Algorithm Design & Problem-

Solving
Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)
 Analysis

 Design

 Coding

 Testing

 Maintenance

Analysis

 Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and document the problem clearly,

known as the "requirements specification" for the program.

 The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction and decomposition to identify

the specific requirements for the program.

 Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed for the solution while

eliminating unnecessary details and information.

 Decomposition involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, more

manageable parts that can be solved individually.

 Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for easier understanding and

solving.

Design

 The program specification derived from the analysis stage is used as a guide for

program development.

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 During the design stage, the programmer should clearly understand the tasks to be

completed, the methods for performing each task, and how the tasks will work

together.

 Documentation methods such as structure charts, flowcharts, and pseudocode can

be used to document the program's design formally.

Coding and iterative testing

 The program or set of programs is developed based on the design.

 Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming language.

 Testing is conducted to ensure that each module functions correctly.

 Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting modular tests, making code

amendments if necessary, and repeating tests until the module meets the required

functionality.

Testing

 The completed program or set of programs is executed multiple times using various

test data sets.

 This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the program work together as

specified in the program design.

 Running the program with different test data can identify and address potential

issues and errors.

 The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality and performance of the

program by evaluating its behaviour with various inputs.

Structure Diagrams
 Every computer system is made up of sub-systems, which are in turn made up of

further sub-systems.

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 Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer system into sub-systems,

then breaking each sub-system into smaller sub-systems until each one only

performs a single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically represents a top-

down design. Example below.

Pseudocode & Flowcharts

 Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a process or set of steps) and

flowcharts are a diagrammatic representation.

 Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps required to complete a

task and the order that they are to be performed

 Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are called an algorithm

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An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper question in which all of

the functions of a flowchart are shown:

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 This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the requirement (1.2) in

this case. It then counts until the accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs

the number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are ready to go!

Pseudocode
 Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants

o Variable – Store of data which changes during execution of the program (due to user

input)

o Constant – Store of data that remains the same during the execution of the program

 Basic Data Types

Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100

o Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64

o Char – Single Character e.g. a; Y

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o String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. ZNotes; COOL

o Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1

 Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and display data to the user

respectively. (It is recommended to use input and output commands)

INPUT Name

OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name

PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name

 Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be declared by the following

manner

DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE]

 Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store multiple values of same datatype

under single name

DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Upper Limit ] OF [DATATYPE]

 Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left arrow.

[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]

ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned]

 Conditional Statements:

IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF

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 CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple

conditions and corresponding consequences \n

 Loop Structures:

 FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/known amount of times

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 REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is satisfied; Verification is

done after running code WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May

not ever run; Verification is done before running code

Note: When using conditions in these loop structures and conditional statement, it

has to be kept in mind that it can be done in two ways.

1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value TRUE or FALSE

2. comparisons made by using comparison operators, where comparisons are made

from left to right

IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]

THEN

OUTCOME

ELSE

OUTCOME

ENDIF

IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION 3) AND (CONDITION 4)

THEN

OUTCOME

ELSE

OUTCOME

ENDIF

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 Standard methods used in algorithm:
 Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are added to

Total ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit

Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled

NEXT Counter

 Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an action is performed is another

standard method.

PassCount ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit

INPUT Value

IF Value > Range

THEN

PassCount ← PassCount + 1

ENDIF

NEXT Counter

 Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest and smallest values in a list

are two standard methods that are frequently found in algorithms

MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- Array[1]

FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit

IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue

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 THEN

MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]

ENDIF

IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue

THEN

MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]

ENDIF

NEXT Counter

// Average//

Total ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues

Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]

NEXT Counter

Average ← Total / NumberOfValues

 Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is inspected sequentially until

a match is found or the entire list is traversed.

INPUT Value

Found ← FALSE

Counter ← 0

REPEAT

IF Value = Array[Counter]

THEN

Found ← TRUE

ELSE

Counter ← Counter + 1

ENDIF

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 UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues

IF Found

THEN

OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counter, " in the list."

ELSE

OUTPUT Value , " not found."

ENDIF

 Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent elements in a list to sort them.

Start from the first element and continue until the second-to-last element. After each

pass, the last element is in its correct place. However, other elements may still be

unsorted. Repeat the process, excluding the last element, until only one element

remains or no swaps are needed.

First ← 1

Last ← 10

REPEAT

Swap ← FALSE

FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1

IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1]

THEN

Temp ← Array[Index]

Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1]

Array[Index + 1] ← Temp

Swap ← TRUE

ENDIF

NEXT Index

Last ← Last - 1

UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1

Validation and Verification

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To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data inputs, computer

systems must thoroughly examine each data item before accepting it, and this is

where Validation and Verification come into play!

Validation

Validation in computer systems involves automated checks to ensure the

reasonableness of data before accepting it. If the data is invalid, the system should

provide an explanatory message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the

data.

\n There are many types of it.

Range check

A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within specified upper and lower

limits.

REPEAT

INPUT Value

IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValue

THEN

OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the range", MinimumValue ," to ", MaximumValue

ENDIF

UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= MaximumValue

Length check

This can either ensure that data consists of a precise number of characters.

OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " characters "

REPEAT

INPUT Value

IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit

THEN

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 OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ," characters, please re-enter "

ENDIF

UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit

It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number of characters or not

OUTPUT "Please enter your value "

REPEAT

INPUT Value

IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value) < LowerLimit

THEN

OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-enter "

ENDIF

UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Value) >= LowerLimit

Type check

A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a specific data type.

OUTPUT "Enter the value "

REPEAT

INPUT Value

IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)

THEN

OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please re-enter"

ENDIF

UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)

Presence check

A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been entered and the value

has not been left blank

OUTPUT "Please enter the value "

REPEAT

INPUT Value

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 IF Value = ""

THEN

OUTPUT "*=Required "

ENDIF

UNTIL Value <> ""

Format Check

A format check checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined pattern.

Check Digit

 A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the other

digits.

 Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, International Standard Book

Numbers (ISBN), and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).

Verification

Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied from one source to

another

There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there are other methods during

data transfer, but they are in paper 1)

1. Double Entry

 Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.

 The computer system compares both entries and if they differ, an error message is

displayed, prompting the data to be reentered.

2. Screen/Visual check

 A screen/visual check involves the user manually reviewing the entered data.

 After data entry, the system displays the data on the screen and prompts the user to

confirm its accuracy before proceeding.

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 The user can compare the displayed data against a paper document used as an

input form or rely on their own knowledge to verify correctness.

Test Data
 Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and assess the functionality and

performance of a computer program or system.

 It helps identify errors and assess how the program handles different scenarios

Normal Data
 Normal data is the test data which accepts values in acceptible range of values of

the program

 Normal data should be used to work through the solution to find the actual result(s)

and see if they are the same as the expected result(s)

 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive)

are accepted, normal test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

Abnormal Data
 Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not suitable, if the solution is

working properly is called abnormal test data / erroneous test data.

 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive)

are accepted, abnormal data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520

Extreme Data
 Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take

 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive)

are accepted, extreme data will be: 0 and 100

Boundary Data
 This is used to establish where the largest and smallest values occur

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 At each boundary two values are required: one value is accepted and the other value

is rejected.

 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive)

are accepted, one example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will be

accepted and 101 will not be accepted

Trace Table
 A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of every step in an algorithm. It is

employed to record the variable's value each time it undergoes a change.

 A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically executing an algorithm by

following each step in sequence.

 A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for any output

e.g.

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart and document the

outcomes in a trace table. During the dry run:

 Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is recorded in the respective

column of the trace table.

 Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the output column.

An example of trace table is given below using a past paper question:

Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who want to ride on a

rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres are rejected. The ride starts when eight

children have been accepted.

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Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4,

1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0

Rider Heigh
Reject OUTPUT
s t
0 0
1 1.4
2 1.3
1 1.1
3 1.3
2 1.0
4 1.5
3 1.2
5 1.3
6 1.4
7 1.3
4 0.9

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 Rider Heigh
Reject OUTPUT
s t
8 1.5 Ready to go 4

Identifying errors:
 Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program. For example, if the

requirement for the previous question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2

too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would have been caught in the trace

table as when 1.2 is entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn’t in our

example

How to write an algorithm?

The ability to write an algorithm is very important for this syllabus and paper.

Some key steps/points to be known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are

as follows:

1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood which includes knowing the

purpose of the algorithm and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.

2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a program which outputs average

values, divide the problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the number of

iterations and how to count the total of all values)

3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into variables/constants/arrays and what

datatype it is, and declare all the variables/constants/arrays accordingly, with

meaningfull names

4. Decide on how you are going to construct your algorithm, either using a flowchart or

pseudocode. If you are told how to construct your algorithm, then follow the

guidance.

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5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be easily read and understood by

someone else. Take particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are used for

loops and selection.

6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and Boundary) to dry run your

algorithm and check if the expected results are achieved (a trace table can be used

for this purpose) . If error is found, find the point of error in the trace table and fix it in

the code.

Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these notes were not

designed with readability in mind because you needed to work out what the problem

being solved was.

Programming
Programming Languages

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 There are many high-level programming languages to choose from. We will

only be treating Python, Visual Basic, or Java.

 Python is an open-source, versatile programming language that encourages quick

program development and emphasises code readability. The integrated development

environment (IDE) showcased in this chapter is referred to as IDLE.

 Visual Basic is a popular programming language that is extensively used for

Windows development. The integrated development environment (IDE) featured in

this chapter is known as Visual Studio, which is utilised for capturing screenshots.

 Java is a widely adopted programming language utilised by numerous developers.

The integrated development environment (IDE) employed for capturing screenshots

in this chapter is known as BlueJ.

Programming Concepts
Constructs of a Program

 Data use – variables, constants and arrays

 Sequence – order of steps in a task

 Selection – choosing a path through a program

 Iteration – repetition of a sequence of steps in a program

 Operators use arithmetic for calculations and logic and Boolean for decisions.

Variables and Constants

 A variable within a computer program refers to a named storage unit with a value

that can be modified throughout the program's execution. To enhance

comprehension for others, it is advisable to assign significant names to variables.

 A constant within a computer program represents a named storage unit that holds a

value which remains unchanged throughout the program's execution. Similar to

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 variables, it is recommended to assign meaningful names to constants to enhance

comprehensibility for others.

Data Types

 Different data types are assigned to computer systems for effective processing and

storage.

 Data types allow data, such as numbers or characters, to be stored appropriately.

 Data types enable effective manipulation using mathematical operators for numbers

and character concatenation.

 Some data types provide automatic validation.

 The types of datatypes are told in Chapter 1 already!

Input and Output

 Programs require input and output statements to handle data.

 In IGCSE Computer Science, algorithms and programs are designed to take input

from a keyboard and output to a screen.

 Prompting the user with clear instructions for input is necessary for the user to

understand what is expected.

 Input data in programming languages must match the required data type of the

variable where it will be stored.

 By default, inputs are treated as strings, but commands can convert input to integer

or real number data types.

 Users should be provided with information about the output/results for a program to

be useful.

 Each output should be accompanied by a message explaining the result's meaning

or significance.

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 If an output statement has multiple parts, they can be separated by a separator

character.

Basic Concepts
When writing the steps required to solve a problem, the following concepts need to

be used and understood:

 Sequence

 Selection

 Iteration

 Counting and totalling

 String handling

 Use of operators.

Sequence

The ordering of the steps in an algorithm is very important. An incorrect order can

lead to incorrect results and/or extra steps that are not required by the task.

Selection

Selection is a very useful technique, allowing different routes through the steps of a

program. The code of this is explained in the notes of previous chapters.

Iteration

As explained in the previous chapter, we already

Totalling and Counting

As explained in the previous chapter, we already

String Handling

 Strings are used to store text and can contain various characters.

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 An empty string has no characters, while the programming language specifies the

maximum number of characters allowed.

 Characters in a string can be identified by their position number, starting from either

zero or one, depending on the programming language.

 String handling is an important aspect of programming.

 In IGCSE Computer Science, you will need to write algorithms and programs for the

following string methods:

o Length: Determines the number of characters in a string, including spaces.

o Substring: Extracts a portion of a string.

o Upper: Converts all letters in a string to uppercase.

o Lower: Converts all letters in a string to lowercase.

 These string manipulation methods are commonly provided in programming

languages through library routines.

Finding the length of a string:

LENGTH("Text Here")

LENGTH(Variable)

Extracting a substring from a string:

SUBSTRING("Computer Science", 10, 7)

// returns the next 7 values starting from the 10th value of the string "Computer Science" i.e. "Science"

SUBSTRING(Variable, Position, Length)

Converting a string to upper case

UCASE("Text here")

UCASE(Variable)

Converting a string to lowercase

LCASE("Text Here")

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 LCASE(Variable)

Arithmetic, Logical and Boolean Operators

As explained in the previous chapter, we already

Use of Nested Statements

 Selection and iteration statements can be nested, meaning one statement can be

placed inside another.

 Nested statements help reduce code duplication and simplify testing of programs.

 Different types of constructs can be nested within each other, such as selection

statements within condition-controlled loops or loops within other loops.

Procedures and Functions

 A procedure refers to a collection of programming statements organized under a

single name, invoked at any given point in a program to execute a specific task.

 A function is a compilation of programming statements consolidated under a singular

name, invoked at any moment within a program to accomplish a particular task.

Unlike a procedure, a function also has the capability to return a value back to the

main program.

 Parameters refer to variables that store the values of arguments passed to a

procedure or function. While not all procedures and functions require parameters,

some utilize them to facilitate their operations.

Procedures without parameters:

PROCEDURE ProcedureName ()

[Commands]

ENDPROCEDURE

//Calling/running the procedure

CALL ProcedureName()

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 The procedure with parameters:

PROCEDURE ProcedureName (ParameterName : ParameterDatatype)

[Commands]

ENDPROCEDURE

//Calling/running the procedure

CALL ProecdureName (ParameterValue)

Function:

FUNCTION FunctionName (ParameterName : ParameterDatatype) RETURNS

DataTypeOfValueReturned

[Commands]

RETURN ValueToBeReturned

ENDFUNCTION

 When defining procedures and functions, the header is the first statement in the

definition.

 The header includes:

o The name of the procedure or function.

o Parameters passed to the procedure or function, along with their data types.

o The data type of the return value for a function.

 Procedure calls are standalone statements.

 Function calls are made as part of an expression, typically on the right-hand side.

Local and Global Variable

 Any part of a program can use a global variable – its scope covers the whole

program

 A local variable can only be used by the part of the program it is declared in – its

scope is restricted to that part of the program.

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 Note: Any variables/arrays made in this procedure and functions will be local

and cannot be used out of these. To be made available all over the program,

they must be declared globally in the following way.

DECLARE [VariableName] : DataType AS GLOBAL

Library Routines
 Programming language development systems often provide library routines that can

be readily incorporated into programs.

 Library routines are pre-tested and ready for use, making programming tasks easier.

 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) typically include a standard library of

functions and procedures.

 Standard library routines perform various tasks, including string handling.

 MOD – returns the remainder of a division

 DIV – returns the quotient (i.e. the whole number part) of a division

 ROUND – returns a value rounded to a given number of decimal places

 RANDOM – returns a random number.

Examples:

 Value1 <--- MOD(10,3) returns the remainder of 10 divided by 3

 Value2 <---- DIV(10,3) returns the quotient of 10 divided by 3

 Value3 <--- ROUND(6.97354, 2) returns the value rounded to 2 decimal places

 Value4 <--- RANDOM() returns a random number between 0 and 1 inclusive

Creating a Maintainable Program

A maintainable program should:

 always use meaningful identifier names for variables, constants, arrays, procedures

and functions

 be divided into modules for each task using procedures and functions

 be fully commented using your programming language’s commenting feature

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 Commenting in pseudocode:

// Now the text written is commented and thus ignored

""

This method can also be used to comment

multiple lines but the singular line method

is more widely accepted and reccomended too

""

Arrays
 An array is a data structure containing several elements of the same data type; these

elements can be accessed using the same identifier name.

 The position of each element in an array is identified using the array’s index.

 There are two types of arrays

One-Dimensional Array

Explained in the previous chapter in detail

Two-Dimensional Array

 A two-dimensional array can be referred to as a table with rows and columns.

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 When a two-dimensional array

is declared in pseudocode, the first and last index values for rows and the first and

last index values for columns alongside the data type are included.

Declaring a 2D Array:

DECLARE Name : ARRAY[RowLower:RowUpper,ColumnLower:ColumnUpper] OF DATATYPE

Filling a 2-D array using a loop:

FOR ColumnCounter ← 0 TO 2

FOR RowCounter ← 0 TO 9

OUTPUT "Enter next value "

INPUT ArrayName [RowCounter, ColumnCounter]

NEXT RowCounter

NEXT ColumnCounter

File Handling
 Computer programs store data that will be needed again in a file.

 Data stored in RAM is volatile and will be lost when the computer is powered off.

 Data saved to a file is stored permanently, allowing it to be accessed by the same

program at a later date or by other programs.

 Stored data in a file can be transferred and used on other computers.

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 The storage of data in files is a commonly used feature in programming.

Key point: When writing in a file, the program is outputing the data to the file,

and when reading a file, the program in inputing the data from the file

\n There are 3 ways a file can be opened in a program i.e. to write, to read and to

append

Writing in a file
OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR WRITE

//When opening a file to write, all the data already existing in the file is OVERWRITTEN

WRITEFILE "filename.txt" , Value

// The next command of WRITEFILE would be writen on next line of the file

CLOSEFILE "filename.txt"

Reading a file:
OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR READ

READFILE "filename.txt" , Variable

// The value in the line (which is identified by the number of times this is being run) is stored in the

variable

CLOSEFILE "filename.txt"

Reading a file till EOF:

OPENFILE "filename.txt" FOR READ

DECLARE DataVariable : STRING

WHILE NOT EOF("filename.txt) DO

READFILE "filename.txt", DataVariable

// here the line can be outputted or stored in an array. This process will repeat until every line

//before the file ends has been read

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ENDWHILE

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 Databases
A database is a well-organized compilation of data that enables individuals to

retrieve information according to their specific requirements. The data contained

within a database can encompass various forms such as text, numerical values,

images, or any other type of digital content that can be stored on a computer system.

Why do we need a database?

 To store data about people, things, and events.

 Any modifications or additions need to be made only once, ensuring data

consistency.

 All users access and utilize the same set of data, promoting uniformity.

 Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive manner, eliminating duplication.

What makes a database?

 Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists of a specific type of data

e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to be named according to what they contain e.g. a

table containing patient information will be PATIENT

 These tables consist of records (rows). Each record consists of data about a single

entity (a single item, person or event ) e.g. a single car

 These tables also have columns that are knows an fields. These consist of specific

information regarding the entities that are written later in records e.g. car name, car

manufacturer etc.

Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database are also required so

working with Microsoft Access is needed to understand this chapter

better. You have to be able to define a single-table database from given data

storage requirements, choose a suitable primary key for a database table and also

be able to read, complete and understand SQL scripts.

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 Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science by Hodder Education

Validation in databases
 Database management software automatically provides some validation checks,

while others need to be set up by the developer during construction.

 For example; The software automatically validates fields like "DateOfAdmission" in

the PATIENT table to ensure data input is a valid date. \n

Basic Data Types

Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type classifies how the data

is stored, displayed and the operations that can be performed on the stored value.

The datatypes for database are quite similar to original datatypes, however, there

are a few differences.

Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft Access which is a

DBMS (DataBase Management System). Here, databases could be worked

upon in practical form

Primary Key
 Each record in a table represents a unique item, person, or event.

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 To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field called the primary key is

necessary.

 The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each item within the data.

 In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have values that are never repeated

within the table.

 An existing field can serve as a primary key if it is unique, such as the ISBN in the

book table.

 In cases where all existing fields may contain repeated data, an additional field, such

as "HospitalNumber," can be added to each record to serve as the primary key.

Structured Query Language - SQL

 Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard language for writing scripts to

retrieve valuable information from databases.

 By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display specific information needed

from a database.

 For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require the ward number and bed

number to locate them in the hospital, while a consultant may need a list of the

names of all the patients under their care. This can be done using SQL

SQL Scripts

 An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are used to perform a specific

task, often stored in a file for reusability.

 To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL script, practical experience

in writing SQL scripts is necessary.

Select Statements:

SELECT (fieldsname)

FROM (tablesname)

WHERE (condition)

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ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

Selecting Sum of values in a table:

SELECT SUM ( fieldsname )

FROM (tablesname)

WHERE (condition)

ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

Counting the number of records where the field matches a specified condition

SELECT COUNT ( fieldsname )

FROM (tablesname)

WHERE (condition)

ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

==ORDER BY Field1, Field2, etc. – this specifies a sort in ascending or alphabetical

order starting with the first field.==

==ORDER BY Field1, Field2 DESC – this specifies a sort in descending or reverse

alphabetical order starting with the first field.==

Note: ORDER BY is not necessary to add. It has to be only added if required!

Operators
Just like pseudocode, the operators used there can also be used here for conditions,

however, a few more are also used in databases

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 Boolean Logic
Logic Gates and their functions
Six types of logic gates

 NOT Gate

 AND Gate

 OR Gate

 NAND Gate

 NOR Gate

 XOR Gate

NOT gate: an inverter, 𝐴‾A

A Output
0 1
1 0

AND gate: A.BA.B

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR gate: 𝐴+𝐵A+B

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 A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND gate: A.B‾A.B

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR gate: 𝐴+𝐵‾A+B

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR gate: A ⨁ B

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1

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 A B Output
1 0 1
1 1 0

Writing Logic Statements

Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logics that are in place for a logic

circuit.

Writing from a logic circuit

1. Look at the ciruit and go around the logic gates used in the circuit

2. Go from the one output that is being given towards the input

3. Write the last gate ( the first gate you walk through ) in the middle and then, for each

of the value coming into the gate, leave space at the side

4. If the value coming into the gate is coming from another gate, use a bracket for the

gate’s logic

5. Repeat process 3-4 till you are able to reach the input values fully

Writing from a truth table

1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later)

2. Write the logic statement using the ciruit

Writing from a Problem statement

1. See what logics go in place in the statement to take place

2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs at the start, and then keep on going until you are

able to reach the final gate which gives the output

3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the logic statement where the

output is 1

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 Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT
(B AND C) OR (A NOR (A NAND C)) is the logic statement for the following Logic

Circuit

Creating Truth Tables

From Logic Circuits
1. Create a truth table with each input possible, creating every possible combination of

inputs . Tip: For the first input, write it in the combination of 1,0,1,0 and so on.

For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on, and for the third one, go 1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0

going by the powers of 2 for each input. This would guarantee each possible

combination

2. Run through the circuit with the inputs and get the output that will be reached and

write it accordingly

For logic statements, and problem statements, convert them to

logic circuits first and then do the rest

Example
This is the example of a truth table of a logic circuit

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 The circuit:

Logic Statements from Truth

Tables

1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the output (x) is 1 (Rows 1, 2, 4, 5,

6, 7)

2. Create a logic expression from these rows (example, row 1 will be (NOT A AND NOT

B AND NOT C) = X

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3. Create logic expressions for all the rows with output 1 and connect them with OR

gate

Exam-Style Question

1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements using the conditions and the

table. (NOT S AND T) OR (S AND W) OR (NOT T AND W)

2. Make the logic circuit from the given equation

3. Make the truth table

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