
space compression produced by the very globalization, Shangquan (2002) defines
dynamics of capitalist development. He also economic globalization as an increasing
state that it is this compression of social time–
interdependence of world economies as a
space through economic activity that is the
driving force behind globalization. The term result of the growing scale of cross-border trade
“time–space compression” refers to the way the of commodities and services, the flow of
acceleration of economic activities leads to the
international capital, and wide and rapid
destruction of spatial barriers and distances.
spread of technologies.
Saskia Sassen (1949), initiated that the
Actors that Facilitate Economic Globalization
international spread of the notion of human
rights could override distinctions of nationality Globalization is taken primarily as an economic
and citizenship. Under a global human rights process (Abelos et.al 2019). Business
regime, she argues that law must treat people organizations are aiming their produced
as persons-qua-persons first, and citizens only product and services to meet not just local but
second. international standards. These foster greater
relationships among people across boarder
Moreover, she stated that, “globalization is
and time and space. They form networks,
more than its common representation as
groups of elites, and world organizations and
growing interdependence and formation of
serve as global actors that contributed unique
self-evidently global institutions. It also includes
insights into global politics, law, and economy.
sub-national spaces, processes, and actors. The
global gets partly structured inside the national Formation and Role of Networks
and this process entails a denationalizing of
what was historically constructed as national.
 activities can have either a positive or a
negative impact on the countries involved. For
Szentes (2003) economic globalization is a
process of making the world economy
an organic system by extending transnational
economic processes and economic relations to
more and more countries and by deepening
the economic interdependencies among
them. Benczes (2014) follows this definition and
emphasizes that he interpretation of the current
trends in the world economy.
Toward the end of the Second World War, in
July 1944, representatives from the United
States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and 40
other countries met at Bretton Woods, a resort
in New Hampshire, to lay the foundation for the
post-war international financial economic
system that gave birth to IMF, GATT, WB and
Formation and Role of Elites furthers with WTO. The main objectives of these
economic systems is to prevent another
worldwide economic cataclysm like the Great
Depression, to aid the recovery of war-torn
countries and to foster economic cooperation
among states. The following are the functions of
the aforementioned economic systems.
International Monetary Fund
Important functions of IMF
 Facilitate the cooperation of countries on
monetary policy, including providing the
necessary resources for both consultation and
the establishment of monetary policy in order to
minimize the effects of international financial
crises.
 Help stabilize exchange rates between
countries.
 Provide a safeguard to members of the IMF
Formation and Role of Institution
against balance of payments crises.
World Bank
Important functions of WB
 Aims to reduce poverty in middle-income and
creditworthy poorer countries by promoting
sustainable development, through loans,
guarantees, and non-lending-including
analytical and advisory-services.
 Tries to foster social reforms to promote
economic development, such the
empowerment of women, building schools and
health centers, provision of clean water and
Countries and regions are economically very electricity, fighting disease, and protecting the
different from each other. Its defining environment.
characteristic is the wide disparities in
General Agreements on Tariffs and
economic achievement and consequent
Trade (defunct)
standards of living.
Important functions of GATT before
But what do we meant by the global economy
and economic globalization? The global  Avoid trade wars by raising protectionist
economy refers to the interconnected barriers.
worldwide economic activities that take place  Aid economic recovery through reconstructing
between multiple countries. These economic and liberalizing global trade.
 World Trade Organization trading for the benefit of their own country, but
mostly reliant on agricultural farmland
Important functions of WTO
especially in Eastern countries and barter
 Providing forum for trade negotiations trading. During the period of exploration and
 Handling trade disputes colonization, economic activity focuses on
finding gold and silver, this type of economic
 Monitoring Members’ trade policies system refers to mercantilism. Eventually, this led
 Providing technical assistance and training to to the rise of western powers like Spain, Portugal,
developing and least developed economies England, and later on America, the Soviet
Union, and Germany. After World War I a new
global economic system emerges called
These International Economic System (IES) has
capitalism.
been anchored in the neoliberal paradigm
since 1980s. It involves reducing the
government regulation in order to extend the
role of the private sector in the market and the
society. Global justice movements have sought
to expose the inadequacies of the system in
addressing the needs of developing world and
its frailties and vulnerability to financial crises.
The IES’s are pillars of globalization. Designed to
help manage the international financial system,
they have taken on major roles as drivers of
closer economic integration of all of the world’s
countries, from the advanced to the least
developed. They have provided funds and
advice to assist countries with their economic
development and policy-making.

Market Integration
Market Integration and Globalization

In the previous lesson, you learned that

globalization refers to the expansion, and
intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and world
space (Steger, 2014) This Interconnection across
the planet is driven by information technology,
that paved way for the changes in the process
of the global economy. Integration becomes a
common ground among nation-states which
involves an attempt to combine separate
national economies into larger economic
regions. (Koester, 2000)
Interconnection among nations can be traced
Globalization has brought the global economy
from the time of Marco Polo when he traveled
into a wider range of perspectives and effects.
through Asia along the Silk Road (Zaide, 2015).
Global economy before the way it is today, it
Through trading, movements people, goods
goes through a series of a process starting from
and services, communication and exchange of
the ancient times up today. Remember that
economic knowledge, and technology
during the early times when civilization began
generally became a trend. This resulted in the
to develop, there has been a notable series of
formation of market integration in which
engagement and interconnections among
separate markets for the same goods and
people across the world.
services becomes one single market.
Starting from the silk road, a trade route
What is Market Integration?
between China and the Mediterranean
promoted the exchange of ideas, goods like It is a process that refers to the expansion of firms
silk, porcelain, which resulted in the exchange by consolidating marketing functions and
of cultures and beliefs. The economy back then activities under single management. For
was centered on expanding networks of example, the establishment of whole selling
facilities by food retailers, in these manners 20th century, the emergence of Post-
there is a concentration of decision making
under one management. This also involves the industrialism in the Post- World War era, and the
price of related goods using the same currency, 24-hour global non-stop trading across the
for example, the use of dollars in international world.
trading, the Euro among European
Nations. Market integration is also evident in the The Third perspective is technological change,
principle of the General Agreement on Tariff this involves big data, internet, machine
and Trade GATT in 1945, Article 1 of the GATT learning, artificial intelligence, robotics, 3D
states that “All contracting parties must accord printing, biotechnology, nanotechnology,
any advantage, favor, privilege, or immunity renewable energy technologies, satellite, and
granted to any product from any other country drone technologies. This impacted the political
immediately and unconditionally to all other and socio-economic activities across the world.
members.” The concept of free trading is
another result of market integration. The fourth perspective is the critical role of
government in making policy. For example, the
Free Trade refers to a policy removing the formation of international organization and
barriers in trading among to or more nations. signing an agreement on trading among
Under this, goods and services can be bought member nations like GATT, WTO, etc.
and sold across borders with little or no Global Financial Institutions and Global Market
government tariffs, quotas, subsidies, or Integration
prohibitions to inhibit their exchange. The Worlds Global Market integration paved the way for
Major Free Trade Areas are North American the emergence of global financial institutions
that aided the nation-states in government and
Trade, Association of Southeast Asian Nations economic affairs. There are two major financial
Free Trade Area, Southern Common Market, international institutions: The World International
Common Market of Eastern and Southern Monetary Fund, and the World Bank. The
formation of an international financial institution
Africa. There are also not free trade areas, but during Post-World War II are founded by groups
there are union and partnership Agreements, of countries to promote public and private
for example, are the European Union and Trans- investment to foster economic and social
development in developing and transitioning
Pacific Partnership. (World trade Organization, countries. Allied powers came together in 1944
n.d.) at the conference known as Bretton Woods
under the intellectual leadership of Harry Dexter
What Explains the Rapid Market Integration in
White, US Senior Treasury official, and John
Recent Decades?
Maynard Keynes. The conference planned
In the study conducted by Garret (2000), there new rules of new economic order to prevent
are four perspectives in determining the reason countries following the principle “beggar-thy-
for rapid market integration and its relationship neighbour” policies that had led to the Great
to globalization: Depression. It also established the two key
institutions, the International Monetary Fund
First, perspective according to Garrett, “what and World Bank to manage this new economic
we are witnessing today, is nothing order. (Zaide, 2015)
new because the current level of market
integration is only returning to those last era of International Monetary Fund
economic internationalization the turn of the
20th century “. This is an autonomous organization affiliated to
the UNIO. From an initial strength of 31
The second perspective is the technological
members, it now commands a 125- strong
determinism, opposes that shrinkage of time
membership.
and space has been so intense and so universal
Functions of the IMF
that there is essentially nothing that can be
done to stop it. This only means that technology 1. Works as a short-term credit institution;
changes the lives of people, political, social, 2. Provide for the orderly adjustment of exchange
and economic systems across the world. rates;
3. Acts as a reserve base for member countries to
Example, the transition from feudalism to borrow from
4. Provides foreign exchange loans against
capitalism, changing occupational and skills current transactions;
structure of the labor in the labor force in the
5. Provides international financial consultancy 4. Provides insurance guarantees to foreign
services.
6. Furthermore, the IMF promotes global monetary investors
cooperation and international 5. Setting investment-related disputes among
financial stability. The role of IMF is to provide member nations through conciliation
short-term loans to prevent devaluation and
retain the state’s fixed exchange rate in or arbitration.
instances of the temporary balance of
payments and deficits. Comparative Economic Forecasts in the Midst
of COVID’19 Pandemic
In addition, IMF assists countries that hit by the
crisis by providing financial support. So now, GROWTH RATE FORECAST
what are the situations that trigger a
The table shows the current economic growth
crisis? (International Monetary Fund, n.d.)
of the Philippines as of June 2020 according to
One is domestic factors, this includes Asian Development Bank. It decreased by 3.8%
inappropriate fiscal and monetary policies because of this unprecedented and
which can lead to large economic imbalances extraordinary public health emergency brought
(large current account and fiscal deficit and about by the COVID-19 pandemic that
high level of external and public debt) an substantially slow down economic growth this
exchange rate fix an inappropriate level, which year, with most of the contraction in the
can erode competitiveness and lead to economy. The quarantine measures have shut
persistent current account deficit and loss of down schools and most government offices
official reserves and a weak financial system and private establishments in Metro Manila and
which can create economic boom and busts. the entire Luzon island, which accounts for over
Political instability or weak institution can also half of the country’s total population and
trigger crises by exacerbating economic generates more than two-thirds of the country’s
vulnerabilities. Another is external factors, this overall GDP.
includes shocks ranging from natural disasters to
INFLATION RATE
the increase of the price of commodities.
On the other hand, inflation is expected to
Whether the cause is domestic or external in
reach 2.2% this year and 2.4% in 2021, with
origin, crises can take many different
further downside pressure from lower global oil
forms: balance of payment problems occur
prices. With inflation projected to remain within
when a nation is unable to pay for essential
the central bank’s target range of 2.0% to 4.0%,
imports or service its external debt
authorities have room for further monetary
repayments; financial crises stem from illiquid or
policy expansion to cushion any lingering
insolvent financial institutions, and fiscal crises
effects of the pandemic on the economy. But
are caused by excessive fiscal deficits and
despite the decline in the economy, ADB
debt. Often, countries that come to the IMF
expects a strong recovery to 6.5% GDP growth
face more than one type of crisis as challenges
in 2021, assuming that COVID-19 infections in
in one sector spread throughout the economy.
the country are curbed by June this year.
Crises generally result in a sharp slowdown in
growth, higher unemployment, lower incomes, CURRENT CREDIT RATING OF THE PHILIPPINES
and greater uncertainty which causes a deep
recession. In acute crisis cases, defaults or
restructuring of sovereign debt may become
unavoidable.
World Bank

Grants long-term loans for the economic

development of less developed countries and
the reconstruction of war-torn countries in
Europe.
The functions of WB are:

Standard & Poor's credit rating for Philippines

1. Provides loan services to member governments
stands at BBB+ with stable outlook. The country
2. Provides development loans on soft terms to ranks 61 on the overall credit rating among
poor member nations countries. Moody's credit rating for Philippines
was last set at Baa2 with stable outlook. Fitch's
3. Provides support to private or joint sector
credit rating for Philippines was last reported at
projects
BBB with stable outlook. Moody said the What is a global corporation?
Philippines’ sustained improving fiscal metrics
with national government debt falling to 39.6 This is also known as a global company, or any
percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in
company that operates in at least a country
2019 from 50.2 percent in 2010 that helped in
maintaining its investment grade credit other than the where it originated (LaMarco,
ratings.(Trading Economics,2020) 2018)
In general, a credit rating is used by sovereign
The global corporation has been existing for a
wealth funds, pension funds and other investors
to gauge the credit worthiness of Philippines few centuries, the earliest of which were
thus having a big impact on the country's chartered around the sixteenth century in
borrowing costs. In this case, as stated by Carlos
places like England, Holland, etc. At first, these
Dominguez the Secretary of finance because
of the good credit rating of the Philippines, the corporations are said to be not-for-profit entities
pandemic has already forced the government to build institutions such as schools, hospitals for
to borrow P1.22 trillion from January to April,
public goods. Around the 17th century, these
exceeding the P1.02-trillion gross borrowings for
the entire 2019. Dominguez says the corporations focused on making money
government has spent P375 billion so far for its through profit. Their wealth was used for colonial
response to COVID-19. He also said that the
expansion parts of Asia, Africa, and the
proportion of debt to gross domestic product
(GPD) has improved to record-low of 39.6 Americas. The British merchant established the
percent, revenues posted its biggest share to British East India Company which monopolized
domestic output at 16.1 percent in 2019,
trading in India. The Dutch East India Company
inflation remains manageable, and foreign
reserves continue to rise, with the end-May 2020 was formed by the Dutch merchant. The
level at USD93 billion. (Villanueva, 2020) American Revolutionary War in 1776, and the
Moreover, it is also reported that our publication of Adams Smith, the father of free
government secured a $500 million equivalent trade theories, Wealth of Nations, argues that
to 25 billion in Pesos financing package from
Asian Development Bank support the countries large business associations limit competition,
to support the country's budgetary and thus, the ending of colonial monopoly.
requirements to address the Coronavirus (Rada, (Zaide, 2015)
2020). All in all, The Philippines' outstanding debt
soared past 9 trillion pesos (roughly 183.9 billion Multinational Corporations
U.S. dollars) as of end-June as the government
borrowed more to fight the COVID-19 Also referred to as transnational corporations
pandemic, the country's Bureau of Treasury said operate in more than one country. They act as
on July 29, 2020. In a statement, the treasury
modernizers of the world economy, promote
bureau said the total debt stock for the month
reached 9.05 trillion pesos, an increase of 163.3 efficiency and growth of the world economy,
billion pesos (roughly 3.3 billion U.S. dollars) or 1.8 promote regional agreements and alliances,
percent compared to May "due to the net
and increase money circulation in the
issuance and availment of domestic and
external financing." Of the total outstanding economy are some of the salient roles of MNC’s.
debt stock, the bureau said 32 percent were (Ferrer, 2018). Western nations such as the
sourced externally while 68 percent are
United States and the European Union member
domestic debt.
states continued to dominate the world
Data from the Department of Finance (DOF) of
the Philippines showed that from January to economy as financiers, producers, and
June, the government has availed program consumers. Their banking merchants,
loans worth 216.3 billion pesos (roughly 4.4 billion multinational corporations, and individual
U.S. dollars) for coronavirus response, with 130.5
billion pesos (roughly 2.6 billion U.S. dollars) from entrepreneurs dominated world finance and
the Asian Development Bank and 85.8 billion business. (Zaide and Zaide 2015, p393)
pesos (roughly 1.74 billion U.S. dollars) from the
World Bank. (Xinhua,2020) The new source of wealth came from the

The Rise of Global Corporations intellectual properties and patents of Western

inventors, including modern computers and
Market integration motivated by globalization
resulted in the emergence of global applications. American inventors like Bill Gates,
corporations. Steve Jobs, and Mark Zuckerberg became the
household names. The patented inventions as with 72.4 billion dollars in the fourth quarter of
2018 .
the Windows software, the iPod, iPad, iPhone,
Operating income increased to 3.9 billion
and Facebook. Thus the 20th century as also
dollars in the fourth quarter 2019, compared
known as for new knowledge revolution.” a new with operating income of 3.8 billion dollars in
“intellectual revolution,” or the computer fourth quarter 2018. Net income in 2019
increased to 11.6 billion dollars, or 23.01 dollars
revolution.
per diluted share, compared with net income of
WORLD’s 5 BIGGEST CORPORATE GIANTS 10.1 billion dollars, or 20.14 dollars per diluted
share, in 2018.
(Gourtsilidou,2020)
Berkshire Hathaway Inc. - Berkshire Hathaway,
We live in an era where fewer than 10% of the with a market capitalization of 545.7 billion
world's public companies account for more dollars is based in Omaha, Nebraska. Berkshire
than 80% of all profits. Below are the world’s earned 81.4 billion dollars in 2019 according to
largest corporations, compiled by market generally accepted accounting principles.
capitalization (the total market value of a
company's outstanding shares): The components of that figure are 24 billion
Apple - The company’s headquarters are in dollars of operating earnings, 3.7 billion dollars
Cupertino, California. Apple, with a market of realized capital gains and a 53.7 billion dollars
capitalization of 1.172 trillion dollars recently
gain from an increase in the amount of net
announced financial results for its fiscal 2020 first
quarter. The company posted quarterly unrealized capital gains that exist in the stocks
revenue of 91.8 billion dollars, an increase of 9% the company holds
from the year-ago quarter and an all-time
record, and quarterly earnings per diluted share EMERGING ROLES OF MNCs
of 4.99 dollars, up 19%, also an all-time
record. International sales accounted for 61% (National Research Council,2020)
of the quarter’s revenue.
I. INCREASING INTERNATIONAL COMPANY
Microsoft Corporation - The computer tech ALLIANCES
company with a market capitalization of 1.101
trillion dollars produces, licenses, and supports Since the end of the Cold War, the world
dozens of software products and computing economic system has been strongly distorted
devices. Microsoft announced financial results
by political intervention. Even though politically
for its fiscal 2020 first quarter as compared to the
responding period of the last fiscal year. oriented trade frictions are being heightened at
Revenue was 33.1 billion dollars and increased the authority’s level between Japan and the
14%, operating income was 12.7 billion dollars
United States, industrial leaders of the two
and increased 27%, net income was 10.7 billion
dollars and increased 21% and diluted earnings international locations are aggressively forming
per share was 1.38 dollars and increased 21%. strategic alliances and promotion pleasant
Microsoft returned 7.9 billion dollars to
collaboration. This tide of corporate level
shareholders in the form of dividends and share
repurchases in the first quarter of the fiscal year competitive interdependence and world
2020, an increase of 28% compared to the first alliance undertaking is steadily turning into a
quarter of the fiscal year 2019.
good sized issue in the world economy. Indeed,
Alphabet Inc. - The third biggest company in it is paradoxical, but relying on company
the world with a market capitalization of 902
alliances and interdependence is perhaps a
billion dollars is Alphabet Inc. In 2019 Alphabet
again delivered strong revenue growth, with better method for growing industrial strength
revenues of 162 billion dollars, up 18% year over than financial nationalism.
year. On capital returns, in the fourth quarter of
2019, the company repurchased 6.1 billion Moreover, the paradigm of modern
dollars of shares, which was more than double
technological innovation is rapidly changing. In
the amount of repurchase in the fourth quarter
of 2018. As of year end, the company had 21 order to cope with the paradigm shift, many
billion dollars remaining in the program. companies are forming strategic alliances
across national borders in order to survive. The
Amazon - The company with a market
capitalization of 887 billion dollars is based in alliance network is so complex and tight that
Seattle. Net sales increased 21% to 87.4 billion even nationalistic political pressure no longer
dollars in the fourth quarter of 2019, compared
can break such alliances. We think this trend is of international market integration. It is because
very desirable for increasing international of falling consumer demand, reduced
collaboration and for improving world peace. entertainment spending, and stay-at-home
International industrial collaboration is a strong orders mandating certain businesses stay
weapon for comprehensive national closed continue to take their toll on a retail
security. The strategic business alliance is a industry that has been struggling for the past
useful means of improving international several years as consumers pivot to online
collaboration shopping.

II. COMPREHENSIVE NATIONAL SECURITY ST OF MAJOR COMPANIES THAT DECLARED

BANKRUPTCY
Most countries have been pursuing what we
call comprehensive national security for their (Tucker,2020 of Forbes):
national interests. For example, Japan based
 Aeromexico, the largest airline in Mexico,
MNCs have the strong belief in the coexistence
filed on July 1, but planned to double its
that aims for mutual benefits for the
domestic flights and quadruple its international
advancement of social welfare. That means
flights in July compared with June as it ramps up
that local cultures and customs have to be
operations following strict coronavirus
respected and the unilateral enforcement of
shutdowns.
domestic business and labor practices should
 The ALDO Group, a Montreal-based shoe
be avoided except as otherwise agreed upon
retailer that operates about 3,000 locations in
by both parties for their mutual benefit. We
more than 100 countries, filed on May 7 under
never underestimate the great benefits that
pressure from store closures.
Japan has received from the U.S.-Japan Mutual
 Global Eagle, the company that lets you
Security Treaty. We do not deny the fact that
surf the internet with in-flight Wi-Fi and watch
the Japanese economy has advanced more
movies in the air, filed on July 22 to reduce its
rapidly than it otherwise would have. However,
debt by $475 million as air travel has sharply
Japan has also made extra efforts to make this
declined during the pandemic.
possible within the framework of various
 JCPenney filed on May 15, weighed
restrictions. Many Japanese companies have
down by $4.2 billion in debt. The prominent
been restricted in their businesses to peaceful
department store chain has lost money for nine
applications for national security reasons.
straight years, and its troubles were
exacerbated by the pandemic that forced its
IMPACT OF COVID’19 TO MAJOR 850 remaining locations to close.
CORPORATIONS  NPC International, which is Pizza Hut’s
largest franchisee with about 1,200 locations
From small businesses to biggest store giants
and also operates nearly 400 Wendy’s
and corporations many of them have declared
restaurants, filed on July 1 but planned to keep
bankruptcy because of the Covid’19
its restaurants open.
pandemic. The Harvard Business Review have
reported that the crisis has caused a big crash Fortunately, in the Philippines, no company has
to international flows in modern history. Current filed for bankruptcy even after more than two
forecasts, while inevitably rough at this stage, months of community quarantine, according to
call for a 13-32% decline in merchandise trade, Labor Secretary Silvestre Bello III, although
a 30-40% reduction in foreign direct investment, several companies have signified opting for
and a 44-80% drop in international airline temporary closure. Under such circumstances,
passengers in 2020. These numbers imply a employees are still secured of their employment
major rollback of globalization’s recent gains, status. Filing for bankruptcy is one remedy for
but they do not signal a fundamental collapse companies that are unable to pay their debts.
GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM AND GLOBAL becomes a war not just of religions but of
GOVERNANCE political powers and dominance.
What is Global Interstate System? Eighty Years War (1568-1648) also known as
The global interstate system is the whole system Dutch Revolt. The Netherlands during the
of human interconnections that develop fourteenth and fifteenth century had been
international relations among nation-states. united under the Duke of Burgundy. It was
These systems use mechanisms that govern the inherited by Charles V, and became the Holy
world to ensure the balance of power among Roman Emperor and later on by Philip II of
the government and to avoid destructive Spain. Various circumstances occurred during
competition. One of the mechanisms use is the this period that caused dissatisfaction and
formation of international organizations like the unrest in the Netherlands. Just like the Thirty
United Nations, and the international financial Years War, conflicts mainly focus on religion. The
organization in which they facilitate relations followers of John Calvin protested against the
among states and promote international imposition of the Holy Roman Empire that
standards. Catholicism must be the sole and only religion
to follow. In the course of history, this religious
On the other hand, modern politics is governed
conflict turns into a war of political power and
through nation-states. When we say state it
dominance in Europe and the empire territories.
refers to a community of persons, more or less
numerous, occupying a defined territory, The Thirty Years War and Eighty Years War did
possessing an organized government, and not end the conflicts in Europe but it was able
enjoying independence from external control. to establish the precedent of peace reached
On the other hand, Nation is defined as people, by diplomatic congress and a new system of
or aggregation of men, existing in the form of an the political order in Europe that is now based
organized society, usually inhabiting a distinct upon the concept of co-existing sovereign
portion of the earth. countries or known as the principle of
Westphalian sovereignty. This series of treaties
The question now is, why is the world organized
were signed between May and October 1648 in
the way it is? What are the historical
held in Westphalian cities of Osnabruck and
antecedents of contemporary world politics?
Munster. The peace negotiations involve a total
Before the formation of sovereignty among of 190 delegations representing European
nations, the world was involved in two powers.
destructive wars, the Thirty Years War of the Holy
Salient Points of Peace of Westphalia
Roman Empire (1618-1648) and the Eighty Years
War between Spain and the Dutch Republic ( 1. The power taken by Ferdinand III in
Zaide and Zaide, 2015) contravention of the Holy Roman Empire’s
The Thirty Years War of the Holy Roman Empire constitution was stripped and returned to the
started as religious conflicts between various rules of Imperial States
Protestant and the Catholic States. When the 2. All parties would recognize the Peace of
Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, tried to Augsburg of 1955, in which each prince would
impose religious uniformity and forcing his have the right to determine the religion of his
domains to accept Roman Catholicism. These state, the option being Catholicism,
resulted to fear and anger among Northern Lutheranism, and Calvinism. This affirms the
Protestant states because the imposition principle of ‘whose realm, his religion’
violated their rights as stipulated in the signed 3. Christians living in principalities where their
Peace Treaty of Augsburg. The conflict domination was not the established church
were guaranteed the right to practice their faith
 in public during allotted hours and in private at Europe also known as the Congress of Vienna
their will was the first of a series of international meetings
4. General recognition of the exclusive in which the purpose was to restore the balance
sovereignty of each party over its lands, people, of power in Europe peacefully. This later
and agents abroad, and responsibility for the become the model of the first-formed
warlike acts of any of its citizens or agents international organizations such as the League
of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in
IMPORTANCE OF PEACE OF WESTPHALIA 1945.
The Peace of Westphalia helped us to
understand and quantify the power of nation- The Concert key points are reviving the power
states. of monarchy as a government system, return
The treaty established new political norms and Christian values in Europe, repudiation of the
concepts of international political affairs and Napoleonic Code, and renewed peace in
dominance such as the legal equality of states,
Europe through great power diplomacy.
non-intervention, and a repudiation of the
principle of supra-nationalism. Global Politics and World War
Supranationalism is defined as the voluntary The main cause of war is not the nature of man,
association of three or more independent states but the nature of the international system itself.
willing to yield some measure of sovereignty for States are in competition for power, the
mutual benefit. international system will generate war like
Kenneth Waltz who talks about war as
For example, Europe has experienced strong
something essentially related to the
centripetal and centrifugal forces throughout its
international system being a balance of power
history. From the Roman Empire to the European
in an anarchist system. As soon as we reach a
Union, the historical pattern of development in certain order of balance, we will not fight.
Europe is a model study in regional geography. (Baripedia,2020)
From empire to nation-state and now to a
union, the continent struggles to confront these World War I
cultural forces that unite and divide. The EU is an
example of what supranationalism can World War I according to Martin (2020), is known
produce. To compete in a global economy, the
as the "war to end all wars," occurred between
nation-states of Europe must cooperate and
coordinate their industrial activities to support July 1914 and November 11, 1918. By the end of
their high standard of living. The EU member the war, over 17 million people had been killed,
states are a part of the elite “have” nations of
including over 100,000 American troops. While
the world. (Saylordotorg,2020)
What happened to the international political the causes of the war are infinitely more
affairs after the Westphalia? (Cavendish, 1988) complicated than a simple timeline of events,

The world faced a series of new events that and are still debated and discussed to this day,

challenge the international order. The rise of the list below provides an overview of the most

power of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) frequently-cited events that led to war.

French emperor who sought to spread the CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 1

principles of the French Revolution across Mutual Defense Alliances
Europe (Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815) key was Countries throughout the world have always
the formation of Napoleonic code, where it made mutual defense agreements with their
pursued: Forbade birth privileges, freedom of neighbors, treaties that could pull them into
battle. These treaties meant that if one country
religion, meritocracy in government services was attacked, the allied countries were bound
and this event resulted to, a brief hegemony in to defend them. Before World War 1 began, the
Europe. following alliances existed:
 Russia and Serbia
Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria opposed
 Germany and Austria-Hungary
French Empire and saw the collapsed of
 France and Russia
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, they started
 Britain and France and Belgium
planning the postwar world. The Concert of  Japan and Britain
When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, increase in militarism helped push the countries
Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany, involved into war.
seeing that Russia was mobilizing, declared war Nationalism
on Russia. France was then drawn in against
Much of the origin of the war was based on the
Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany
desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and
attacked France by marching through Belgium
Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria-
pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the
Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. This
war to support its British allies. Later, Italy and the
specific essentially nationalistic and ethnic
United States would enter on the side of the
revolt led directly to the assassination of
Allies (Britain, France, Russia, etc.).
Archduke Ferdinand, which was the event that
Imperialism
tipped the scales to war.
Imperialism is when a country increases their
But more generally, nationalism in many of the
power and wealth by bringing additional
countries throughout Europe contributed not
territories under their control, usually without
only to the beginning but to the extension of the
outright colonizing or resettling them.
war across Europe and into Asia. As each
Before World War I, several European countries country tried to prove their dominance and
had made competing imperialistic claims in power, the war became more complicated
Africa and parts of Asia, making them points of and prolonged.
contention. Because of the raw materials these
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
areas could provide, tensions around which
country had the right to exploit these areas ran The immediate cause of World War I that made
high. The increasing competition and desire for the aforementioned items come into play
greater empires led to an increase in (alliances, imperialism, militarism, and
confrontation that helped push the world into nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke
World War I. Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. In June
1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called
Militarism
the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the
As the world entered the 20th century, an arms Archduke. Their first attempt failed when a
race had begun, primarily over the number of driver avoided a grenade thrown at their car.
each country's warships, and the increasing size However, later that day a Serbian nationalist
of their armies in countries began, training more named Gavrilo Princip shot the Archduke and
and more of their young men to be prepared his wife while they were driving through
for battle. The warships themselves increased in Sarajevo, Bosnia which was part of Austria-
size, number of guns, speed, method of Hungary. They died of their wounds.
propulsion, and quality armor, beginning in 1906
The assassination was in protest to Austria-
with Britain's HMS Dreadnought. Dreadnought
Hungary having control of this region: Serbia
was soon out-classed as the Royal Navy and
wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Kaiserliche Marine quickly expanded their ranks
The assassination of Ferdinand led to Austria-
with increasingly modern and powerful
Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia
warships.
began to mobilize to defend its alliance with
By 1914, Germany had nearly 100 warships and Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia. Thus
two million trained soldiers. Great Britain and began the expansion of the war to include all
Germany both greatly increased their navies in those involved in the mutual defense alliances.
this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia
EFFECTS of World War I
particularly, the military establishment began to
 WW1 caused the downfall of four monarchies:
have a greater influence on public policy. This
Germany, Turkey, Austria-Hungary and Russia.
 The war made people more open to other CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 2 (Parkin, 2018)
ideologies, such as the Bolsheviks that came to
The Treaty of Versailles and the German Desire
power in Russia and fascism that triumphed in
for Revenge
Italy and even later in Germany.
 WW1 largely marked the end of colonialism, as German combatants had felt betrayed by the
the people became more nationalistic and the
signing of the armistice at Compiègne on 11
one country after the other started colonial
revolts in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and November 1918 amidst domestic political unrest
Africa. that was driven by a civilian context of war
 The war changed the economical balance of fatigue and hunger. Some of the high-profile
the world, leaving European countries deep in
agitators at this time were left-wing Jews, which
debt and making the U.S. the leading industrial
power and creditor in the world. fuelled the conspiracy theory of a Jewish
 Inflation shot up in most countries and the Bolshevik disloyalty that later gained so much
German economy was highly affected by traction as Hitler laid the psychological
having to pay for reparations.
groundwork in preparing Germany for another
 With troops traveling all over the world, influenza
was spread easily and an epidemic started war. The devastating experience of the First
which killed more than 25 million people across World War left the victorious nations and their
the world. people desperate to avoid a repeat. At the
 With all the new weapons that were used, WW1 insistence of the French, the terms of the
changed the face of modern warfare forever.
Versailles Treaty were punitive in the extreme
 Due to the cruel methods used during the war
and the losses suffered, WW1 caused a lot of and left Germany destitute and its people
bitterness among nations, which also greatly feeling victimized.
contributed to WW1 decades later.
Economic downturns
 Social life also changed: women had to run
businesses while the men were at war and labor Economic downturn can always be relied upon
laws started to be enforced due to mass
production and mechanization. People all to create conditions of civil, political and
wanted better living standards. international unrest. Hyper-inflation hit Germany
 After WW1, the need for an international body hard in 1923-4 and facilitated the early
of nations that promotes security and peace development of Hitler’s career. Although
worldwide became evident. This caused the
founding of the League of Nations. recovery was experienced, the fragility of the
 WW1 boosted research in technology because Weimar Republic was exposed by the global
better transport and means of communication crash that hit in 1929. The ensuing Great
gave countries an advantage over their
Depression in turn helped to create conditions,
enemies.
such as widespread unemployment, that
 The harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles
caused a lot of dissent in Europe, especially on facilitated the National Socialist Party’s fatal rise
the side of the Central Powers who had to pay to prominence.
a lot for financial reparations.
Nazi ideology and Lebensraum
World War I saw a change in warfare, from the
hand-to-hand style of older wars to the inclusion Hitler exploited the Treaty of Versailles and the
of weapons that used technology and dents in German pride that it and defeat in war
removed the individual from close combat. The
war had extremely high casualties over 15 had created by instilling a renewed sense of
million dead and 20 million injured. The face of (extreme) national pride. This was predicated in
warfare would never be the same again. part by ‘us and them’ rhetoric that identified the
WORLD WAR 2 German nation with Aryan supremacy over all
other races, amongst whom particular disdain
World War II was the biggest and deadliest war
was reserved for the Slavic, Romany and Jewish
in history, involving more than 30 countries.
‘Untermenschen’. This would have dire
Sparked by the 1939 Nazi invasion of Poland,
consequences throughout the years of Nazi
the war dragged on for six bloody years until the
hegemony, as they sought a ‘final solution’ to
Allies defeated Nazi Germany and Japan in
the ‘Jewish question’. As early as 1925, through
1945.
the publication of Mein Kampf, Hitler had ultimately become embroiled in. This left Britain
outlined an intention to unite Germans across and France, already terrified by the prospect of
Europe in a reconstituted territory that included another war, without a key ally in world
Austria, before securing vast tracts of land diplomacy during the tense interwar period. This
beyond this new Reich that would ensure self- is most commonly highlighted in relation to the
sufficiency. In May 1939 he explicitly referred to toothless League of Nations, another product of
the oncoming war as being bound up with the Versailles, which patently failed in its mandate
pursuit of the ‘Lebensraum’ to the east, with this to prevent a second global conflict. Through
referring to the whole of Central Europe and the mid-1930s the Nazis re-armed Germany in
Russia up to the Volga. spite of the Treaty of Versailles and without
sanction or protest from Britain or France. The
The Rise of Extremism and the Forging of
Luftwaffe was founded, Naval forces were
Alliances
expanded and conscription was introduced.
Europe emerged from World War One a very
World War II and ITS EFFECTS (Amadeo,2020)
changed place, with swathes of political
ground being taken up by players on the  The Allied nations won. Of those, the United
States and the Soviet Union gained the most.
extreme right and left. Stalin was identified by
 The war solidified the role of the U.S. superpower
Hitler as a key future adversary and he was wary that had begun in World War I. The 1944 Bretton
of Germany being caught territorially between Woods agreement established a new global
the Soviet Union in the east and a Bolshevik monetary system. It replaced the gold standard
with the U.S. dollar as the global currency. It
Spain, together with a leftist French established America as the dominant power
government, in the west. Thus, he chose to since it was the only country with the ability to
intervene in the Spanish Civil War in order to print dollars.
 The agreement also created the World Bank to
bolster the right-wing presence in Europe, whilst
help emerging market countries to reduce
trialing the effectiveness of his new air force and poverty. The International Monetary Fund
the Blitzkrieg tactics it could help deliver. During provides technical assistance and short-term
loans to prevent financial crises in member
this time the friendship between Nazi Germany
countries.
and Fascist Italy was strengthened, with
 In 1945, the Allies created the United Nationsto
Mussolini also keen to protect the European prevent another world war. In 1949, the North
right while gaining the first place from which to Atlantic Treaty Organization was founded to
protect European nations from threats by
benefit from German expansionism. Germany
communist countries.
and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in
 The Soviet Union took over the eastern
November 1936. The Japanese increasingly European countries it had liberated from the
distrusted the West following the Wall Street Germans. The war strengthened Joseph Stalin's
rule.52The German annihilation of Soviet people
Crash and held designs on subjugating China
created a "never again" mentality that led to
and Manchuria in a manner that echoed Nazi the Cold War.
objectives in the east of Europe. Superficially,  With other countries focused on rebuilding,
the most unlikely of diplomatic agreements was America and the Soviet Union engaged in the
Cold War power struggle. The nuclear bomb set
established in August 1939, when the Nazi- up the necessity of detente to prevent global
Soviet non-aggression pact was signed. In this annihilation.
act the two powers effectively carved up the
Other Impacts of World War II
perceived ‘buffer zone’ that existed between
them in Eastern Europe and paved the way for  Since then, developed countries haven't fought
the German invasion of Poland. each other. Most wars have been civil wars,

The Failure of Appeasement often assisted by foreign countries.

 Allied forces controlled the countries and
American isolationism was a direct response to territories of the Axis powers. Millions of Germans
the European events of 1914-18 that the US had and Japanese were forced out of the territories
they lived in and sent back "home." The victors
 dismantled their former enemies' ability to make which entails only war except that they, like
war by dismantling factories. individual men, should give up their savage
 East and West Germany were divided, as was [lawless] freedom, adjust themselves to the
Berlin. The U.N. Partition Plan for Palestine led to constraints of public law, and thus establish a
Israel's independence in 1948. President Truman continuously growing state consisting of various
said it was a matter of justice for the Jewish nations which will ultimately include all the
people. nations of the world.” What does this mean?
Agreements among states merely avert war
 In 1941, Germany and Italy split up Yugoslavia
and Nations needed to give up their freedom
into Croatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina.53
and subject themselves to a larger system of
 North and South Korea were divided, which led law (analog with citizens in a country). A form of
to the Korean War. The war led to a four-year global government needed to create and
civil war in China that allowed communism to enforce these laws.
take power.
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832)
 The Bengal Famine led to India's uprising and
independence from Great Britain. Japan's He coined the term “international” in 1780
occupation of the Dutch East Indies led to the
formation of an independent Indonesia. “International law”: law between states “The
Ideas Shaping the World end that a disinterested legislator upon
international law would propose to himself
 The beginning of the early 1800smark the
would … be the greatest happiness of all
birth of ideology that shapes the world as to
nations takes together.”
what it is today. The French Revolution that
reached the Philippines, contributed to the He advocated the creation of international law
awakening of nationalism. It is manifested in that would govern inter-state relations.
the writings of our national heroes like Jose Bentham believed that objective global
Rizal through his writings, Noli Me Tangere legislators should aim the propose legislation
and El Filibusterismo. that would create the greatest happiness of all
nations taken together.
 The birth of liberalism which meant to
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
change the old order of things and to
support the popular rule, and reforms in Mazzini’s Nationalist Internationalism
politics and society. Remember that the
He was an architect of Italian unification,
world was governed by Colonial Empires
ardent nationalist, and major critique of the
such as the Roman Empire which holds the
Metternich system.
religious and political power in most of
Europe, the French Empire, Spain, and He is the first one to reconcile nationalism with
Britain. Liberals support ed the principle of universal internationalism. He also believed in a
nationalism because they seek Republican government without kings, queens
independence from foreign control. and hereditary succession and proposed a
system of free nations that cooperated with
 Another political ideology the conservatism,
each other to create an international system.
on the other, resisted change. They
For him, free and independent states would be
supported the old traditions of political and
the basis of an equally free, cooperative
social order. Edmund Burke, an English
international system.
statesman condemned the French
US President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
Revolution because according to him, it
destroyed monarchy and traditions. Unlike Wilsonian Internationalism
liberalism, conservatism suppressed
Nations were subject to the universal laws of
nationalism because it threatened to upset
God, which could be discovered through
the traditional political order.
reason Principles include self-determination,
Immanuel Kant (1795): “For states in their democratic government, collective security,
relation to each other, there cannot be any
reasonable way out of the lawless condition international law, and a league of nations. “I
am proposing, as it were, that the nations Parties across the world, Dissolved in 1943 to
should with one accord adopt the doctrine of appease Allied Powers
President Monroe as the doctrine of the world:
The Comintern and the Third World
that no nation should seek to extend its polity
over any other nation or people, but that every Lenin: “Monopolies, oligarchy, the
people should be left free to determine its polity, striving for domination and not for freedom, the
its way of development—unhindered, exploitation of an increasing number of small or
unthreatened, unafraid, the little along with the weak nations by a handful of the richest or most
great and powerful.” powerful nations — all these have given birth to
those distinctive characteristics of imperialism
Global Politics and the Formation of the United
which compel us to define it as parasitic or
Nations
decaying capitalism.”
The 20th century marked as the “age of
Ho Chi Minh:“ You must excuse my
international organization. The ideas of Wilson,
frankness, but I cannot help but observe that
Kant, and Mazzini became the foundation in
the speeches by comrades from the mother
the formation of League of Nations which was
countries give me the impression that they wish
founded in the 1919 Paris Peace conference
to kill a snake by stepping on its tail. You all know
after WW1. The role of this organization is to
today the poison and life energy of the
maintain world peace through international
capitalist snake is concentrated more in the
arbitration, eventually, this leads to the birth of
colonies than in the mother countries… Yet in
task-specific international organizations like the
our discussion of the revolution, you neglect the
WHO and the ILO (international civil service).
colonies, while capitalism uses them to support
The formation of the international itself, define itself, and fight you.”
organization was challenged by the ideology of
The Major Challenge to Internationalism:
Socialist internationalism, like socialism, is an
Fascism
ideology that sees workers of the government
should own and control the means of wealth for The rise of Hitler’s supreme power in Germany
the benefit of all the people not just for a few resulted in a new global order. The government
(Zaide and Zaide, 2015) Karl Marx (1818-1883) controls the resources which are vital in the
believed that “Workers of the world should economic and political process. This lead to
unite” and that “The proletariat has no nation” colonization of different parts of the world with
Japan and Italy as their ally. He advocated the
The Socialist International (1889-1916)
primacy of ethnic majorities and a regional
The organization of labor and socialist sphere of influence.
parties, mainly in Europe, were able to achieve
The Formation of the United Nations aims to
Achievements: 8-hour working day,
preserve peace after the war, reinforced
International Women’s Day, May 1. Its parties
principles of sovereignty and non-intervention, it
became major players in the electoral politics
reflected the postwar balance of power
of Europe, eventually collapsed in 1916 as its
member parties supported the war efforts of Security Council is to maintain peace and
their respective states security Permanent 5 has veto (vestiges of the
Concert). UN took over the duties of the
Communist International (Comintern),1919-
League, grew larger than the league because
1943
of decolonization.
This was a product of the Bolshevik
victory in Russia. Lenin’s tool to promote GENERAL INORMATION ABOUT UNITED NATIONS
revolution Central body for all Communist The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945 by
the Allied Powers, the victors of the Second
 World War. The mandate of this organization is  To settle legal disputes between states
to maintain international peace and security (contentious cases) and provides advisory
and to foster international cooperation in opinions on legal questions referred by the UN
addressing humanitarian and, social, economic organs and specialized agencies, in
and cultural issues. This is the only organization accordance to international law.
that can authorize the use of force against
Functions the General Assembly
aggressor. On the other hand, UN can be a
conflict actor in itself or an instrument for action  The only UN organ with universal
driven by the interests of particular states. It also representation with all 193-member states
comprises of six principal organs in which the represented in the body. This remains to be the
objectives of the UN are being carried out. primary decision maker of the UN.
Among the six organs of the UN, the Security
Council is considered as the most potent organ Functions the Secretariat
with the power to make legally binding  To carry out the substantive and administrative
resolutions and comprises of the strongest work of the United Nations as directed by the
military states. General Assembly, the SC and other councils.
Functions the Security Council How do the United Nations work?
 To veto a substantive resolution. Although the UN is an organization that ensures
 To determine the existence of a threat to the peace and security and resolves conflicts, there
peace or act of aggression and to recommend are issues that arise inside this
what action should be taken. organization. Gould and Rablen (2017) state
 To investigate any dispute or situation that two distinct sets of criticisms relating to the
might lead to international friction. efficiency of the council and the degree of
equity regarding power allocation. For the
 To implement sets of instruments or inequity in the country level, the problem lies in
intervention to maintain peace and order. the over-representation of the PM countries; in
(sanctions, peacekeeping and peace the regional level, there is lack of representation
enforcement) for Asia and Africa while Eastern and Western
The SC is composed of 15 member, five of Europe are over-represented – an overt
them are considered as the five permanent manifestation of the North and South Divide.
members (PM) and the rest are considered as Thus, different reforms have been raised to
the non-permanent members of the change the structure particularly the Security
council. The five permanent members are all Council to distribute the concentration of
allies of the Second World War, and are nuclear power and to foster inclusive decision-making
states. The other 10 non-permanent members of for marginalized and excluded member-states.
the council are elected by the General Global Divides
Assembly for overlapping two-year terms.
This lesson discusses the difference between the
The Purpose of UN Sanctions Global North and South, the rationale of global
 to change undesirable behavior (e.g. Syria); north and global south and the theories behind
the categorization of the world.
 to limit opportunities for undesirable behavior
(e.g. Iran, extensive restrictions on
Defining Global North and Global South
technology/knowledge in the nuclear sector);
 to deter other countries from choosing an Geographically speaking, the
undesirable course of action. term North referring to the countries belonging
Functions the Economic and Social Council in the Northern hemisphere, which includes the
 Responsible for the direction and Western countries America, Europe and
coordination of the economic, social Africa, while on the other hand, South referring
humanitarian and cultural activities carried out
by the UN. It is also the largest and most mostly to the Asian countries. Sawe
complex subsidiary body. (2017) pointed out that in the contemporary
 This organ is supported by WB and IMF. world, the global division use to categorize the
Functions the Trusteeship Council countries level according to its socio-economic
and political stability and not just of it
 To supervise the administration of territories as
they transitioned from colonies to sovereign geographical location.
nations.
The International Monetary Fund and
Functions the International Court of Justice
World Bank use mechanisms in determining the
level of development among countries, such as Portugal. They compete in exploring the world
the GDP income per capita, level of for the purpose of finding gold and silver, since
industrialization, and infrastructure and this is the means of measuring the wealth and
technological advancement. Non- economic power of a nation.
factor such as Human Capital Investment (HDI),
This competition led to the signing of Treaty of
which quantifies the country’s level in terms of
Tordesillas, were they divide the exploration
quality of education, literacy, and health are
route to east and west. Spain explore most of
also use in determining the degree of economic
the Asian countries like the Philippines in which
development (Majaski, 2019).
it was incidentally found, because originally
What is Global North in the Contemporary they are looking for the Moluccas Island.
World?
In the 19th and 20t century Britain and France
Global North refers to countries that was the leading colonial powers, they were
are politically and economically stable, also able to rule the whole African continent. The
referred as “rich” and “develop countries”, purpose now is not just to find gold and silver,
more economically develop countries MEDC’s, but to conquest established political and
this includes the members of Group of 8 or the economic power. Britain established colonies in
“G8” (United States, France, Russia, Germany, America, and Asia, they founded the East India
Italy, United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan). Company, Netherlands, Dutch East India
But in 2014, Russia was indefinitely suspended Company, where in they monopolize the
from the group after annexing Crimea, an trading and commerce in India.
autonomous public of Ukraine, G8 is now
The decline of Western Kingdoms, led to the
referred as G7. (Liberto, 2020).
global changes such as, the decline of
What makes the Global North “rich” and monarchial type of government system,
“develop”? Genrally, this countries have good abolition of monopoly in trading. New world
economic standing, better quality living and order emerged when America and Russia arose
quality of life (Ferrer, 2018). into power, such as introducing a new political,
governmental and economic system, America
What is Global South in the Contemporary
pursuing democracy and capitalism, while on
World?
the other hand, Russia pursued the socialism
Global South refers to the and communism.
“underdeveloped countries”, “developing” the
After WWII, colonize countries were given
“poor side” and “Third World Countries Butler
freedom and establish its own government and
(2020). These are mainly underdeveloped
secure its sovereignty but they still dependent to
agricultural countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
powerful nations like America in terms of
America. Generally, countries that suffer from
economics and governance.
high poverty, high child mortality, low
economic and educational development, and The Cold War
vulnerable to exploitation by large corporations The Cold War (1946-1991) was consider as
and industrialized nations, and they have high global battle for supremacy between United
States of America and democratic countries on
foreign debts levels.
the other hand, the Soviet Union and its
When and How the Concept Begun communist allied countries. Cold War was a war
fought by means of propaganda and secret
The Rise of Colonialism tactics and not by direct war between the
super powers. It is also a clash of ideas or
As early as the 17th century, during the age of political ideologies between democracy and
exploration and colonization, the world was communism.
divided into West and East by Spain and
 What is the Connection of Cold War in the  Economic inequality, is the unequal distribution
of income and opportunity between different
Global Divides? groups in society. It is a concern in almost all
countries around the world and often people
During this time, countries are being categorize
are trapped in poverty with little chance to
according to its alignment between Russia-East climb up the social ladder
and the America- West. After the fall of Russia,  Social inequality, is the issue pertaining to the
they were classified as Second World Country lack of housing, health care, education,
employment opportunities, and status
together with China. America now was
II. Modernization theory
classified as First World Country together with
European countries. This categorization left out  The Modernization theory posits that countries
go through evolutionary stages and that
many countries which were poorer than First
industrialization and improved technology are
World and Second World countries. This the keys to forward progress.
“poorer” countries were categorized now as  Low-income countries are affected by their lack
the Third World countries. In the contemporary of industrialization and can improve their global
economic standing through:
world, global north comprises of countries
o An adjustment of cultural values and attitudes
belongs to more economically developed to work
countries MEDC’s on the other hand global o Industrialization and other forms of economic
south comprises of countries belongs to least growth (Armer and Katsillis, 2010)
develop countries LEDC’s. But there are  First countries to adopt modern technologies,
attitudes, and institutions will turn to be the most
exceptions like Australia, New Zealand, Japan,
wealth and successful
Singapore, and South Korea,
 Countries that hold on to traditional views and
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBAL NORTH AND process will fall behind until modern
SOUTH corporations and novel technological
advancements eventually overtake traditional
institutions.
III. Dependency Theory
 According to dependency theory, global
inequality is the result of core nations exploiting
resources and labor in peripheral and semi-
peripheral countries, creating a cycle of
dependence. As long as peripheral nations are
dependent on core nations for economic
stimulus and access to a larger piece of the
global economy, they will never achieve stable
and consistent economic growth.
 Can be defined as an explanation of the
economic development of a state in terms of
external influences- political, economic, and
cultural- on national development policies (Raúl
Prebisch)
 Colonial imperialism, Exploits other countries by
excessive exportation of resources, taking
Why is that, as you go more on Southern part of additional profits and controlling through neo-
the world it becomes poor and less developed? colonialism
And as you go Northern, becomes richer and  Poverty is created as a result of capitalism,
developed? imperialism, and colonialism

There are theories that explains this situation of IV. Neoliberalism Theory
the world.  Policy model—bridging politics, social studies,
and economics—that seeks to transfer control
I. Functionalist Perspective of Inequality
of economic factors to the private sector from
 It is a belief that "inequalityis not only inevitable the public sector. It tends towards free-market
but also necessary for the smooth functioning of capitalism and away from government
society.” spending, regulation, and public ownership.
 Furthermore, countries that have a high Human economic policies between countries. Long
Development Index, GDP income per capita,
with technological advancement most likely before the colonization and emergence of
offer a quality of living among its people. The globalization, they had developed interaction
pursuit of happiness may vary among people, it between Asian regions, this manifest in early
can be quantify according to the quality of life,
such as material wealth, good health, quality trading through Barter System. Fine textiles, silk,
education, which are the result of good gold and other metals are valuable products.
governance. The Worlds Happiness Report in
2019, focuses on happiness and the community, The Silk Road is another breakthrough in the
how happiness has evolve over the past dozen development of trading and commerce not just
years, with a focus on the technologies, social
among Asian people but and to the rest of the
norms, conflicts and government policies that
have driven those changes. The Top 10 world. This is a trading route connecting East to
happiest countries in the world are: West (Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, 2015).

1. Finland SIAN REGIONALISM

2. Denmark
3. Norway In the recent years, integration and
4. Iceland development in Asian region has been the
5. Netherlands center of discussion among Asian leaders.
6. Switzerland
7. Sweden Geopolitics, economic alliances, and forming
8. New Zealand international organizations at par with other
9. Canada regions in the world are the key measure in
10. Austria
forming regionalism among Asia countries. This
Asian Regionalism also contributed in forming a new global order.
This lesson defines Asian Regionalism, discusses What is the Foundation of Asian Regionalism?
the foundation of Asian Regionalism,
importance of alliances and the contemporary We can understand the foundation Asian
challenges to Asian Regionalism.
regionalism through historical approach.
Regionalization refers to "societal integration The first phase was the First Asian Relations
and the often undirected process of social and Conference in 1947 and 1949 India convened
economic interaction." There is a regional which. The primary aim of the conference was
concentration of economic flows and to create political pressure for decolonization
countries respond economically and politically and to give a collective voice or identity to the
to globalization in various ways. nationalist aspirations and newly independent
countries of Asia.
Regionalism refers to the formal process of
intergovernmental collaboration between two The chief point of this phase was the Asia-
or more states. It is a set of conscious activities Africa conference in Bandung, Indonesia in
carried out by states within a region to 1995. The purpose goes beyond
cooperate while regionalization is a less decolonization to developing rules of conduct
conscious process which is the outcome of in international affairs and exploring ideas and
these states policies. It is more on political avenues for economic cooperation. These
process characterized by economic policy conferences discuss matters in line with
cooperation among countries. political security and economics, but this
also resulted to contest on economic
Combining these concepts, Asian regionalism is
nationalism and economic liberalism as
a product of societal integration brought by the
understood in development countries to
undirected process of social and economic
advance free trade (Acharya, 2012). At this
interaction. Asian regionalism focuses on
point, you can understand that slow Asian
economic interaction, whereby the countries
region forming cooperation to achieve a
adopt the principle of free flow of goods and
specific goal.
services which are coordinated with foreign
The second phase of the development of 1/3 of the world's land
Asian regionalism was the formation of ASEAN mass
and the Pacific community notion. Prior to this,
2/3 of the global
United States and Japan plays a vital role in
population
forming regionalism, US sought to create
security and economic regionalism, Japan Largest share of global
focus on economic, with security being an GDP (35%); USA 23%;
indirect goal, a by-product of economic As a region: Europe 28%
cooperation. Over 1/3 of world's
exports
The rising urgency of regionalism, motivated by
globalization cooperation among Prevalence of poverty,
neighbouring countries, takes into its full take HIV/AIDS, gender
off when ASEAN was formed. Just like the other inequality and other
regions in the world, Asia establish an socio econ problems
international organization that will support the
welfare and development of the region. Now that you have learned that Asian

The ASEAN Association of Southeast Asia Regionalism is about social integration, in this

Nations, under the banner of cooperative part of the module we will be unlocking the

peace and prosperity, its chief projects centre importance of forming alliances especially to

on economic cooperation, the promotion of those countries under the third world.

trade among ASEAN countries and the rest of Why Do We Need to Form Alliances?
the world. (Moon, 2003) (Claudio, Lisandro and Patricio Abinales, 2018)

The Post-Cold War motivated the third phase

of the development of Asian regionalism. Military Defense purposes
ASEAN during this time remained the centre of
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) -
regionalism, to develop strong economic ties
Formed during cold war when several Western
among nations, ASEAN Free Trade Area was
European countries plus the United States
formed, and the establishment of ASEAN
agreed to protect Europe against the threat of
Regional Forum, this was the first multilateral
the Soviet Union
security organization, security is defined not in
Response of Soviet Union:
military or collective defense, but as
WARSAW Pact- regional alliance created by
cooperative security measures aimed at Soviet Union
developing confidence and avoiding conflict - comprise Eastern European Countries under
among Asian nations and the rest of the world. Soviet Domination
What is Now the Standing of Asia as a Region? RESULT: Soviet imploded in December 1991, but
NATO remains in place
(Asia Pacific & South Asia: Northeast Asia, SEA,
Pacific Islands, South Asia) Pool Resources

Diversity: most South K, Japan, and This is to get better returns for their exports and
progressive: Singapore expand leverage against trading partners

Sample Organization:
Poorest
Cambodia, Laos, Nepal
Countries:  Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC)-established in 1960 by Iran,
Most populated: China and India Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to
regulate the production and sale of oil.
World’s smallest: Bhutan and Maldives  Protect Independence from the Pressures of
Super Power Politics

Example:
NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT- created by the ASEAN issued its Human Rights Declaration in
Presidents of Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia 2009, but the regional body left it to member
and Yugoslavia in 1961. (120 members) the countries to apply the declaration's principle as
prime goals to pursue world peace and they see fit.
international cooperation, human rights, ASEAN PARLIAMENTARIANS FOR HUMANRIGHTS
national sovereignty, racial equality, non- resulted to non-governmental organizations
intervention and peaceful conflict resolution. and civil society groups pushing to prevent
Economic Crisis Compels Countries to Come discrimination, uphold political freedom, and
Together
promote democracy and human rights
Example #1: throughout the region.

-Thai economy collapsed in 1996. Troubled But despite of the positive impacts brought by
international banks demanded that the Thai the regionalism there are certain instances
government pay back its loans. where it encounters problems and conflicts. On
the other hand, before we proceed on
-Crisis spread to Asian countries. IMF tried to
identifying problems let’s first define the
reverse the crisis, but it was only after ASEAN
difference between the new regionalism from
countries along with China, Japan and South
state to state regionalism for us to have a firm
Korea agreed to establish an emergency fund
grasp of the lesson. Ready? Come on!
to expect a crisis that the Asian economies
stabilized. DIFFERENCE OF NEW REGIONALISM TO STATE-
Example #2: TO-STATE REGIONALISM WHEN IT COME TO
IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS
ASEAN- formed as a coalition country which
were pro-American and supportive of the (Claudio, Lisandro and Patricio Abinales, 2018)
United States intervention in Vietnam. After
STATE TO STATE REGIONALISM
Vietnam War, it continued to act as a military
alliance to isolate Vietnam after it Invaded States treat poverty or environmental

Cambodia resulted to the beginning of degradation as technical or economic issues

Economic Cooperation. that can be resolved by refining existing

ASIAN REGIONALISM IN THE CONTEMPORARY programs of state agencies, making minor

TIMES changes in economic policies and creating
new offices that address these issues
Asian regionalism change across time, from
forming political regional alliances to economic NEW REGIONALISM
integration. Formation of the regional trading
New Regionalism advocates such as NGO
bloc, free trade, and forming an international
Global Forum see the issues as reflections of
organization that will support the development
flawed economic development and
of each Asian country. The Post- Cold War
environmental models. By flawed means
resulted to the formation of "new regionalism",
economic development plans that are
those who shares the same values, norms,
market-based, profit driven, and hardly
institutions, and systems that exist outside of the
concerned with social welfare, especially
traditional, established mainstream institutions
among the poor
and systems. The key factors in the "new
regionalism" are the collaborative multi-level NEW CHALLENGES FOR NEW REGIONALISTS
governance, innovation and learning,
1. Disagreements surface over issues like gender
integrated development, rural-urban
and religion
interactions and place-based development.
Example:
For example:
 Pro-choice NGOs breaking from religious civil III. Sacrificing sovereignty to maintain regional
stability
society groups that side with the Church,
Muslim imams, or governments opposed to Example:
reproductive rights and other pro-women
-Philippines and China
policies
IV. Differing visions of what regionalism should
be for
2. Some civil society groups are not welcoming to
Example:
the new trend and set up an obstacle after
another. -Non-Western and developing societies have
different view regarding globalization,
Example: development and democracy
-Singapore, China and Russia see democracy
Migrant Forum Asia and its ally, the
as an obstacle to the implementation and
Coordination of Action Research on AIDS deepening of economic globalization
(CARAM), lobbied ASEAN governments to because constant public inquiry about
economic projects and lengthy debates
defend migrant labor rights. Their program of
slowdown implementation or lead to unclear
action however, slowed down once countries outcomes: DEMOCRACY=EFFICIENCY.
like Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand refused
MODULE 4
to recognize the rights of undocumented
migrant workers and the rights of the families of The Globalization of Religion
migrants. RELIGION AND GLOBALISM

Globalization, as you know, refers to the

interconnectedness among people across
CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES
world time and space. The fast-pacing
I. Resurgence of militant nationalism and production of technology made this
populism interconnectedness possible. This resulted to the
Example: emergence of the concept of cultural pluralism
in which non dominant countries could share to
1. The refusal to dismantle NATO after the the world their unique culture and accepted by
collapse of the Soviet Union for example, has
become the basis of the anti-NATO rhetoric of the dominant countries.
Vladimir Putin in
On the other hand, religion refers to the set of
2. The relationship of United States- the alliance's
core member- with NATO has become belief of people in the divine creator which
problematic after Donald Trump demonized considers as holy and sacred (Encyclopedia
the organization as simply leeching off
American military power without giving Britannica, 2020). People from early civilization,
anything in return. religious practices are already visible. For
II. Continuing financial crisis of the region example, in the ancient Sumerian religion who
worships great god Marduk who defeated
Example:
Tiamat and the forces of chaos to create the
1. European Union. Continuing financial crisis world.
of the region is forcing countries like Greece As defined by Haynes (2006), the concept of
to consider leaving the union to gain more religion has two distinct meanings. There are
flexibility in their economic policy; three ways of how social and individual of
2. Anti-immigrant sentiment and a populist believers are organized in spiritual sense. First is
campaign against Europe have already led that it involves the idea of transcendence,
to the United Kingdom voting to leave the referring to supernatural realities. For example,
European Union in a move the media has talking to God. Second, It relates with
termed “BREXIT” sacredness or holiness and system of practice
and language. An example of sacred is
confession, baptism and more. Third, it However, the fundamental principles of
concerns ultimacy, on how it relates to people Confucianism began before his birth, during the
to the ultimate conditions of existence. In the Zhou Dynasty. At that time, the ideas of respect
material sense, religious beliefs are capable of and the well-being of others were prevalent,
motivating individuals and groups to but there was also an emphasis on spiritual
collectively mobilize to achieve political goals matters - specifically, the goodness of the divine
and consequences, suppress mass actions as and the mandate to rule given to those in
tool of repression. power. These ideas were meant to unite the
people, create stability and prevent rebellion.
While religion takes advantage of
communication and transportation Confucius believed his philosophy was also a
technology, it is at the same time the source of route toward a civil society. However, he shifted
globalization’s greatest resistance by acting as attention away from ruling authorities, the
a haven for those standing in opposition to its divine or one's future after death, focusing
power. On the other hand, because instead on the importance of daily life and
globalization allows for daily contact, religion human interactions. This new, refined version of
enters a circle of conflict in which religions the philosophy did not completely take root
become “more self-conscious of themselves as until the next dynasty, the Han (140-87 BC). It is
being world religions. the Confucianism that many people are
HISTORY OF MAJOR RELIGIONS familiar with today.

In an article by Preceden (2020), Judaism is an Buddhism. As identified by Chu (2019) it is a faith

Abrahamic belief based on the teachings of founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the

Moses. The holy book of Judaism is the Torah. It Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India.

is the oldest religion of the group and starts With about 470 million followers, scholars

around 4,000 years ago. A main figure from consider Buddhism one of the major world

Judaism is Moses who freed the Israelites from religions. When Gautama passed away around

bondage. One particular scene from Judaism is 483 B.C., his followers began to organize a

Moses with the Ten Commandments. It shows a religious movement. Buddha’s teachings

older long bearded and long haired standing became the foundation for what would

upon a big jagged grey rock. He is holding 2 develop into Buddhism.

stone tablets with older Roman numeral on it In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka the Great, the
carved deeply in the tablet. Mauryan Indian emperor, made Buddhism the

Hinduism. According to Hornak (2019) most state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries

scholars believe Hinduism started somewhere were built, and missionary work was

between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus encouraged. Over the next few centuries,

Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Buddhism began to spread beyond India. The

Hindus argue that their faith is timeless and has thoughts and philosophies of Buddhists became

always existed. Unlike other religions, Hinduism diverse, with some followers interpreting ideas

has no one founder but is instead a fusion of differently than others.

various beliefs. Around 1500 B.C., the Indo- In the sixth century, the Huns invaded India and
Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and destroyed hundreds of Buddhist monasteries,
their language and culture blended with that of but the intruders were eventually driven out of
the indigenous people living in the region. the country. Islam began to spread quickly in

Confucianism. As stated by Clayton (2020), it the region during the Middle Ages, forcing

was developed in China by Master Kong in 551- Buddhism into the background.

479 BC, who was given the name Confucius by

Jesuit missionaries who were visiting there.
Christianity. This religion is based on the some of the Crusades, but they were ultimately
teaching of Jesus Christ. The religion was started defeated.
2,000 years ago, when Jesus Christ was born.
After the Crusades, the Catholic Church’s
Early Christians were persecuted for their faith
power and wealth increased. In 1517, a
by both Jewish and Roman leaders.
German monk named Martin Luther published
In 64 A.D., Emperor Nero blamed Christians for a 95 Theses which is a text that criticized certain
fire that broke out in Rome. Many were brutally acts of the Pope and protested some of the
tortured and killed during this time. Under practices and priorities of the Roman Catholic
Emperor Domitian, Christianity was illegal. If a church. Later, Luther publicly said that the Bible
person confessed to being a Christian, he or she didn’t give the Pope the sole right to read and
was executed. Starting in 303 A.D., Christians interpret scripture.
faced the most severe persecutions to date
Luther’s ideas triggered the Reformation which
under the co-emperors Diocletian and Galerius.
is a movement that aimed to reform the
This became known as the Great Persecution.
Catholic church. As a result, Protestantism was
When Roman Emperor Constantine converted
created, and different denominations of
to Christianity, religious tolerance shifted in the
Christianity eventually formed.
Roman Empire. During this time, there were
several groups of Christians with different ideas Islam. Islam, based on an article by Ifansasti
about how to interpret scripture and the role of (2019), Islam is the second largest religion in the
the church. world after Christianity, with about 1.8 billion
Muslims worldwide. Although its roots go back
In 313 A.D., Constantine lifted the ban on
further, scholars typically date the creation of
Christianity with the Edict of Milan. He later tried
Islam to the 7th century, making it the youngest
to unify Christianity and resolve issues that
of the major world religions. Islam started in
divided the church by establishing the Nicene
Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia, during the
Creed. Many scholars believe Constantine’s
time of the prophet Muhammad’s life.
conversion was a turning point in Christian
history. Today, the faith is spreading rapidly throughout
the world. Islam is a monotheistic and religion;
In 380 A.D., Emperor Theodosius I declared
they believe that Muhammad was the last
Catholicism the state religion of the Roman
prophet of god. Muslims has many beliefs for
Empire. The Pope, or Bishop of Rome, operated
example they believe that god is one and
as the head of the Roman Catholic Church.
incomparable and that the purpose of
Catholics expressed a deep devotion for the
existence is to love and serve god.
Virgin Mary, recognized the seven sacraments,
and honored relics and sacred sites. When the Sikhism. According to Mcleod (2020), Sikhism
Roman Empire collapsed in 476 A.D., religion and philosophy was founded in the
differences emerged among Eastern and Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent in the
Western Christians. late 15th century. Its members are known as
Sikhs. The Sikhs call their faith Gurmat (Punjabi:
In 1054 A.D., the Roman Catholic Church and
“the Way of the Guru”).
the Eastern Orthodox church split into two
groups. Between about 1095 A.D. and 1230 According to Sikh tradition, Sikhism was
A.D., the Crusades, a series of holy wars, took established by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) and
place. In these battles, Christians fought against subsequently led by a succession of nine other
Islamic rulers and their Muslim soldiers to reclaim Gurus. All 10 human Gurus, Sikhs believe, were
holy land in the city of Jerusalem. The Christians inhabited by a single spirit. Upon the death of
were successful in occupying Jerusalem during the 10th, Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the
spirit of the eternal Guru transferred itself to the
sacred scripture of Sikhism, Guru Granth Sahib to secular beliefs.) At any rate, once invented in
(“The Granth as the Guru”), also known as the Europe, especially Protestant Europe,
Adi Granth (“First Volume”), which thereafter secularization was carried as part of the
was regarded as the sole Guru. In the early 21st “package” of industrialism that was exported to
century there were nearly 25 million Sikhs the non-European world. Wherever modern
worldwide, the great majority of them living in European cultures have impinged, they have
the Indian state of Punjab. diffused secularizing currents into traditional
religions and non-rational ideologies.
Religion and globalization persistently engage
in a flexible relationship in which the former Although secularization is a general tendency
relies on the latter in order to thrive and flourish or principle of development in modern
while at the same time challenging its societies, this does not imply that religion is
globalization’s hybridizing effects. Undoubtedly, driven out altogether from society. In fact, as
religion is not immune from these changes and one of the most modernized countries in the
their burgeoning effects brought about by world, the United States is also among the
globalization. However, religions still have their world’s most religious. Against a deep
respective homes in specific territorial spaces background of tradition, modernization
where they originally appeared and where their inevitably leaves many religious practices in
respective shrines exist. place and may even stimulate new ones.
Secularization: The Consequences of Religious rituals, such as Christian baptism and
Modernization (TOCQUEVILLE, 2020) church weddings, persist in all industrial
societies; the church may, as in England and
At the most abstract level of analysis,
Italy, continue to play an important moral and
modernization leads to what Max Weber
social role. The majority of the population may
called “the disenchantment of the world.” It
hold traditional religious beliefs alongside more
calls into question all the superhuman and
scientific ones. There may even be, as in the
supernatural forces, the gods and spirits, with
United States and in industrializing societies such
which nonindustrial cultures populate the
as India, waves of religious revivalism that
universe and to which they attribute
involve large sections of the population.
responsibility for the phenomena of the natural
and social worlds. In their place it introduces as Secularization is but one manifestation of a
a competing cosmology the modern scientific larger cultural process that affects all modern
interpretation of nature by which only the laws societies, the process of rationalization. While
and regularities discovered by the scientific this process is epitomized by the rise of the
method are admitted as valid explanations of scientific worldview, it encompasses many
phenomena. If it rains, or does not rain, it is not more areas than are usually associated with
because the gods are angry but because of science. It applies, for instance, to the capitalist
atmospheric conditions, as measured by the economy, with its rational organization of
barometer and photographed by satellites. labour and its rational calculation of profit and
loss. It applies also to artistic developments,
In short, modernization involves a process
such as the rational application of the
of secularization that is, it systematically
geometry of perspective in painting and the
challenges religious institutions, beliefs, and
development of a rational system of notation
practices, substituting for them those of reason
and rational harmonic principles in music.
and science. This process was first observable in
Christian Europe toward the end of the 17th For Max Weber, the most careful student of the
century. (It is possible that there is something process, it referred above all to the
inherently secularizing about Christianity, for no establishment of a rational system of laws and
other religion seems to give rise spontaneously administration in modern society. It was in the
system of bureaucracy, seen as the impersonal principle or eat food manufactured in ways and
and impartial rule of rationally constituted laws with materials of which they are totally
and formal procedures, that Weber saw the unaware.
highest development of the rational principle.
To broaden your knowledge regarding the
Bureaucracy meant a principled hostility to all
issues of religion, kindly access the link below
traditional and “irrational” considerations of
and read “Global Religious Terrorism, A
person or place, kinship or culture. It expressed
Troubling Phenomenon”.
the triumph of the scientific method and
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO RELIGIOUS
scientific expertise in social life. The trained
PRACTICES AND BELIEFS
official, said Weber, is “the pillar both of the
modern state and of the economic life of the Peter Beyer (1994), identified three key impacts
West.” of globalization on religion:

Rationalization is a process that operates at the Particularism. Religion has increasingly used as
highest, most general level of social an avenue for anti-globalization activity. While
development. It would be surprising if its effects one feature of globalization is a sort of cultural
were to be found in every nook and cranny of homogenization (the creation of a single,
modern society. Everywhere one should expect global popular culture) religion is often seen as
to find the persistence of non-rational and even the opposite of that: a symbol of how people
antirational attitudes and behavior. Superstition are culturally different from one another, rather
is one example; the occasional rise of personal, than the same. This has contributed to a rise in
charismatic leadership breaking through the fundamentalism and is a feature of political
rationalized routines of bureaucracy is another. conflict in many areas of the world.
These should not be thought of simply as
Universalism. There are also some evidences of
vestiges of traditional society. They are also the
the opposite trend. While small fundamentalist
expressions of essential needs, emotional and
groups might emphasize their difference from
cultural, that are in danger of being stifled in a
other people, the major religions have
scientific and unillusioned environment.
increasingly focused on what unites them. Far
Weber stressed another significant point. from the feared clash of civilizations, religious
Rationalization does not connote that the leaders emphasize shared values and common
populations of modern societies are, as concerns. Indeed, inter-faith dialogue through
individuals, any more reasonable or global communication has helped to diffuse
knowledgeable than those of nonindustrial conflict between religions.
societies. What it means is that there is, in
Marginalization. Beyer also notes that religion is
principle, scientifically validated knowledge
increasingly marginalized in contemporary
available to modern populations, by which they
society, playing less part in public life, although
may, if they choose, enlighten themselves
this may well be a rather Eurocentric view and
about their world and govern their behaviour. In
may be caused by other social changes rather
practice, as Weber knew, such knowledge than globalization.
tends to be restricted to scientifically trained
elites. The mass of the population of a modern Another way in which globalization has

society might in their daily lives be relatively impacted on religion is the way religions have

more ignorant than the most uneducated made use of global communications. Religious

peasants, for peasants usually have a groups are able to take advantage of modern

comprehensive and working knowledge of the technology to recruit new members, spread the

tools they use and the food they consume, word and keep in contact with other members

whereas modern people may well use an of the religion. While with some of the more

elevator without the slightest idea of its working fundamentalist, anti-modern, anti-global
 religious organizations this can hold a certain Secularization: The Consequence of
Modernization
irony, it is one of the ways in which religion is
o The Secularization Paradigm refers to the belief
much less linked to nationality than it once was. that religion would lose its significance with
Furthermore, the media plays the same economic development and modernization.
important role in the dissemination of religious o A cultural transition in which religious values are
gradually replaced with nonreligious values. In
ideas. In this respect, a lot of TV channels, radio
the process, religious leader’s figureheads such
stations and print media are founded solely for as church leaders lose their authority and
advocating religions. Taking Islam as an influence in the society.
example, we find such T.V channels as Iqrae,
Scholars who supported the Secularization
Ennass, Majd, El Houda, Erahma, etc. as purely Paradigm
religious channels created for the strengthening  For August Comte, posited that society
and the fortification of Islam. undergoes three stages: theological stage,
metaphysical stage and positivist or scientific
Religion in the Context of Globalization
stage.
(Additional Reference)
 Max Weber argues that the Men will undergo
Media and Religion modernization which is a process
of disenchantment of the universe with the
Religion is found in all known human replacement of bureaucratization,
societies. Even the earliest societies on record rationalization and secularization over the
show clear traces of religious symbols and magical, the metaphysical and the religious.
ceremonies. Throughout history, religion has  For Emile Durkheim, he argues that the
continued to be a central part of societies and individualization of the societies
human experience, shaping how individuals breaking the bonds of community.
react to the environments in which they live
(Oluwaseun, 2013). Now that we are in a world  Karl Marx, views religion as the opium of
where technology and modernity is continuously the people created by material
advancing, religion is struggling. Religion and conditions. He believed that religion
globalization should persistently engage in a would have no place in a
flexible relationship in which the former relies on communist society where all individuals
the latter in order to thrive and flourish while at are treated equally with the eradication
the same time challenging its (globalization’s) of class division and the existence of the
hybridizing effects. state
 Tschannen (1991) provides a systematic
overview of the theories that would
What is Religion? constitute the secularization paradigm
 Religion is a unified system of beliefs and since 1963. According to him, the
practices relative to sacred things, that is to secularization paradigm is based on
say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs three core concepts: o Differentiation o
and practices which unite into one single Rationalization
moral community called a Church, all those  Worldliness
who adhere to them." (Émile Durkeim,
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life). The Resurgence of Religion in the Context of
Globalization
 The concept of religion has been defined by
Haynes (2006) in the context of international  One of the most prominent works on the
relations into two distinct but related meanings. resurgence of religion is the clash of civilization
o In spiritual sense thesis of Samuel Huntington (1993).
 Involves the idea of transcendence,  He argues that fundamental source of conflict
 Relates to sacredness or holiness and system of that will dominate the global politics will be
practice and language, and cultural and not primarily economic or
ideological.
 Relates people to the ultimate conditions of
existence.  Azzouzi (2013) argues that religion acts as a
o In material sense resistance against adverse effects of
globalization, especially how Islam constituted
 Religious beliefs are capable of motivating a challenge due to the incompatibility of
individuals and groups to collectively mobilize Islamic norms and beliefs to the liberal aspects
to achieve political goals and consequently, of globalization.
suppress mass actions as a tool of repression.
 Thomas (2005 as cited in Haynes, 2006) who
defined the global resurgence of religion in the
 following way: o The global resurgence of MODULE 5
religion is the growing saliency and
The Concept of Global City
persuasiveness of religion.
 The increasing importance of religious beliefs, According to Charnock (2007), a Global city
practices, and discourses in personal and has its origins in research on cities carried out
public life, and the growing role of religious or during the 1980s. It is an urban center that
religiouslyrelated individuals or organization in enjoys significant competitive advantages and
domestic politics. that serves as a hub within a globalized
economic system. Global cities, it is suggested,
 Amartya Sen (1999) shares the same criticism
have more interconnectedness with other cities
of the inadequate recognition of Huntington of
and across a transnational field of action than
the heterogeneities with cultures. He
with the national economy. Global cities are
emphasizes diversity as an essential feature of
also said to share many of the same
most cultures in the world, including Western
characteristics because of their connectedness
civilization. Sen’s argues that Asian societies
and shared experiences of globalization.
traditionally value discipline over political
They possess the concentration of financial and
freedom and democracy.
service industries within their spatial boundaries,
The global resurgence of religion indicates not as well as the concentration of large pools of
an end of the belief in reason but the belief of labor.
secular reason –it is not “anti-modern” but a re-
thinking of relationship between modernity and Moreover, the concept of the global city as
religion, the search for other ways of being stated by Saskia Sassen (1991) emphasizes the
“developed”, “modern” or “making progress” flow of information and capital. Cities are major
that are anchored on the different religious and nodes in the interconnected systems of
cultural traditions of the developing world. information and money, and the wealth that
they capture is intimately related to the
This lesson presented the complexity of the
specialized businesses that facilitate those flows
contradicting paradigms on the state of religion
of financial institutions, consulting firms,
in the context of globalization brought about by
accounting firms, law firms, and media
the varying and opposing understandings of
organizations. Sassen points out that these flows
the concepts of culture and modernity. There
are no longer tightly bound to national
are dangers in arguing in dichotomies and
boundaries and systems of regulation; so the
generalizations regarding the interpretations of
dynamics of the global city are dramatically
religion's role in armed conflicts and political
different than those of the great cities of the
movements. In doing so, we become complicit
nineteenth century.
in reinforcing racism, Islamophobia, exclusion,
and marginalization. We must be mindful of the
With the above mentioned definitions of a
problems and ideological implications of
Global City, we can therefore conclude that
employing a singular definition and
a global city is an influential city that covers
understanding of modernization. Culture is
dimensions of globalization. It is spatial
neither static nor monolithic. Whether we refer
because these dimensions include cultural
to Western, either Islamic or East Asian
experience, business activity, human capital as
civilizations, the complexity or diversity among
well as political engagement within and across
and within identities must not be dismissed.
its borders.
Just a Quick recap!
What are the Essential Traits of a Global City?
 The concept of religion can be defined in its In this part of the lesson, we are turning the
spiritual sense of organizing the behavior focus on what fundamental characteristics of
oftantine believers based on what is a global city are. This will give us information on
holy/sacred and what is not, and in its material how global cities operate and what their
sense of religion’s capacity to mobilize characteristics are.
believers to pursue liberating or repressive FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A GLOBAL
political aims. CITY
 The secularization thesis refers to the belief that
religion would lose its significance with a) Home to major stock exchanges and indexes
economic development and modernization. At the center of global cities, it is composed of
 The resurgence of religion thesis views the financial transactions. The proximity and
strengthening of religion as a backlash and accessibility of banking, stock exchange and
resistance to the incompatibility of the values other financial institutions are key element of
of Western and liberal modernization to growth and creation of global cities.
religious and cultural identities.
b) Influential in international political affairs
Global cities are also hub for influential and changing markets, the freer they are to opt
international organizations. Global cities also for any location.
possesses the capability of creating an instant
impact or effect with its decisions, actions and 04 The more headquarters outsource their most
policy directions. This is because of their complex, unstandardized functions,
importance in the global economic field that particularly those subject to uncertain and
their respective decisions whether political, changing markets, the freer they are to opt
economic, or even socio-cultural is a relatively for any location.
huge global appeal.
06 The economic fortunes of these cities
c) Centers of new ideas and innovation in become increasingly disconnected from their
business, economics, culture, and politics. broader hinterlands or even their national
economies.
According to Smith (2003), global cities will
07 The growing informalization of a range of
always be present due to the variety of people
present as well as the architecture for economic activities which find their effective
development that are firmly established demand in these cities, yet have profit rates
including numerous research and development that do not allow them to compete for various
facilities. In short, it caters cultural facilities, resources with the high-profit making firms at
gastronomic establishments, entertainment the top of the system.
services, recreation areas. Moreover, the
cultural changes of global cities can also be EXAMPLES OF GLOBAL CITIES
seen in the presence of Urban spaces. The
culture of the cities displays itself in the NEW YORK
materiality of streets, buildings or signs. Urban
spaces are also the site of multiple rites and ✓ New York City is the most populous city in the
practices that range from spiritually and artistic United States of America. It is also the center of
performances to daily life. international business, a command center in
the world's economy and also
d) Service a major media hub and large the main center for business such as legal
mass transit networks services, world trade, insurance, banking etc.
Global cities are centers of international ✓ New York City is considered to be a global city
commercial enterprises, transportation because it has powerful organizations that are
companies, communication agencies, linked to the other parts and many of the major
commodity futures exchanges and special corporations and multinational companies are
stock exchange services, considerable trade headquartered in this city.
fairs, multinational companies whose ✓ A global city needs to have a lot of capital,
company's internal trade is a considerable part information on trade, business and multinational
of the world trade volume. companies, New York City has all these.
✓ It is considered as a location for one of the
major centers of finance and commerce
FUNDAMENTAL GLOBAL CITY HYPOTHESES ✓ Manhattan, which is one of the districts of
(Sassen, 2001) New York City, it is the economic heart of the
01 The geographic dispersal of economic city that contains many headquarters such as
activities that marks globalization, along with the United Nations which has a major influence
the simultaneous integration of in the world as well as the stock exchange on
such geographically dispersed activities, is a the Wall Street. Since the stock market is
key factor feeding the growth and importance presence in New York, the city has an
advantage of controlling on what goes in and
of central corporate functions.
out of the country.
02 These central functions become so complex
that increasingly the headquarters of large TOKYO
global firms outsource them: they buy a share
of their central functions from highly ✓ Tokyo has one of the world's most
specialized service firms. sophisticated railways. With 13 subway lines and
more than 100 surface routes run by Japan
03 Those specialized service firms engaged in Railways and other private companies, Tokyo's
the most complex and globalized markets are railway system seems like it was designed to win
subject to agglomeration economies. world records. It's rare to find a location in the
metropolitan area that can't be reached with a
04 The more headquarters outsource their most train ride and a short walk.
complex, unstandardized functions, ✓ Tokyo sports 160,000 known eateries, more
particularly those subject to uncertain and than 10 times the number in Paris.
✓ The Japanese have taken their love of the London emanated from the Roman Londonium
latest electronic gadgets and which was a tribal capital of Britannia.
modern appliances and zapped it with ✓ Transport facilities: London has invested
Yodobashi Akiba, the largest electronics store in heavily in the transport sector. There is an
a section of Tokyo known for being the center excellent network of roads and railway lines
of gadget, video game and anime culture in traversing across London. London is also well
the city. known for its highly developed marine transport.
✓ Tokyo - Japan's Capital of Business and The good network of transport facilities provides
Politics: Tokyo is home to Japan's financial the ease of movement of goods to and from
markets, the headquarters of many the market. Movement of Human labor is also
leading Japanese multinationals, the most enhanced. According to Litman (2006), London
prominent names in Japan's consumer has continued to decongest its roads by
retail landscape, the national government and implementing certain measures. Henrion (2010),
the well-endowed Tokyo also states that businessmen can travel quickly
Metropolitan Government (TMG). The into London from other European cities.
Kasumigaseki area of Tokyo is the central ✓ Medical facilities in London: London is well
location of the ample bureaucratic resources of endowed with world class medical facilities.
Japan's national government apparatus. According to Uhlhorn (2010), London health
The Ministry of Finance (MOF) and Ministry of care facilities are among the top of the world as
Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), in it is with the Australian facilities. Major laboratory
particular, have tended to exert a significant researches are done in London universities.
influence on Japan's corporate world and Medical centers such as the UCL medical
business environment. center are also characterized by world class
✓ Cost of Living and Visiting: Tokyo and other research facilities.
major Japanese cities consistently rank near the ✓ Information exchange of London: London
top of the leading global cost of living indexes was among the first city in the world to use
by Mercer and the Economist Intelligence Unit transmission of information in form of radio
(EIU). The cost of housing and car ownership in waves. The use of this system is dated back
particular tend to be quite high in Tokyo and during the Second World War when Britain used
Japan in general, especially by U.S. or other the technology of radar to track airplanes.
western standards of value when it comes to London has also excelled in the IT sector such
size, comfort and convenience. that its development has also been attributed
to its existing IT policies
LONDON ✓ Business and economic activities: There are
many business activities in London. The major
✓ Population of London: According to Bentham businesses activities include stock exchange,
(2010), London's population is set to reach 8.3 banking industry, insurance industry, transport
million people. This means that the population is industry, real estate business among others.
increasing by 10% in a period of eight years. In Services in the business industry also present a
addition to this, more people in England are major source of income for the Londoners. The
moving from the rural areas into London for City University, London (2010) informs how
many reasons. The report also states that fewer information exchange is used in almost all
Londoners are moving abroad. sectors and how Londoners are being
Increased population has the advantage of educated on how to use this system.
increased human resource and also the ✓ Political stability: Political stability of Britain has
presence of a ready market for goods and enabled her capital to grow expansively
services. throughout the years. British political system has
✓ GDP of London: The GDP of London is enhanced the presence of peace. The
currently on the rise. As Packer (2004) writes, presence of peace makes London an
London has grown to become a major financial attractive place to invest, visit or live. According
centre of the world. London a metropolitan to Durham (2005), political situation in London
capital and which still remains a powerful has been formulated to accommodate all kinds
center where the world gets sucked. Before of people including gays.
being overtaken by New York in the twentieth
century, London had been leading other world
Defining Global Cities
cities in terms of size and wealth.
✓ Cultural wealth of London: Since time  Sociologist Saskia Sassen popularized the term
immemorial, London has continued to increase “global city” in the 1990’s. Her work, The Global
in its cosmopolitan state. The British capital has City: New York, London, Tokyo (1991) has
continued to attract human labor from across shaped the concepts and methods that other
the whole world. For instance it attributes its theorists have used to analyze the role of cities
name from Italian linguistics whereby the city of and their networks in the contemporary world.
Key to Sassen's concept of the global city is an
 emphasis on the flow of information and industries are found on these cities. The
capital. Cities are major nodes in the cultural power of global cities today,
interconnected systems of information and becomes globally diverse. Los Angeles, is the
money, and the wealth that they capture is center of the American film industry.
intimately related to the specialized businesses Universities such as the National University in
that facilitate those flows -- financial institutions, Singapore, Ecole Polytechnique in Paris, and
consulting firms, accounting firms, law firms, and Boston’s University of Montreal are known as
media organizations. Sassen points out that the leading universities in the world for their
these flows are no longer tightly bound to strongest research development both in
national boundaries and systems of regulation; academe and in field of science and
so the dynamics of the global city are technology.
dramatically different than those of the great  Aside from the essential traits of a global city,
cities of the nineteenth century. Sassen identifies four key functions of the
 Likewise, global cities serve as engines and global city: 1) they are highly-concentrated
place where globalization takes place where command posts in the organization of the
highly globalized and competitive metropolitan world economy; 2) they are key locations for
economies with the deepest and most settled finances and specialized service firms
concentrations of firms, capitals, and talent are providing “producer services” (professional
located. The “Big Six” includes the traditional and corporate services, i.e., services inputs
“super cities” of London, New York, Paris, and for TNCs), to the leading global firms; 3) they
Tokyo, joined by the most recent global are sites for the production and innovation
urbanized cities of Hong Kong and Singapore. of these producer services and also
 Sassen mentioned some attributes of global headquarters for producer-service firms; 4)
cities. To sum up the indicators of global they are markets for the products and
cities of Sassen, we could remember the innovations produced and in these cities.
acronym 3 Power: Economic Power; Political  GPCI evaluates and ranks the major cities
Power; and Cultural Power. Economic of the world according to their
power is the foremost characteristics of “magnetism,” or their comprehensive
global cities as Sassen strongly emphasize power to attract people, capital, and
that economic power largely determines enterprises from around the world. It does
which cities are global. Like for so through measuring six functions—
example, New York may have the largest Economy, Research and Development,
stock market in the world but Tokyo houses Cultural Interaction, Livability, Environment,
the most number of corporate headquarters and Accessibility—providing a
(613 company headquarters as against 217 multidimensional ranking. The GPCI is able
in New York, its closest to grasp the strengths, weaknesses, and
competitor). Shanghai may have a smaller challenges of global cities in a continuously
stock market compared to New York and changing world not only through a ranking,
Tokyo but plays a critical role in the global but also through analyzing that ranking’s
economic supply chain ever since China specific components.
has become the manufacturing center of  There was no change in the top 10 ranking
the world. from last year’s GPCI. In comparison with the
 Global cities are also seats of political power top 3 cities of London, New York, and Tokyo,
and center of authority. Washington Paris’s drop in score was minimal, narrowing
D.C may not be as wealthy as of New York, the gap once again between the French
but it is the seat of the American state of capital and Tokyo. Although Paris
power. Likewise, the city was known all over experienced a downtrend in score following
the world for its major landmarks such as the the repeated terror attacks of 2015,
White House, the Capitol Building following the 2017 confirmation as host-city
(Congress), the Supreme Court, the Lincoln of the 2024 Olympic Games, an upward
Memorial, and the Washington Monument. trend in score is building. Among the 4 new
Similarly, the cities that house the major cities added this year (Melbourne, Helsinki,
international organizations may also be Dublin, Tel Aviv), Melbourne at #11 was the
considered centers of political influence. highest performer.
The perfect example, for this are the United
Global City Outlook (GCO) 2019
Nations in New York and the European Union
in Brussels. A decision made in this city can  GCO is a projection of city’s potential based on
therefore, affect the political economy of the rate of change in 13 indicators across four
an entire continent and beyond. dimensions: personal well-being; economics;
 Finally, global cities are centers of higher innovation; and governance. Global Cities
learning and culture. A lot of publishing Outlook focuses on bringing a forward looking
industries, well known universities, and film perspective to city-level policies and practices
that shape future competitiveness. The
 indicators it covers are designed to measure development. There is a critical need for
characteristics of long term success, such as policy-makers to ensure that the fruits of
environmental performance, safety, and progress are shared equitably.
innovation capacity.
4. Technology
The Challenges of Global City
 Technology will be increasingly used in the
 The UN estimates that 55% of the global development and running of cities of the future.
population lives in urban areas – a figure that is Smart planning used in Singapore can harness
projected to rise to 68% by 2050. With few solar energy for use in housing estates and
exceptions, cities are expected to become create man-made wetlands for ecological
bigger and more numerous. balance. Smart mobility technology can
 As urbanization speeds up, particularly in Asian alleviate traffic gridlocks which plague many
and African countries, here are five of the cities. The use of environmental technologies
biggest challenges confronting the future of which can cool buildings more efficiently or run
cities vehicles that are less polluting will also lead to
better future cities. Installing sensors in the
1. Environmental threats homes of ageing seniors living alone can
connect them to the community and summon
 Rapid urbanization, which strains basic help when they are unwell or hurt.
infrastructure, coupled with more frequent and
extreme weather events linked to global 5. Governance
climate change is exacerbating the impact of
 Future cities offer immense possibilities to enrich
environmental threats. Common
the lives of their inhabitants even as the
environmental threats include flooding,
challenges are stark. To make the best out of
tropical cyclones to which coastal cities are
inevitable urbanization, good governance is
particularly vulnerable, heat waves and
imperative. Cities will increase in size and their
epidemics. Owing to the physical and
populations become more diverse. Governing
population density of cities, such threats often
these cities will, therefore, be progressively
result in both devastating financial loss and
complex and require the most dedicated of
deaths. Making cities more resilient against
minds. Increasingly, cities around the world are
these environmental threats is one of the
learning about the best governance and
biggest challenges faced by city authorities
planning practices from one another, even as
and requires urgent attention.
they remain accountable to their respective
2. Resources national governments. The broad goals of
urban governance should address issues of
 Cities need resources such as water, food and equity, livability and sustainability in cities of the
energy to be viable. Urban sprawl reduces
future.
available water catchment areas, agricultural
lands and increases demand for energy. While `Global Demography
better application of technology can boost “The idea that population growth guarantees a
agricultural productivity and ensure more better life, financially or otherwise
efficient transmission of electricity, many cities — is a myth that only those who sell nappies,
will continue to struggle to provide these prams and the like have any right to
resources to an ever-growing urban believe.” –Kofi Annan
population. Beyond these basic requirements,
haphazard growth will see the reduction of
green spaces within cities, negatively affecting Introduction
livability. As fresh water becomes scarce and
fertile lands diminish, food prices may escalate,  Demography represents the study of statistics
hitting the poorest hardest. such as birth, deaths, income, or the incidence
of disease, which illustrate the changing
3. Inequality structure of human populations and thus poses
an effect on globalization on a holistic level.
 When it comes to both the provision of basic
Over the course of history, demographic
resources and resilience against environmental
patterns were reasonably stable; human
threats, the forecast is uneven for different
populations grew slowly, and the age
groups of urban inhabitants. As the number of
structures, birth rates, and death rates of
urban super-rich grows, many cities will also see
populations changed only gradually. But, in the
increased numbers of urban poor.
past 50 years, however, this trend of long-term
 The widening gap between the haves and stability has given way to the biggest
have-nots will be accentuated in the demographic upheaval in history, due to
megacities of the future. Such inequalities, population explosion brought by the result of
when left unchecked, will destabilize society improved nutrition, public health infrastructure
and upend any benefits of urban and medical care.
  It is evident that population changes have Northern Africa and Western Asia (46%),
potentially huge implications for the pace Australia/New Zealand (28%), Central and
and progress of economic development. In Southern Asia (25%), Latin America and the
relation with these, humanity seems to be Caribbean (18%), Eastern and South-Eastern
always on the move. Throughout history, we Asia (3%), and Europe and Northern America
have seen how civilizations and empires (2%).
arose out of constant human mobility. We 2. Nine countries will make up more than half the
have witnessed how patterns of social projected population growth between now
transformation as well as institutions were and 2050. The largest increases in population
shaped because of the desire to explore between 2019 and 2050 will take place in: India,
and the zeal to discover. Thus, we could see Nigeria, Pakistan, the Democratic Republic of
that demographic patterns are somewhat the Congo, Ethiopia, the United Republic of
related, influenced, and is intertwined with Tanzania, Indonesia, Egypt and the United
migration patterns of the people. States of America (in descending order of the
 In this lesson, we shall shift our focus to a very expected increase). Around 2027, India is
vital and truly indispensable component of projected to overtake China as the world’s most
Globalization; the people. This lesson shall be populous country.
focused on global population and mobility, 3. Rapid population growth presents challenges
and how these related concepts are for sustainable development. Many of the
intertwined. Moreover, the lesson will discuss fastest growing populations are in the poorest
global demography in depth meaning and countries, where population growth brings
intends to provide insights on important data additional challenges in the effort to eradicate
that comprises the current demographic poverty (SDG 1), achieve greater equality
situation of the world. Likewise, this lesson will (SDGs 5 and 10), combat hunger and
look at the dynamics of global migration, malnutrition (SDG 2), and strengthen the
various reason for global migration, and the coverage and quality of health and education
issues and concerns related to migration. systems (SDGs 3 and 4).
4. In some countries, growth of the working-age
population is creating opportunities for
Patterns of Global Demographic Changes economic growth. In most of sub-Saharan
 The current world population of 7.2 billion is Africa, and in parts of Asia, Latin America and
projected to increase by 1 billion over next 12 the Caribbean, recent reductions in fertility
years and reach 9.6 billion by 2050, according have caused the population at working ages
to a United Nations report, which points out that (25-64 years) to grow faster than at other ages,
growth will be mainly in developing countries, creating an opportunity for accelerated
with more than half in Africa. economic growth. To benefit from this
“demographic dividend”, governments should
 A small number of countries will account for invest in education and health, especially for
most of the increase. While some countries young people, and create conditions
continue to grow rapidly, others are seeing their conducive to sustained economic growth.
populations decline. At the same time, the 5. Globally, women are having fewer babies, but
world is growing older, as global life expectancy fertility rates remain high in some parts of the
continues to rise and the fertility level continues world. Today, close to half of all people globally
to fall. Such changes in the size and distribution live in a country or area where fertility is below
of the world’s population have important 2.1 births per woman over a lifetime. In 2019,
consequences for achieving the Sustainable fertility remains above this level, on average, in
Development Goals (SDGs) and ensuring that sub-Saharan Africa (4.6), Oceania excluding
no one is left behind. Australia/New Zealand (3.4), Northern Africa
 The following key findings are based on World and Western Asia (2.9), and Central and
Population Prospects 2019: Highlights, which Southern Asia (2.4). The global fertility rate,
presents the latest round of global population which fell from 3.2 births per woman in 1990 to
estimates and projections by the United 2.5 in 2019, is projected to decline further to 2.2
Nations. in 2050.
6. People are living longer, but those in the poorest
1. The world’s population continues to increase, countries still live 7 years less than the global
but growth rates vary greatly across regions. The average. Life expectancy at birth for the world,
world’s population is projected to grow from 7.7 which increased from 64.2 years in 1990 to 72.6
billion in 2019 to 8.5 billion in 2030 (10% increase), years in 2019, is expected to increase further to
and further to 9.7 billion in 2050 (26%) and to 10.9 77.1 years in 2050. While considerable progress
billion in 2100 (42%). The population of sub- has been made in closing the longevity
Saharan Africa is projected to double by 2050 differential between countries, large gaps
(99%). Other regions will see varying rates of remain. In 2019, life expectancy at birth in the
increase between 2019 and 2050: Oceania least developed countries lags 7.4 years behind
excluding Australia/New Zealand (56%), the global average, due largely to persistently
 high child and maternal mortality, as well as outflow of more than one million migrants. Some
violence, conflict and the continuing impact of of the largest migratory movements are driven
the HIV epidemic. by the demand for migrant workers
7. The world’s population is growing older, with (Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines) or by
persons over age 65 being the fastest-growing violence, insecurity and armed conflict (Syria,
age group. By, 2050, one in six people in the Venezuela and Myanmar). Belarus, Estonia,
world will be over age 65 (16%), up from one in Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, the Russian
11 in 2019 (9%). Regions where the share of the Federation, Serbia and Ukraine will experience
population aged 65 years or over is projected a net inflow of migrants over the decade,
to double between 2019 and 2050 helping to offset population losses caused by an
include Northern Africa and Western Asia, excess of deaths over births.
Central and Southern Asia, Eastern and South-
What is Migration and Its Reasons?
Eastern Asia, and Latin America and the
Caribbean. By 2050, one in four persons living in  Based from the changes on demographic
Europe and Northern America could be aged patterns above migration is one of the major
65 or over. In 2018, for the first time in history, reason of population changes in some
persons aged 65 or above outnumbered countries. Migration is the result of human
children under five years of age. The number of movement that areas get populated,
persons aged 80 years or over is projected to communities experience diversity, and
triple, from 143 million in 2019 to 426 million in economic prosper. There is nothing moral or
2050. immoral about moving from one country to
8. Falling proportions of working-age people are another. Human beings have always been
putting pressure on social protection systems. migratory. Thus, rather than looking at migration
The potential support ratio, which compares in terms of a simplistic good vs. bad lens, treat it
numbers of working-age people aged 25-64 to as a complex social phenomenon that even
those over age 65, is falling around the world. In predates contemporary globalization.
Japan, this ratio is 1.8, the lowest in the world.  The relatively permanent movement of people
An additional 29 countries, mostly in Europe and across territorial boundaries is referred to as in-
the Caribbean, already have potential support migration and out-migration, or immigration
ratios below three. By 2050, 48 countries, mostly and emigration when the boundaries crossed
in Europe, Northern America, and Eastern and are international. The place of in-migration or
South-Eastern Asia, are expected to have immigration is called the receiver population,
potential support ratios below two. These low and the place of out-migration or emigration is
values underscore the potential impact of called the sender population.
population ageing on the labour market and
economic performance as well as the fiscal  There are two basic types of migration studied
pressures that many countries will face in the by demographers:
coming decades as they seek to build and 1. Internal migration. This refers to a change of
maintain public systems of health care, residence within national boundaries, such as
pensions and social protection for older between states, provinces, cities, or
persons. municipalities. An internal migrant is someone
9. A growing number of countries are who moves to a different administrative
experiencing a reduction in population size. territory.
Since 2010, 27 countries or areas have 2. International migration. This refers to change
experienced a reduction in the size of their of residence over national boundaries. An
populations of one per cent or more. This is international migrant is someone who moves to
caused by low levels of fertility and, in some a different country. International migrants are
places, high rates of emigration. Between 2019 further classified as legal immigrants, illegal
and 2050, populations are projected to immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are
decrease by one per cent or more in 55 those who moved with the legal permission of
countries or areas, of which 26 may see a the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those
reduction of at least ten per cent. In China, for who moved without legal permission, and
example, the population is projected to refugees are those crossed an international
decrease by 31.4 million, or 2.2 per cent, boundary to escape persecution.
between 2019 and 2050. 3. Forced Migration. Jay Weinstein and Vijayan
10. Migration has become a major component of Pillai (2001) denote a third classification: forced
population change in some countries. Between migration. Forced migration exists when a
2010 and 2020, Europe and Northern America, person is moved against their will (slaves), or
Northern Africa and Western Asia, and when the move is initiated because of external
Australia/ New Zealand will be net receivers of factors (natural disaster or civil war).
international migrants, while other regions will  Migration is as old as humankind. People have
be net senders. Fourteen countries or areas will always moved in search of better living
see a net inflow of more than one million conditions for themselves and for their loved
migrants, while ten countries will see a net ones or escaping dramatic situations in their
homeland. These two major drivers were the million), Latin America and the Caribbean
fundamentals of the ‘push and pull’ theory that (12 million), and Oceania (9 million).
was first proposed by Lee in 1966, three  About 3.5 per cent of the world population
encompassing economic, environmental, were international migrants, compared to
social and political factors pushing out from the 2.8 per cent in 2000. The share of
individual homeland and attracting him/her international migrants in total population
towards the destination country. varied considerably across regions.
 People decide to migrate because of push Oceania (21.2 per cent), Northern America
factors and pull factors. A push factor (16.0 per cent), Europe (11.0 per cent), and
induces people to move out of their present Northern Africa and Western Asia (9.4 per
location, whereas a pull factor induces cent) recorded the highest proportions of
people to move into a new location. As international migrants in the total
migration for most people is a major step not population. By contrast, international
taken lightly, both push and pull factors migrants represented 2.2 per cent of the
typically play a role. To migrate, people view total population in sub-Saharan Africa, 1.8
their current place of residence so per cent in Latin America and the
negatively that they feel pushed away, and Caribbean, 1.0 per cent in Central and
they view another place so attractively that Southern Asia, and 0.8 per cent in Eastern
they feel pulled toward it. and South-Eastern Asia.
 In addition, to the push-pull factors of  In many parts of the world, migration
migration there are also some reasons of occurred primarily between countries within
migration identified such as: political. the same region. Most international migrants
economic, social, cultural, and in sub-Saharan Africa (88.9 per cent),
environmental. Political reasons include war, Eastern and South-Eastern Asia (83.1 per
the need for asylum, persecution and the cent), Latin America and the Caribbean
absence of political rights are the (72.5 per cent), Central and Southern Asia
predominant political factors in migration. (63.0 per cent), and Europe (51.6) originated
The second most prevalent reason is from another country in the same region
economic reason. People think about where they resided. By contrast, the majority
emigrating from places that have few job of international migrants that lived in
opportunities, and they immigrate to places Northern America (97.5 per cent), Oceania
where jobs seem to be available in search (87.9 per cent), and Northern Africa and
for better opportunities. Likewise, social Western Asia (59.4 per cent) were born in a
reasons can include ethnic, religious, racial, region other than the one they were residing
and cultural persecution. Warfare, or the in.
threat of conflict, is also a major push factor.  In 2019, two thirds of all international
However, cultural reasons can be especially migrants were living in just 20 countries. The
compelling push factors, forcing people to largest number of international migrants (51
emigrate from a country. Forced million) resided in the United States of
international migration has historically America, equal to about 19 per cent of the
occurred for two main cultural reasons: world’s total. Germany and Saudi Arabia
slavery and political instability. Lastly, people hosted the second and third largest
also migrate for environmental reasons, numbers of migrants worldwide (around 13
pulled toward physically attractive regions million each), followed by the Russian
and pushed from hazardous ones. Of the Federation (12 million), the United Kingdom
ecological factors that push individuals to of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (10
migrate, climate change is, arguably, the million), and the United Arab Emirates (9
most serious. Over the next decade, climate million). Of the 20 main destination countries
change has the potential to intensify the of international migrants worldwide, seven
impacts of the social, political and were in Europe, four in Northern Africa and
economic push factors of migration. Western Asia, three in Central and Southern
 In 2019, the number of international migrants Asia, two in Eastern and South-Eastern Asia,
worldwide was nearly 272 million, up from two in Northern America, and one each in
221 million in 2010 and 174 million in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.
2000. More than half of all international  While most people leave their home
migrants lived in Europe (82 million) or countries for work, millions have been driven
Northern America (59 million). Northern away due to conflict, violence and climate
Africa and Western Asia hosted the third change. Most migrants come from India; the
largest number of international migrants (49 United States is the primary destination.
million), followed by sub- Saharan Africa (24
 India continues to be the main origin of
million), Central and Southern Asia (20
international migrants, with 17.5 million
million), Eastern and South-Eastern Asia (18
Indian-born people living abroad. Mexico
 and China both also have more than 10 science but draws on political science,
million former residents spread around the economics, philosophy, and other social
world. sciences as well as the hard sciences. As
 The United States is the primary destination such, it gives the students and policymakers
for migrants, though as a proportion of its insights about the relationships of the natural
population, the United Arab Emirates has environment with business, government,
the largest migrant contingent. science and technology, society,
agriculture, health and others. At the core of
 Migration has been a key contributor to
this view is the understanding of the need to
population change in some countries, such
keep a balance between modern living,
as Equatorial Guinea, where the proportion
which highlights human consumption of the
of international migrants as a percentage of
finite natural resources, and the
the country’s population has increased
maintenance of the natural environment.
sharply in recent years. Nearly 17% of people
now living in Equatorial Guinea are migrants,
 The varying definitions of sustainability can
compared to less than 1% as recently as
also be formed from the perspective of
2005.
ordinary individuals or from the formal level
 Gulf Cooperation Council states also have of the government. According to the
seen significant population changes as a website of Global Footprints organization,
result of migration. With many people "sustainability is something everyone can
moving to the region for work, migrants work towards... whether it is picking up
make up the majority of the population in garbage you see on the street or boycotting
GCC countries with the exception of Oman a company that practices environmentally
and Saudi Arabia. With the total number of harmful business methods, we all can make
refugees, the highest on record, Turkey was a difference" ("What is sustainability?", 2009).
the biggest host nation for the fifth Mundane activities by individuals such as
consecutive year, taking in millions of garbage segregation and recycling can
refugees, particularly from Syria. have a positive long-term impact on the
Sustainable Development environment when they are taken as a
whole.
SUSTAINABILITY  On the other hand, at the governmental
 The term sustainability has no commonly level, the United States Environmental
agreed definition. Following the literature on Protection Agency (EPA) explains that the
sustainability, there are many different views enactment of the National Environmental
on what its nature is and the means to Policy Act of 1969 articulates the US
achieve it. Most definitions of sustainability government's definition of sustainability,
point out that the term is interwoven with which is the creation and maintenance of
activities pertaining to globalization and "conditions under which humans and
economic development since they nature can exist in productive harmony,
emphasize the need for everyone to have that permit fulfilling the social, economic
an awareness on conserving the natural and other requirements of present and
environment as well as the need for future generations" ("Why is sustainability
countries to act in concerted fashion in important?", 2016). The United States
order to address global environmental issues Environmental Protection Agency
and the destructive effect that the elaborates that sustainability is taken from a
production of material goods and their simple principle, that is, everything that we
consumption by humans can have on the need for our survival and well-being
natural surroundings. For instance, Kahle depends, either directly or indirectly, on our
and Gurel-Atay (2014) think of sustainability natural environment. In both definitions,
as the practice of maintaining processes of sustainability consists of actions done at the
productivity indefinitely, whether natural or individual or governmental level that are
man-made, by replacing the resources used motivated by the common goal of
with resources of equal or greater value protecting the natural environment for the
without degrading or endangering natural benefit of future generation.
biotic systems.  The concept of sustainable development
 was officially introduced to the international
 Another view explains sustainability as community in 1987 with the release of the
a science. As such, it is considered as the report entitled Our Common Future,
"study of how natural systems function, commonly referred to as the Brundtland
remain diverse and produce everything it Report, by the United Nations World
needs for the ecology to remain in balance" Commission on Environment and
(Mason, n.d.). When viewed this way, Development. One of the earliest
sustainability takes the form of a broad recognized definitions of sustainable
discipline connected with environmental
 development is found in the Brundtland Assembly announced the adoption of the
Report (41), which states: United Nations Millennium Declaration, which
 called for a global partnership to primarily
Sustainable development is development that reduce extreme poverty. The UN Millennium
meets the needs of the present without Declaration was historic since it is the first ever
compromising the ability of future generations global strategy with quantifiable targets agreed
to meet their own needs. upon by all UN member states as well as the
major international development institutions
It contains within it two key concepts:
(Woodbridge, 2015; Sachs, 2012).
Accompanying the UN Millennium Declaration
1. The concept of 'needs', in particular, the were the eight (8) objectives, which would be
essential needs of the world's poor, to which
known as the Millennium Development Goals.
overriding priority should be given; and The accomplishment of the eight (8) objectives
2. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of
had a deadline that was set in 2015.
technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and
future needs. Listed below are the eight (8) Millennium
Development Goals, as follows:
By showing concern on the needs of the present
and the impact it may bring on the needs of the
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
future generations, the initial definition of
2. Achieve universal primary education.
sustainable development is formed from an
3. Promote gender equality and empower
intergenerational framework. Discussions
women.
surrounding this definition usually involve the
4. Reduce child mortality
sense of responsibility and sense of justice that
5. Improve maternal health
the present generation should have considering
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
the consequences that their actions will bring
7. Ensure environmental
upon the next generations.
8. Develop a global partnership
From the notion of an intergenerational
framework in 1987, sustainable development Eventually, assessments were made
has evolved into a concept that stresses concerning the success in achieving the
inclusivity in the attainment environmentally above-enumerated eight (8) MDGs after the
sustainable economic growth (Sachs, 2015). The deadline set in 2015. Some international
Earth Charter, outlining the building of a just, development groups and scholars were critical
sustainable, and peaceful global society in the in their evaluation of the success MDGs citing
21st century, was published in 1992 following the lack of consultation with the stakeholders
UN Conference on Environment and (underdeveloped countries) (Woodbridge,
Development, widely known as the Earth 2015) and "operational failure" (Sachs, 2012) as
Summit. some of the shortfalls of the MDGS. Despite the
criticisms hurled at the MDGs, the United
This important development paved the Nations remains proud of its remarkable
way for the action plan called Agenda 21 for achievements which are stated in the United
sustainable development. It specifically Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
mentions information, integration, and publication entitled "From the MDGS to
participation as key building blocks to help Sustainable Development for All: Lessons from
countries achieve development. Moreover, 15 years of Practice" (2016). Below are some of
Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public the highlights of the UNDP's publication (13-14):
participation in making decisions is an essential
prerequisite to attain sustainable development.
1. The world met and exceeded its first MDG
The United Nations Millennium Development target, reducing the number of people living in
Goals (MDGs) extreme poverty by more than half, from 1.9
billion people in 1990 to 836 million in 2012.
In the present time, discussions about Most of the progress occurred after 2000. The
sustainable development should not miss the implications were significant: in 1990, nearly
United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals half of all people in the developing world lived
(SDGs). But, before the United Nations in extreme poverty; by 2015, 14 percent did.
Sustainable Development Goals, there were the 2. Although the world narrowly missed the MDG
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). What target, the proportion of chronically
were the MDGs and how did they evolve into undernourished people in developing
SDGs? countries fell from around 23 percent in 1990 to
under 13 percent today.
During the UN Millennium Summit in September 3. The world met its education target, reducing
2000, under the leadership of former UN the number of out-of-school of primary school
Secretary General Kofi Annan, the UN General age from 100 million in 2000 to 57 million in
 2015. Sub-Saharan Africa made the largest GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
jump, achieving a 20 percent rise in net
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
enrolment.
4. Women worldwide now make up 41 percent of GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
paid workers outside the agricultural sector, an
increase from 35 percent in 1990. GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
5. In developing countries, the number of under GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and
five child-deaths declined from around 13 Production
million in 1990 to 6 million in 2015. From 1990 to
2015 the speed of progress more than tripled. GOAL 13: Climate Action
6. New HIV infections dropped by 40 percent GOAL 14: Life Below Water
between 2000 and 2013. In 2014 over 13 million
people living with HIV received antiretroviral GOAL 15: Life on Land
therapy, compared with just 800,000 in 2003.
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
7. Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis
interventions saved an estimated 37 million GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal
lives.
Unlike the MDGs, the SDGs are described as a
8. In 2015, 91 percent of the global population
mixture of global development and
had an improved source of drinking water,
sustainability. They show an understanding that
compared to 76 percent in 1990. Over half the
the environment is not a mere add-on to or
population can now access piped drinking
against sustainable development, but rather
water on premises.
the base that underpins all other goals
9. After stagnating, official development
(Woodbridge, 2015). Consequently, while
assistance rose by an unprecedented 66
the MDGS focused on poverty
percent between 2000 and 2014.
reduction, the SDGs include new themes which
10. The resources developing countries diverted to
reflect an approach that sees the environment,
pay off external debts fell from an average 12
economy and society as embedded systems
percent of export revenue in 2000, to 3
rather than separate incompatible pillars. Thus,
percent in 2013.
urban areas, water and sanitation, energy, and
The United Nations Millennium Development climate change are all prominently featured.
Goals (MDGs)

As the deadline set for the MDGs was

approaching, the United Nations took the lead
in defining the future global development
framework that would succeed the MDGs. It did
so through a process it called the Post-2015
Development Agenda which began in 2012
and ended in 2015. On September 25, 2015, all
members of the UN General Assembly agreed
to adopt the 2030 Development Agenda
entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development”
(“Chapter 1: Getting to know the Sustainable
Development Goals," 2015). This 2030
Development Agenda contains 92 paragraphs.
Paragraph 51 of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development outlines the 17
Sustainable Development Goals and the
associated 169 targets, as follows:
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy