CHAPTER 4

THE PERIODIC
TABLE

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to :

• Indicate period, group and block (s, p, d, f).

• Specify the position of metals, metalloids and non-metals in the periodic
table.
• Deduce the position of elements in the periodic table from its electronic
configuration.

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 SUBTOPICS
4.1 Classification of Element
4.2 Periodicity
i. Variation in Atomic and Ionic Size
ii. The Ionisation Energy
iii. Electron Affinity
iv. Electronegativity
v. Period 3 Element
vi. Group 1 Element
vii. Group 17 Element
viii. Oxides of Period 3 Elements
 4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENT
• The periodic table is a handy tool that correlates the properties of the elements in a systematic way and
helps us to make predictions about chemical behavior.
• Element are arranged by atomic number (shown above the element symbol) in horizontal rows called
Periods and vertical columns known as groups or families , according to similarities in their chemical's
properties.
• The elements can be divided into three categories- metals, nonmetals and metalloids.
• Element are often referred to collectively by their periodic table group number (Group 1A, Group 2A,
and so on).
• However, for convenience, some elements groups have been giving special names
✓ Group 1A: Alkali Metals
✓ Group 2A: Alkaline Earth Metals
✓ Group 7A: Halogens
✓ Group 8A: Noble Gases or rare gases
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 5

Noble Gas
Halogen
Group
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Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 CONT…
Metals
▪
Left-hand side of the table
▪
Tendency to lose electrons
▪
Conduct heat and electricity
▪
Usually solid at room temperature
▪
Malleable - can be hammered into different shapes
▪
Ductile - can be drawn into wires
▪
Luster - they shine

Nonmetals
▪
Right-hand side of the table
▪
Tendency to gain electrons
▪
Poor conductors of heat or electricity
▪
Not malleable or ductile (those that are solids tend
▪
to be brittle)
• Do not exhibit luster

Metalloids (or semimetals)

• Mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties
• Used for semiconductors
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Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

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1A (Group 1) - Alkali metals
They will all form ions with a +1 charge. They all have one s
electron in their outer shell. These are very active metals and
are seldom found free in nature. As a matter of fact these
elements are not found free in nature.

11A (Group 2)- alkaline earth metals

These are also very active elements, but not as active as those
in group 1. These group 2 elements have properties similar to
each other. They all have two s electrons in their outer shell and
will therefore produce a +2 ion.
111B – 11B ( Group 3 – 12) - Transition elements
These metals are located in the center of the periodic table.
They make up groups 3 through 12.

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The rare earth elements (Inner transition Elements)
The rare earth elements are the two rows at the bottom of the
periodic table.
These elements are rare. Most are unstable and will have only the
most stable isotope listed. Because they are unstable many of these
are associated with radioactivity

VIIA (Group 17)- The halogens

It is the only group on the periodic table that has a solid, liquid, and
gas. Each member of this group forms an ion, when it is the nonmetal
by itself, of -1. Fluorine is a member of this group and is considered to
be the most active nonmetal. Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room
temperature, while iodine is a liquid and bromine and astatine are solids.
V111A (Group 18)- Inert gases
Sometimes these are called the Noble gases or the inert gas
structures.
They have completed outer shells and are therefore stable elements.
This is called a stable octet (except He which only has 2 electrons in
it's outer shell).

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 Periods of Periodic Table

• The periods in the Periodic Table are numbered from 1 to 7

• For example, hydrogen and helium are in Row 1 or Period 1 because their principal
quantum number, n, of the main electron shell is 1. (H:1s1 ;He: 1s2)

Period number = Principle quantum number

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 Blocks of Periodic Table
• All the elements in the Periodic Table can be classified into 4 main blocks according to their valence
electrons configuration.
• These main blocks are s, p, d and f block.

s- block d-block
• Group 1 and 2 • Groups 3 to 12
The filling of valence electrons involve the s • The filling of valence electrons involve s and d orbitals.
orbital
• Group 3 to 11 known as Transition metal.
• Configuration of the valence electrons :
• Eg:
• Configuration of valence electron :
11Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Eg.
20Ca : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 23V : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2 or [Ar] 3d3 4s2

where [Ar] = 18 electrons

p-block
• Group 13 to 18 f-block
• The filling of valence electrons involve s and p orbital. • Involve the elements in the series of lanthanides (Ce to Lu)
• The configuration of valence electrons: and actinides (Th to Lr).
• Eg. • The filling of valence electrons happen in the subshell of 4f
13Al : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
and 5f.
52Te : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s25p4

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Group number = number of valence electrons + 10 Group number = number of valence electrons
(if the element is in block p) (if the element is in block s and d)

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 PRACTICE 1

Classify the following elements into its appropriate group, period and block.

A ……1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

B …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
C …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
D …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
E …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

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 PRACTICE 1
Answers:

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 4.2 PERIODICITY
Periodic trends in the size of atom (atomic radii)

• The size /radius of atom is difficult to be defined exactly because the electron cloud has no clear boundary.
• Therefore, the atomic radius is taken as half of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent identical atom.

• Down the group, atomic radii increases.

• Across period, atomic radii decreases.
• Across the period of d-block (transition
elements) the change in atomic radii is small as
Two factors that influence the changes of atomic radii
valence electrons are filled in the 3d degenerate
in the Periodic Table are:
orbitals.
i. Effective nuclear charge experienced by the valence
electrons
ii. The shielding effect

Unit for d: A (Angstrom)

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Shielding & Effective Nuclear Charge Effect

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 i. The Effective nuclear charge (Zeff )
• Electrons around the nucleus experience different nucleus
attraction.

• Those electrons closer to the nucleus experience a greater

attraction than those that are farther away. Example:
Compare the effective
• The actual nuclear charge experienced by an electron is called nuclear charge of
the effective nuclear charge, Zeff. Boron, Oxygen and
Sulfur
• Effective nuclear charge increase, nucleus attraction stronger,
atomic radii decrease.

• Across the period, the effective nuclear charge increases as

proton number increase.

• As a result, the attraction between the nucleus and valence

electrons become stronger, causing the atomic radius to
decrease.
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 ii. The Shielding Effect
• aka the screening effect.
• Repulsive force exerted on valence e- by inner e- (more inner e- = greater shielding effect)
• As we move down a group, the number of shells increases, more inner electrons are present
to shield the valence electrons from the nucleus.
• The valence electrons are farther from the nucleus.
• Thus, the attraction between the nucleus and valence electrons decreases, therefore, the atomic
radius increase. Increasing atomic radius

Increasing atomic radius

Down a group, the atomic radius increases
because of the increasing principal quantum
number (n) of the valence electron.
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The graph shows that :

Atomic radius decreases when :

• Across a period (from left to right)
• Moving up a group in the periodic
table.

Atomic radius increases when

• Going down the group.

• The greater the nucleus attraction,

the smaller the atomic radius.

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 PRACTICE 2

Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing radius P, Si, N.

Try this!

Circle the element whose

valence electrons would
experience the greatest
shielding effect:

As Sb Bi

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 PRACTICE 2
Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing radius P, Si, N.

SOLUTION:

• N and P are in the same group and N is above P.

• Atomic radius increases as we go down the group. Try this!
• Therefore, the radius of N is smaller than that of P.
Circle the element whose
• Both Si and P are in the third period and Si is to the left valence electrons would
of P. experience the greatest
• Atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right. shielding effect:
• Therefore, the radius of P is smaller than Si.
• Thus the order of increasing radius. As Sb Bi

N < P < Si

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 TRENDS IN IONIC RADII
• When electrons are added to an atom, the mutual
repulsions between them increase.

• This enlarge the domain of electron cloud.

• Therefore, negative ions (anions) are larger than

the atoms from which they are formed.

• When electrons are removed from the valence shell,

the electron-electron repulsions decrease but the
nuclear charge remains the same.

• So the remaining electrons are to be pulled closer

together around the nucleus.

• Therefore, cations are smaller than the atoms from

which they are formed.

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 Isoelectronic species
• Isoelectronic species are groups of atoms and ions which have the same electronic
configuration

• Within isoelectronic species: the more positive the charge, the smaller the species

• E.g : Na+, Mg2+ , Al3+ and Si4+ ions are isoelectronic (10 e-) with the electron configurations as
1s2 2s2 2p6.

Isoelectronic species with electronic • When proton number increase,

configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 (10 electrons) effective nuclear charge increase.
• The attraction between nucleus and
Species No of proton
A different no of
remaining electron increase.
Na+ 11 • Therefore, the ionic radii decrease.
proton but the
Mg2+ 12 same number of
Al3+ 13 electrons • The ionic radii of
Si4+ 14
Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ > Si4+

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 Isoelectronic species with electronic 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (18 electrons).

Species No of proton Ionic Radii

Cl- 17
S2- 16
P3- 15

• When proton number increase, effective nuclear

charge increase.
• The attraction between nucleus and remaining
electron increase.
• Therefore, the ionic radii decrease.
• The ionic radii of Cl- < S2- < P3-

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 PRACTICE 3

Na+,Si4+ ,Mg2+, N3-, O2- ,Al3+ and F- are isoelectronic with the electronic
configuration as 1s2 2s2 2p6. Arrange in a descending order the size of
those isoelectronic species.

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 PRACTICE 3

Na+,Si4+ ,Mg2+, N3-, O2- ,Al3+ and F- are isoelectronic with the electronic
configuration as 1s2 2s2 2p6. Arrange in a descending order the size of
those isoelectronic species.

SOLUTION:

N3- > O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+> Si4+

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 TRENDS IN THE IONIZATION ENERGIES
• The ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
in its ground state.
• The first ionization energy (IE1) is the minimum energy required to remove the first electron from the
atom in its ground state.
E.g:

Energy + X(g) → X+(g) + e- ΔH = IE1

Ionization energy across a period :

• The effective nuclear charge increases, the
atomic size decreases.
• Electrons are held tightly to the nucleus thus it is
difficult to remove the first electron.
• Therefore, the first ionisation energy is high.
• It can be said that the first ionization energy
increases from left to right.
• However, there are some irregularities in the
trend.
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 CONT…
Going down the group, the atomic size increases as the energy level, n increases.
• Therefore, the outer electrons are farther from the nucleus and are held less tightly (weaker attraction) by the
nucleus.
• Thus, it is easy to remove the first electron.
• Hence the Ionization Energy decreases down the group.

• Second ionization energy (IE2) is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a positive gaseous ion.
X+ (g) → X2+ (g) + e-
• When an electron is removed from a neutral atom, the mutual repulsion among the remaining electrons decrease.
• Since the nuclear charge remain constant, the electron are held tightly to the nucleus.
• Therefore, more energy is needed to remove another electron from the positively charged ion.
• Thus, ionization energies always increase in the following order :
IE1< IE2< IE3< IE4<…..
• Although the removal of a subsequent electron from an atom requires an increment amount of energy but it may
not be consistence.
• We can determine the electronic configuration of the valence electron for an element by using the ionization
energy.

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 Anomalous cases in Period 2

Between group 2 and 13: Boron (B) and Beryllium (Be)

• B: 1s2 2s2 2p1 in group 13 has a lower IE1 than Be: 1s2 2s2 in group 2.
• Be loses a 2s electron while B loses a 2p electron.
• Less energy is needed to remove an electron from partially-filled 2p orbital in B than to remove an
electron from fully/completely filled 2s orbital in Be.

Between group 15 and 16: Oxygen (O) and Nitrogen (N)

• O (group16) has lower IE1 than N (group 15)

• N:1s2 2s2 2p3 (the half-filled 2p orbital ), O:1s2 2s2 2p4 (the partially-filled 2p orbital)
• When N loses an electron it must come from the half-filled 2p orbital which is more stable than
that of electron of the partially-filled orbital in O.
• As a result, the first ionization energy of N is higher than of O.

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 EXAMPLE IONIZATION ENERGIES

Be, The ionization energies (kJmol-1) of Beryllium are shown below.

How to identify the electron configuration of the valence electron?

The ratio between the ionization energies are:

• A sharp increase in ionization energy occurs when an inner-orbital
electron is removed.
• The sharp increase is in IE3. It means the 3rd electron occupies the If further remove 3rd electron,
inner shell. no octet anymore. Atoms
• Therefore, there are 2 valence electrons. don’t like that, they want to
• Hence, Be is in group 2 with valence configuration nS2. keep their octet!!

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 PRACTICE 5
Five successive ionization energies (kJmol-1) of atom M is shown below:

Determine:
i) the electron configuration of the valence electron.
ii) the group number in the periodic table.
iii) The complete electronic configuration of M, if M is an element of the third period.

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 PRACTICE 5
• Five successive ionization energies (kJmol-1) of atom M is shown below:

• Determine:
i) the electron configuration of the valence electron.
ii) the group number in the periodic table.
iii) The complete electronic configuration of M, if M is an element of the third period.

SOLUTION
• The sharp increase is in IE5, this means the 5th electron occupies the inner shell.
• Therefore, there are 4 valence electrons.
• Hence, the valence electronic configuration for M is ns2 np2 in group 14 of the periodic table.

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 THE ELECTRON AFFINITY
• Electron Affinity: The amount of energy released/absorbed when an atom gain an electrons giving it a
negative charge.
• Electron Affinity is the reverse process of Ionisation Energy

Example: Br(g) + e-→ Br- (g)

First Electron Affinity

The addition of the 1st electron releases energy: the electron added is being pulled towards the nucleus as it
enters a neutral atom. The process is exothermic.

Second Electron Affinity

The addition of the 2nd electron requires energy: the 2nd electron is entering a negatively charged ion, requires
work as the electron is forced onto the negative ion and the process is endothermic.

Across a period from left to right, the electron affinity increases.

Down a group, the electron affinity decreases.

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 Cont…
Increasing Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity generally increase on moving left to right in a period.
• Adding electron to a bigger atom, release a smaller amount of
Increasing Electron Affinity

energy and less exothermic.

Electron Affinity generally decrease down a group

• The size of atoms increases, atom gets larger, the electrons less
attraction of nuclear charge, less energy released.

• Electron is usually exothermic.

Irregularities shown in
Group 1 2 3 14 15 16 17 Be and Mg(atoms have a completely filled s-orbital)
Element Li Be B C N O F Be: 1s2 2s2
Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Electron -60 +100 -27 -122 +7 -141 -328
Affinity
Nitrogen (half-filled 2p orbital)
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
N: 1s2 2s2 2p3
Electron -53 +30 -44 -134 -72 -200 -348 Require energy (endothermic) to overcome the
Affinity electron-electron repulsion)
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 THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• Electronegativity is the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself

when bonded with another atom.
• Electronegativity increases up a group and across a period (from left to right). This
follows the trends for ionization energy and electron affinity.

Across period Down a group

• The nuclear charge increase • The principal quantum number increase
• The atomic size decrease • The atomic size increase
• Hence, the nucleus attraction stronger • Hence, weaker nuclear attraction
• Therefore, the electronegativity increase • Therefore, electronegativity decrease

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 Period 3 Element

ATOMIC RADIUS MELTING/BOILING POINT

• Decreases across period • Increase up to silicon then decrease
• Extra protons pull electrons closer • Metallic bonding in Na, Mg and Al
• No extra shielding • Macromolecular tetrahedral structure in Si
• Ar exists as individual atoms.
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 THE MELTING OR BOILING POINT

• The melting or boiling point depends on the types of intermolecular forces that exist
between the molecules.

Across the period

• Melting and boiling point of the 3rd period elements The variation of melting and boiling point of
elements in the 3rd period can be discussed
as:
(a) Metallic structure (Na to Al)
(b) Gigantic covalent structure (Si)
(c) Simple molecular structure (P to Ar)

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 Cont…

a) Metallic structure (Na to Al)

• Metal has positive metal ions attracted to the electrons sea which form the metallic
bonding.
• Strength of metallic bonding is proportional to the number of valence electrons.

The more valence electron, the stronger the metallic

bond and the higher the melting / boiling point

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 Cont…
b) Gigantic covalent structure
• Silicon has a gigantic covalent structure.
• Melting and boiling point of Si is very high because high energy is needed to break
the infinity amount of the strong covalent bond.

c) Simple molecular structure ( P to Ar)

• The non-metal that exist as molecules of P4, S8, Cl2 and Ar (monoatom).
• The covalent bond between the atoms is very strong but the intermolecular force (Van
der Waals), is very weak.
• The strength of Van der Waals force is proportional to molecular size (relative
molecular weight)
– Molecular size: Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
– therefore melting / boiling point : Ar < Cl < P < S

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 Group 1 Element
• Group 1 elements are lithium, sodium,
potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium.

• Going down the group, elements becoming more

electropositive and easily release the valence
electron.

• Going down the group, the melting and boiling

point of the elements decrease.

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 Group 17 Element
• The halogens consist of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.
• All the halogens exists as covalent non-polar molecules of the formula X2 as they have valence electrons
with configuration of ns2 np5
• The properties change gradually as down the group.

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 Melting and boiling points down the group

Group 1
• The size increase, the attraction between nucleus and electron sea become weaker.
• Therefore, less energy is needed to overcome the attraction.
• Thus, melting and boiling point decrease.

Group 17
• The size of molecules increase, the intermolecular forces (Van der Waals) become
stronger.
• Therefore, more energy is needed to overcome the attraction
- Thus, melting and boiling point increase.

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 Oxides of Period 3 Elements
Acid-base behavior of oxides of Period 3

For Period 3:

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

When react with oxygen :

(a) Na & Mg form basic oxide
(b) Al form amphoteric (both acidic and basic) oxide.
(c) Si, P, S & Cl form acidic oxide

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 Oxides of Period 3 Elements
• Na reacts with oxygen to form a basic oxide.

4Na (s) + O2 (g)→2Na2O (s)

• The oxide will produce base solution when react with water.

Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

• Mg burns in oxygen to form a basic oxide, MgO.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) →2MgO (s)

MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) →MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Base Acid
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 Cont…
• Al forms amphoteric oxide, can react either with an acid or a base.

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O (l)

Base Acid Aluminium Chloride

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)

Base Base sodium aluminate

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 Cont…
• Si, P, S & Cl burn in oxygen to form acidic oxide
Si :
Si (s) + O2 (g) → SiO2 (s)
SiO2 (s) + NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3(aq)+H2O (l)
Sodium silicate

P:
P4 (s) + 3O2 (g) → P4O6 (s)
P4O6 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO3 (aq)
phosphorus acid

S:
S (s) + O2 (g) →SO2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
sulfurous acid

Cl :
Cl2O7 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HClO4 (aq)
hypochloric acid
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IDP08404 BY: LISUYA 47
IDP08404 CHEMISTRY ONLINE TEST 1 & QUIZ 1
Please be reminded that IDP08404 TEST 1 & QUIZ 1 will be on:

TEST 1
Date: 17 August 2022
Time: 2.30 PM – 6.00 PM
Topics covered: Chapter 1-Chapter 5
20 MCQ’s and 3 Subjective Questions (Total: 50 marks)

QUIZ 1
Date: 18-21 August 2022
Topics covered: Chapter 1- Chapter 5
20 MCQ’s (Total: 20 marks)
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