Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

CN5206 Advanced Fluid Mechanics with Artificial Intelligence

Compressible Flows

Dr. Lim Chia Wei

Semester 2, AY2024-25
 2

Chapter Outline
• Introduction to Compressible Flows
• Steady Flow Energy Equation
• Speed of Sound and the Mach Number
• Isentropic Flows: Stagnation Properties, Area-Velocity Relation
• Convergent Nozzles: Flow Behaviour, Exit Velocity, Mass Flow Rate, Area
Ratio, Impulse Function
• Convergent-Divergent Nozzles: Flow Behaviour, Maximum Exit Velocity
• Normal Shocks: Entropy Change, Impulse Function, Stagnation Pressure,
Michelson-Rayleigh Line, Rankine-Hugoniot Equations
• Adiabatic Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction
• Isothermal Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction
 3

Compressible Flows
• Compressible flow is the motion of fluids in which density changes are
significant.

Supersonic aircraft Gas leaks

Rockets
 4

Compressible Flows
• The isothermal compressibility (𝛽) [Pa−1] is defined as:
1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝜌
𝛽=− =
𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜌 𝜕𝑃 𝑇

• For water at 1 bar, 𝛽 = 5 × 10−10 Pa−1 , i.e. liquids are effectively

incompressible.

𝑛𝑅G 𝑇 𝜕𝑉 𝑛𝑅G 𝑇
• For gases, assuming ideal gas behaviour (𝑉 = ⇒ = − 2 ):
𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝑃
𝑃 𝑛𝑅G 𝑇 1
𝛽=− − 2 =
𝑛𝑅G 𝑇 𝑃 𝑃
1 −5 Pa−1 , i.e. gas compressibility is important
• For air at 1 bar, 𝛽 = = 10
1×105
at high flow velocities, where pressure variations are significant.
 5

Steady Flow Energy Equation

𝑄h • For a flow system at steady state, mass
balance gives 𝑚ሶ in = 𝑚ሶ out = 𝑚.
ሶ
• Energy balance gives:
𝑚ሶ in 𝑚ሶ out 𝑚ℎ
ሶ 1 + 𝑄h = 𝑚ℎ
ሶ 2 + 𝑊s
(1) (2) • where ℎ𝑖 is the specific enthalpy [J kg−1], 𝑄h is
the rate of heat transfer to the system [W] and
𝑊s 𝑊s is the shaft work by the system [W].
• By considering also the kinetic and gravitational potential energies, the
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) is obtained:
𝑢12 𝑢22
𝑚ሶ ℎ1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑄 = 𝑚ሶ ℎ2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑊s
2 2
• Since ℎ𝑖 = 𝐶p 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇ref , ℎ𝑖 can be replaced by 𝐶p 𝑇𝑖 . If 𝑄 = 0, 𝑊s = 0, and 𝜌 &
internal energy are constant, the
In this chapter, 𝐶p has units of J kg−1 K−1. Bernoulli equation is obtained.
 6

Speed of Sound
𝑎 • Sound is the result of the propagation of pressure waves.
• Let 𝑎 represent the speed of sound [m s−1].
𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎 𝑎
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝜌 • Continuity equation gives:
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎
• Simplifying gives:
𝜌 𝑑𝑎 = −𝑎 𝑑𝜌
• Momentum equation gives (𝑅 = 0):
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎 + 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎
ሶ + 𝑃𝐴
• Since 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑎, simplifying gives:
𝜌𝐴𝑎 𝑑𝑎 + 𝐴𝑑𝑃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜌𝑎 𝑑𝑎 = −𝑑𝑃
• Using 𝜌 𝑑𝑎 = −𝑎 𝑑𝜌 and rearranging gives:
2
𝑑𝑃
𝑎 =
𝑑𝜌
 7

Speed of Sound
• The variations in pressure and density are relatively small, so the
pressure wave propagation is nearly reversible.
• The propagation is rapid compared to heat diffusion, so it is nearly adiabatic.
• Since the process is both reversible and adiabatic, it is isentropic:
𝜕𝑃
𝑎=
𝜕𝜌 s 𝐶p
𝛾=
• For an ideal gas undergoing isentropic processes: 𝐶v
𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝑘 𝑃𝑉 =
𝑚𝑅G 𝑇
⇒
𝑃
=
𝑃𝑉
=
𝑅G 𝑇
,
𝑀r 𝜌 𝑚 𝑀r
1
• Since 𝑣 = and hence 𝑃 = 𝑘𝜌𝛾 : where 𝑀r is molar mass.
𝜌

𝑑 𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇
𝑎= 𝑘𝜌𝛾 = 𝛾𝑘𝜌𝛾−1 = =
𝑑𝜌 𝜌 𝑀r
 8

Example 1: Speed of Sound in Air and Hydrogen

Calculate the speed of sound at 25°C in:
(a) air (𝑀r = 29 g/mol, 𝛾 = 1.4)
(b) hydrogen (𝑀r = 2 g/mol , 𝛾 = 1.4)
a=(rRGT/Mr)^1/2
(a): 345.84 m/s
(b): 1316 m/s
Mr=kg/mol
 9

The Mach Number

• The flow behaviour of a gas depends on the Mach number (𝑀) [-], which is
defined as:
𝑢
𝑀=
𝑎
• where 𝑢 is the gas velocity and 𝑎 is the speed of sound.

• 𝑎 may vary from point to point in the flow.

• Based on the value of 𝑀, the flow can be classified:

• 𝑀 < 1: subsonic flow
• 𝑀 = 1: transonic flow
• 𝑀 > 1: supersonic flow
 10

Isentropic Flows: Stagnation Properties

• Consider the adiabatic flow (𝑄h = 0) from a reservoir.
• SFEE gives (Δ𝑧 = 0, 𝑊s = 0): 𝑇0
𝑢2 𝑢0 = 0
𝑚𝐶
ሶ p 𝑇0 = 𝑚ሶ 𝐶p 𝑇 + 𝑇
2
𝑢
• where 𝑇0 is the adiabatic stagnation temperature.
𝑇0 is a constant for the isentropic
𝛾𝑅G 𝑇
• Since 𝑢 = 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑎 = : flow that does not vary with
𝑀r
position along the pipe.
1 2 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇
𝐶p 𝑇0 = 𝐶p 𝑇 + 𝑀
2 𝑀r
𝑅G 𝛾−1 See Appendix 2
• Since = 𝐶p :
𝑀r 𝛾
1 2
𝑇0 = 𝑇 1 + 𝑀 𝛾 − 1
2
 11

Isentropic Flows: Stagnation Properties

See Appendix 1
• For an ideal gas undergoing isentropic processes:
1 𝑇0
𝜌 𝑇 𝛾−1 𝜌0
= 𝑃0
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑢0 = 0
𝛾 𝑇, 𝜌, 𝑃
𝑃 𝑇 𝛾−1 𝑢
=
𝑃0 𝑇0
• Using the previous equation relating 𝑇 and 𝑇0 :
1
−𝛾−1
𝜌 1 2
= 1+ 𝑀 𝛾−1
𝜌0 2
𝛾
−
𝑃 1 2 𝛾−1
= 1+ 𝑀 𝛾−1
𝑃0 2
• where 𝜌0 and 𝑃0 are the isentropic stagnation density and pressure.
 12

Example 2: Air Discharge from Reservoir

Compressed air at 10 bar and 20°C is discharged from a large reservoir
through a nozzle. At some point along the nozzle, the temperature is 5°C. Find
velocity, density and pressure at this point. (𝑀r = 29 g/mol, 𝛾 = 1.4)
p=29g/mol/ 22.4 l/mol=1.29g/l=1.29kg/m3
a=(rRGT/Mr)=346m/s
M=0.519 from T=5
p=p*(T/T0)^1/(r-1)=1.29*(278/293)^(1/0.4)=1.13g/l
P=P*(T/T0)^r/(r-1)=10*(278/293)^(1.4/0.4)=8.32bar
 13

Isentropic Flows: Area-Velocity Relation

• Through a given constriction (e.g. nozzle, venturi), there exists a maximum
limit for the flowrate.
• At this maximum flowrate, the flow is transonic (𝑀 = 1) at the minimum
cross-sectional area, and the flow is choked.
• Differential form of the continuity equation:
𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑢
𝐴𝑢𝑑𝜌 + 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴𝑑𝑢 = 0 ⇒ + + =0
𝜌 𝐴 𝑢
• Differential form of the momentum equation:
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑃
• Since 𝑎2 = :
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝜌 𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑢 = −𝑎2 𝑑𝜌 ⇒ =− 2
𝜌 𝑎
 14

Isentropic Flows: Area-Velocity Relation

• Therefore:
𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑢
− 2 + + =0
𝑎 𝐴 𝑢 𝑢
• Rearranging gives the area-velocity relation: 𝑀 = 𝑎
𝑑𝐴 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 2
𝑑𝑢
= 2−1 = 𝑀 −1
𝐴 𝑎 𝑢 𝑢
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑢
• For very small 𝑀 ≪ 1 (incompressible flow): + = 0 ⇒ 𝑑 𝐴𝑢 = 0, i.e.
𝐴 𝑢
as 𝐴 decreases, 𝑢 increases such that 𝐴𝑢 = constant.
• For 0 < 𝑀 < 1 (subsonic flow): As 𝐴 decreases, 𝑢 increases.
𝑑𝐴
• When 𝑀 = 1 (transonic flow): = 0 , i.e. the cross-sectional area is
𝐴
minimum and the flow is choked. 𝜌 changes more
• For 𝑀 > 1 (supersonic flow): As 𝐴 decreases, 𝑢 decreases. rapidly than 𝐴.
 15

Isentropic Flows: Area-Velocity Relation

• To accelerate a gas from subsonic to supersonic, the flow must pass
through a convergent duct until the throat, where the cross-sectional area
is minimum and the flow is choked, and then through a divergent duct.

𝑀<1 𝑀>1
𝑀=1

Wind tunnel Rocket propulsion

 16

Convergent Nozzles: Flow Behaviour

• 𝑃e : exit pressure
𝑇0 , 𝑃0 𝑃b • 𝑃b : back pressure
𝑃e
• 𝑃∗ : critical value of 𝑃b such that the flow is choked
• In a convergent duct, 𝑀 never exceeds 1.
𝑃0 (i) Flow behaviour in nozzle 𝑷𝐞
(ii) (i) 𝑃b = 𝑃0 Constant pressure, no flow = 𝑃b = 𝑃0
𝑃∗ (iii) (ii) 𝑃∗ < 𝑃 < 𝑃 Subsonic flow with
= 𝑃b
b 0
(iv) increasing velocity
Increasing velocity, choked
(iii) 𝑃b = 𝑃∗ = 𝑃b = 𝑃∗
flow (𝑀e = 1)
Increasing velocity, choked
(iv) 𝑃b < 𝑃∗ = 𝑃∗ , > 𝑃b
flow (𝑀e = 1)
After the nozzle, the gas expands from 𝑃∗ to 𝑃b via a
non-isentropic process involving expansion waves.
 17

Convergent Nozzles: Exit Velocity

See Appendix 1
• For an ideal gas undergoing isentropic processes, the pressure ratio (𝑟) [-]
is given by:
𝛾
𝛾
𝑃e 𝑇e 𝛾−1 𝜌e
𝑟= = =
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝜌0
• For 𝑃∗ ≤ 𝑃b ≤ 𝑃0 (i to iii), the exit velocity (𝑢e ) is obtained by applying the
SFEE between the reservoir and exit:
𝑢e2
𝐶p 𝑇0 = 𝐶p 𝑇e +
2
• Rearranging gives:
𝛾−1
𝑢e = 2𝐶p 𝑇0 − 𝑇e = 2𝐶p 𝑇0 1 − 𝑟 𝛾
 18

Convergent Nozzles: Mass Flow Rate

• The mass flow rate (𝑚)
ሶ is given by: 𝑚ሶ
1 𝛾−1 𝜌0 𝐴e 𝑎0
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌e 𝐴e 𝑢e = 𝜌0 𝑟𝛾 𝐴 e 2𝐶p 𝑇0 1 − 𝑟 𝛾 (iv) (iii)
2 𝛾+1 (ii)
= 𝜌0 𝐴e 2𝐶p 𝑇0 𝑟𝛾 − 𝑟 𝛾
𝛾 𝑅G See Appendix 2
• Since 𝐶p = :
𝛾−1 𝑀r (i) 𝑃e
𝑟=
𝛾 𝑅G 2 𝛾+1 𝑃∗ 1 𝑃0
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌0 𝐴e 2 𝑇0 𝑟𝛾 −𝑟 𝛾 𝑃0
𝛾 − 1 𝑀r

2 2 𝛾+1
= 𝜌0 𝐴e 𝑎0 𝑟𝛾 − 𝑟 𝛾
𝛾−1
𝛾𝑅G 𝑇0
• where 𝑎0 = .
𝑀r
 19

Example 3: Choked Flow

𝑚ሶ
Determine the value of for air under choked flow. (𝛾 = 1.4)
𝜌0 𝐴e 𝑎0
 20

Convergent Nozzles: Area Ratio

• The area ratio is defined as:
𝐴 Cross−sectional area of pipe
∗
=
𝐴 Area of throat where flow is choked
• Continuity equation gives:
𝜌𝐴𝑢 = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑢∗
𝐴 𝜌∗ 𝑢∗
∗
=
𝐴 𝜌𝑢
𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 ∗ 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇
• Since 𝑢∗ = and 𝑢 = 𝑀 :
𝑀r 𝑀r

𝐴 𝜌∗ 𝑇 ∗
∗
=
𝐴 𝜌𝑀 𝑇
 21

Convergent Nozzles: Area Ratio

See Appendix 1
1 𝛾−1
𝜌∗ 𝑃∗ 𝛾 𝑇∗ 𝑃∗ 𝛾
• For ideal gas undergoing isentropic processes, = and = :
𝜌 𝑃 𝑇 𝑃
1 𝛾−1 𝛾+1
𝐴 1 𝑃∗ 𝛾 𝑃∗ 2𝛾 1 𝑃∗ 2𝛾
∗
= =
𝐴 𝑀 𝑃 𝑃 𝑀 𝑃
𝑃∗
• where is given by:
𝑃
𝛾 𝛾
−𝛾−1
𝑃∗ 𝑃∗ 𝑃0 1 1 2 𝛾−1
= = 1+ 𝛾−1 1+ 𝑀 𝛾−1
𝑃 𝑃0 𝑃 2 2
𝛾 𝛾
−
1 𝛾−1 1 2 𝛾−1
= 𝛾+1 1+ 𝑀 𝛾−1
2 2
 22

Convergent Nozzles: Impulse Function

• The impulse function (𝐹) [N] is defined as:
𝐹 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑢2 𝐴

𝜌1 , 𝑃1 , 𝑢1 , 𝐴1 𝜌2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑢2 , 𝐴2

𝑃a (surrounding pressure)
• Momentum equation gives (𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢):
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑢12 + 𝑃1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑢22 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 + 𝑇 + 𝑃a 𝐴1 − 𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝐹1 − 𝑇 − 𝑃a 𝐴1 − 𝐴2
• where 𝑇 is the net thrust on the fluid (leftward) [F] and absolute pressures
(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃a ) have been used.
 23

Example 4: Air Discharge via Convergent Nozzle

Compressed air at 20°C and 8 bar is discharged from a large reservoir into a vessel.
Find the maximum mass flowrate into the vessel and the pressure, density,
temperature and velocity at the nozzle exit. (nozzle area = 0.018 m2, 𝛾 = 1.4)
 24
Example 5: Air Discharge via Convergent Nozzle
(cont’d)
Compressed air at 20°C and 8 bar is discharged from a large reservoir into a
vessel. Given now that the back pressure is 6 bar, calculate the temperature
at the nozzle exit. (nozzle area = 0.018 m2, 𝛾 = 1.4)
 25

Convergent-Divergent Nozzles: Flow Behaviour

Convergent section 𝑷𝐭 Divergent section 𝑷𝐞

𝑇0
𝑃b
𝑃0 𝑃t 𝑃e Constant pressure, no Constant pressure, no
(i) = 𝑃0 = 𝑃0
flow flow
Subsonic flow with Subsonic flow with
(i) (ii) > 𝑃∗ = 𝑃b
𝑃0 increasing velocity decreasing velocity
(ii)
Increasing velocity, Subsonic flow with
(iii) (iii) = 𝑃∗ = 𝑃b
choked flow (𝑀t = 1) decreasing velocity
𝑃∗ (iv) Non-isentropic normal
(v) Increasing velocity,
(iv) = 𝑃∗ shock, transition from = 𝑃b
(vi) choked flow (𝑀t = 1)
(vii) supersonic to subsonic
Increasing velocity, Non-isentropic normal
(v) = 𝑃∗ = 𝑃b
choked flow (𝑀t = 1) shock at nozzle exit
Increasing velocity, Supersonic flow with
(vi) = 𝑃∗ = 𝑃b
After the nozzle, the gas expands choked flow (𝑀t = 1) increasing velocity
to 𝑃b via a non-isentropic process Increasing velocity, Supersonic flow with
(vii) = 𝑃∗ > 𝑃b
involving expansion waves. choked flow (𝑀t = 1) increasing velocity
 26
Example 6: Air Discharge via Convergent-Divergent
Nozzle
Air flows from a reservoir at 1 bar through a convergent-divergent nozzle with
throat diameter 10 cm and exit diameter 12 cm. For isentropic flows, what
ranges of exit pressure and 𝑀e are possible?
 27
Example 6: Air Discharge via Convergent-Divergent
Nozzle
 28

Convergent-Divergent Nozzles: Maximum Exit Velocity

• If the nozzle exit area 𝐴e → ∞ and the flow is supersonic in the divergent
section, 𝑀e → ∞.
• In this limit, there exists a maximum exit velocity (𝑢e,max ) that can be
achieved by the flow, i.e. as 𝑇e → 0 K:
2
𝑢e,max
𝐶p 𝑇0 = See Appendix 2
2
𝛾 𝑅G
𝑢e,max = 2𝐶p 𝑇0 = 2 𝑇0
𝛾 − 1 𝑀r

𝛾𝑅G 𝑇0
• Since 𝑎0 = :
𝑀r

2
𝑢e,max = 𝑎0
𝛾−1
 29

Normal Shocks
• Normal shocks occur when there is a sudden change from supersonic to
subsonic flow.
• There are discontinuities in the temperature, density and pressure across a
normal shock.
• The process is adiabatic but irreversible, so it is non-isentropic and entropy
increases across a shock wave.
𝑀1 > 1 𝑀2 < 1
𝑇1 , 𝜌1 , 𝑃1 𝑇2 , 𝜌2 , 𝑃2 Shock waves are very narrow
𝐴1 𝐴2 (10−5 to 10−9 m), so 𝐴1 ≈ 𝐴2 .
𝑚ሶ
• Continuity equation: = 𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2
𝐴
• Momentum equation (𝑅 = 0): 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑢12 + 𝑃1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑢22 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 ⇒ 𝐹1 = 𝐹2
𝑢12 𝑢22
• SFEE: 𝐶p 𝑇1 + = 𝐶p 𝑇2 + ⇒ 𝑇0,1 = 𝑇0,2
2 2
 30

Normal Shocks: Entropy Change

𝑇0,1 = 𝑇0,2 See Appendix 1
• The entropy change (Δ𝑠) for an ideal gas undergoing adiabatic processes is:
𝑇2 𝑅G 𝑃2 𝑇2 /𝑇0,2 𝑅G 𝑃2 /𝑃0,2 𝑅G 𝑃0,2
Δ𝑠 = 𝐶p ln − ln = 𝐶p ln − ln − ln
𝑇1 𝑀r 𝑃1 𝑇1 /𝑇0,1 𝑀r 𝑃1 /𝑃0,1 𝑀r 𝑃0,1
• On either side of the shock wave, the flow is isentropic: 𝑃0,1 ≠ 𝑃0,2
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝛾−1 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝛾−1 See Appendix 1
= and =
𝑃0,1 𝑇0,1 𝑃0,2 𝑇0,2
𝛾 𝐶p See Appendix 2
• Since = :
𝛾−1 𝑅G /𝑀r
𝑃1 𝐶p 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝐶p 𝑇2
ln = ln and ln = ln
𝑃0,1 𝑅G /𝑀r 𝑇0,1 𝑃0,2 𝑅G /𝑀r 𝑇0,2
• Therefore:
Δ𝑠 > 0, so
𝑇2 /𝑇0,2 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑅G 𝑃0,2 𝑅G 𝑃0,2 𝑃0,1 > 𝑃0,2
Δ𝑠 = 𝐶p ln − 𝐶p ln − ln − ln =− ln
𝑇1 /𝑇0,1 𝑇0,2 𝑇0,1 𝑀r 𝑃0,1 𝑀r 𝑃0,1
 31

Normal Shocks: Impulse Function

𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 ∗
• Express 𝐹∗ in terms of 𝜌∗ (𝑢∗ = ):
𝑀r
𝜌∗ 𝑅G 𝑇 ∗ 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 𝜌 ∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑅 𝑇 ∗
G
𝐹 ∗ = 𝑃∗ + 𝜌∗ 𝑢∗2 𝐴∗ = +𝜌 ∗
𝐴∗ = 1+𝛾
𝑀r 𝑀r 𝑀r
• Since 𝑚ሶ ∗ = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑢∗ :
𝑚ሶ ∗𝑅 𝑇∗ 𝑚ሶ ∗𝑅 𝑇∗ 𝑅 𝑇 ∗1+𝛾
G G G
𝐹∗ = 1 + 𝛾 = 1 + 𝛾 = 𝑚ሶ ∗
𝑢∗ 𝑀r 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 ∗ 𝑀r 𝛾
𝑀r
𝑀r
• As both 𝑚ሶ ∗ (by continuity) and 𝑇0 (by SFEE) remain constant across a
shock wave, 𝐹 ∗ remains constant across the shock wave, i.e. 𝐹1∗ = 𝐹2∗ .
• Since 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 (by the momentum equation):
𝐹1 𝐹2
∗ = ∗
𝐹1 𝐹2
 32

Normal Shocks: Stagnation Pressure

𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 ∗
• Now, express 𝐹∗ in terms of 𝑃∗ (𝑢∗ = ):
𝑀r
𝑃 ∗ 𝑀 𝛾𝑅 𝑇 ∗
r G
𝐹 ∗ = 𝑃∗ + 𝜌∗ 𝑢∗2 𝐴∗ = 𝑃∗ + 𝐴∗ = 𝑃∗ 𝐴∗ 1 + 𝛾
𝑅G 𝑇 ∗ 𝑀r
𝛾
𝑃∗ 1 −𝛾−1
• Since = 1+ 𝛾−1 :
𝑃0 2
𝛾
−𝛾−1
1
𝐹∗ = 𝑃0 𝐴∗ 1+𝛾 1+ 𝛾−1
2
• Since 𝐹1∗ = 𝐹2∗ :
𝑃0,1 𝐴1∗ = 𝑃0,2 𝐴∗2
• As 𝑃0,1 > 𝑃0,2 , 𝐴1∗ < 𝐴∗2 .
 33

Normal Shocks: Michelson-Rayleigh Line

• Combine the continuity and momentum equations to eliminate 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 :
𝑚ሶ 2 𝑚ሶ 2
𝐴 +𝑃 = 𝐴 +𝑃
1 2
𝜌1 𝜌2
• Rearranging gives the Michelson-Rayleigh line:
2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑚ሶ
=−
1 1 𝐴
−
𝜌2 𝜌1
• Rearranging the SFEE gives:
1 𝑢12 𝑢22
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = −
𝐶p 2 2
 34

Normal Shocks: Rankine-Hugoniot Equations

𝑃𝑀r 𝑚ሶ
• Since 𝑇 = and = 𝑢:
𝜌𝑅G 𝜌𝐴
2 2 2
𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑅G 1 𝑚ሶ 1 1
− = −
𝜌2 𝜌1 𝑀r 𝐶p 2 𝐴 𝜌1 𝜌2
See Appendix 2
𝛾−1 𝑅G /𝑀r 𝑃2 −𝑃1 𝑚ሶ 2
• Since = and 1 1 =− : 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦)
𝛾 𝐶p − 𝐴
𝜌2 𝜌1
2 2
𝑃2 𝑃1 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 1 1 𝛾−1 1 1
− =− − = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 +
𝜌2 𝜌1 2𝛾 1 − 1 𝜌1 𝜌2 2𝛾 𝜌1 𝜌2
𝜌2 𝜌1
• Rearranging extensively gives the Rankine-Hugoniot equations:
𝜌2 𝛾 + 1 𝑃2 𝛾 + 1 Details in Appendix 3
𝑃2 −1 + 𝜌2 𝑢1 1 +
𝜌1 𝛾 − 1 𝑃1 𝛾 − 1
= and = =
𝑃1 𝛾 + 1 𝜌2 𝜌1 𝑢2 𝛾 + 1 𝑃2
− +
𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝛾 − 1 𝑃1
 35

Normal Shocks: Rankine-Hugoniot Equations

• The Rankine-Hugoniot equations in terms of 𝑀1 : • Across a shock wave:
𝑃2 2𝛾𝑀12 − 𝛾−1 • 𝑃 increases
= • 𝜌 increases
𝑃1 𝛾+1
𝜌2 𝑢1 𝛾+1 𝑀12 • 𝑢 decreases
= = • 𝑇 increases
𝜌1 𝑢2 𝛾−1 𝑀12 +2
𝑇2 𝛾−1 𝑀12 +2 2𝛾𝑀12 − 𝛾−1 • 𝑀 decreases
= • 𝑇0 remains constant
𝑇1 𝑀12 𝛾+1 2
1 • 𝑃0 decreases
1+2 𝛾−1 𝑀12
𝑀22 = 1 • 𝑠 increases
𝛾𝑀12 −2 𝛾−1
𝛾 1
𝑃0,2 𝛾+1 𝑀12 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝛾−1
=
𝑃0,1 𝛾−1 𝑀12 +2 2𝛾𝑀12 − 𝛾−1
𝑠2 −𝑠1 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝑀12 +2 1 2𝛾𝑀12 − 𝛾−1
= ln + ln
𝑅G /𝑀r 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑀12 𝛾−1 𝛾+1
 36

Adiabatic Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction

𝑑 𝑢2 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜌 1 𝑑 𝑢2
• Continuity equation: 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢 ⇒ + =0⇒ + =0
𝜌 𝑢 𝜌 2 𝑢2
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2 𝜌𝑢2
• Momentum equation: 𝜌 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑𝑃 − 𝜏wall 𝜋𝐷𝑑𝑥, 𝜏wall = 𝐶F
4 4 2
𝑢2 𝑑𝑇 1 2 𝑑𝑇 𝛾−1 2 𝑑 𝑢2
• SFEE: 𝐶p 𝑇 + = constant ⇒ + 𝑑 𝑢 =0⇒ + 𝑀 =0
2 𝑇 2𝐶p 𝑇 𝑇 2 𝑢2
𝜌𝑅G 𝑇 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑇 𝛾 𝑅G 𝛾𝑅G 𝑇 𝑢2
• Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃 = ⇒ = + 𝐶p = and =
𝛾−1 𝑀r 𝑀r 𝑀2
𝑀r 𝑃 𝜌 𝑇
𝑢2 𝑑 𝑀2 𝑑 𝑢2 𝑑𝑇
• Mach number: 𝑀2 = ⇒ = −
𝛾𝑅G 𝑇/𝑀r 𝑀2 𝑢2 𝑇
𝜌 𝑀r 𝜋𝐷 2
• Since = , dividing the momentum equation throughout by and 𝑃
𝑃 𝑅G 𝑇 4
gives: 𝑑 𝑢2 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑀r 𝑑𝑃 𝑀 𝑢 2 𝑑𝑥
2 r
𝑑 𝑢 + + 4𝐶F =0
2𝑅G 𝑇 𝑃 𝑅G 𝑇 2 𝐷
 37

Adiabatic Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction

𝑀r 𝛾𝑀2
• Since = :
𝑅G 𝑇 𝑢2
𝛾𝑀2 𝑑 𝑢2 𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
2
+ + 4𝐶F =0
2 𝑢 𝑃 2 𝐷
𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀2 1+ 𝛾−1 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
=− 4𝐶F Subsonic Supersonic
𝑃 2 1−𝑀2 𝐷
𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐 > 𝟎 𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐 < 𝟎
𝑑𝜌 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= − 4𝐶F 𝑃 decreases increases
𝜌 2 1−𝑀2 𝐷
𝜌 decreases increases
𝑑𝑢 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= 4𝐶F 𝑢 increases decreases
𝑢 2 1−𝑀2 𝐷
𝑇 decreases increases
𝑑𝑇 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝑀4 𝑑𝑥
= − 4𝐶F 𝐷 𝑀 increases decreases
𝑇 2 1−𝑀2
𝛾−1
𝑑 𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2 1+ 2 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= 4𝐶F
𝑀2 1−𝑀2 𝐷
 38

Adiabatic Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction

• Friction accelerates a subsonic stream, and decelerates a supersonic
stream.
• 𝑀 always tends to 1. A subsonic flow will never become supersonic, while a
supersonic flow will never become subsonic (unless a discontinuity, e.g.
shock wave, is present).

• For a set of given conditions at the pipe inlet, there is a threshold pipe
length above which 𝑀e = 1, i.e. the flow is choked by friction.
• If the pipe length is above the threshold, the flow adjusts to keep 𝑀e = 1:
• For subsonic flow, the flowrate decreases.
• For supersonic flow, shock waves will appear.
 39

Isothermal Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction

• 𝑇 is constant, so 𝑑𝑇 = 0.
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢
• Continuity equation: + =0
𝜌 𝑢
𝛾𝑀2 𝑑 𝑢2 𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
• Momentum equation: + + 4𝐶F =0
2 𝑢2 𝑃 2 𝐷
𝑢2 𝑄h 𝑢2 𝑄h
• SFEE: 𝐶p 𝑇0 = 𝐶p 𝑇 + = ሶ ⇒ 𝐶p 𝑑𝑇0 = 𝑑 =𝑑
2 𝑚 2 𝑚ሶ
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌
• Ideal Gas Law: =
𝑃 𝜌
𝑑 𝑀2 𝑑 𝑢2
• Mach number: =
𝑀2 𝑢2
• Combine the continuity equation, Ideal Gas Law and Mach number
equation: 𝑑 𝑢2 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑 𝑀2
= =− =−
𝑃 𝜌 𝑢 2 𝑀2
 40

Isothermal Flows in Constant Area Pipes with Friction

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑃
• Since 𝑑 𝑢2 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢 and = − ,
the momentum equation becomes:
𝑢 𝑃
2
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀 2 𝑑𝑥
−𝛾𝑀 + + 4𝐶F =0⇒ =− 2
4𝐶F
𝑃 𝑃 2 𝐷 𝑃 2 1 − 𝛾𝑀 𝐷
𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= − 4𝐶F 𝟏 𝟏
𝑃 2 1−𝛾𝑀2 𝐷 𝑴< 𝑴>
𝜸 𝜸
𝑑𝜌 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= − 4𝐶F 𝑃 decreases increases
𝜌 2 1−𝛾𝑀2 𝐷
𝜌 decreases increases
𝑑𝑢 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
= 4𝐶F 𝑢 increases decreases
𝑢 2 1−𝛾𝑀2 𝐷
𝑢 𝛾𝑀2 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 constant
𝑑𝑇0 = 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝐶F 𝑇0 increases decreases
𝐶p 2 1−𝛾𝑀2 𝐷

𝑑 𝑀2 𝛾𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 increases decreases
= 4𝐶F 𝐷
𝑀2 1−𝛾𝑀2 1
𝑀 always tends to
𝛾
 41

Appendix 1: Isentropic Relations for Ideal Gas

On this slide, 𝑢 represents
• Thermodynamic Master Equation: specific internal energy.
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣
• Rearranging gives:
1 𝑃
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝑇 𝑇
𝑃 𝑅
• For ideal gas, 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶v 𝑑𝑇 and = G:
𝑇
𝑀r 𝑣
𝐶v 𝑅G
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑣
𝑇 𝑀r 𝑣
𝑅G
𝑅G 𝑇 𝐶v + = 𝐶p
• Integrating and using 𝑣 = give: 𝑀r
𝑃𝑀r
𝑇2 𝑅G 𝑣2 𝑇2 𝑅G 𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑅G 𝑃2
Δ𝑠 = 𝐶v ln + ln = 𝐶v ln + ln = 𝐶p ln − ln
𝑇1 𝑀r 𝑣1 𝑇1 𝑀r 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑇1 𝑀r 𝑃1
 42

Appendix 1: Isentropic Relations for Ideal Gas

• For isentropic processes (Δ𝑠 = 0), rearranging gives: 𝑅G /𝑀r 𝛾 − 1
=
𝐶p
𝑅G 𝛾−1 𝐶p 𝛾
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑀r 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
= ⇒ =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑃1
𝜌𝑅G 𝑇
• Since 𝑃 = :
𝑀r
𝛾−1
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝜌2 𝑇2 𝛾 𝑇2 𝜌2
= ⇒ =
𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑇1 𝑇1 𝜌1
• Therefore:
𝛾−1
𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜌2
= =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝜌1
 43

Appendix 2: Relationships between 𝜸, 𝑪𝐩 and 𝑹𝐆

𝐶p
• Definition: 𝛾 =
𝐶v
𝑅G
• Relationship for ideal gas: 𝐶p = 𝐶v +
𝑀r
𝑅
• Determine the ratio of 𝐶p to G:
𝑀r
𝐶p 𝐶p 𝛾
= =
𝑅G /𝑀r 𝐶p − 𝐶v 𝛾 − 1
• Therefore:
𝛾 𝑅G
𝐶p =
𝛾 − 1 𝑀r
𝑅G 𝛾 − 1
= 𝐶p
𝑀r 𝛾
 44
𝑷𝟐 𝝆𝟐
Appendix 3: Derivation of and
𝑷𝟏 𝝆𝟏
𝑃2 𝑃1 𝛾 − 1 1 1
− = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 +
𝜌2 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝜌1 𝜌2
• Divide throughout by 𝑃1 and multiply throughout by 𝜌2 :
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝜌2
− = −1 +1
𝑃1 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝑃1 𝜌1
• Expand:
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝜌2 𝜌2 𝑃2
− = − + −1
𝑃1 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝑃1 𝜌1 𝜌1 𝑃1
𝑃2
• Rearrange to move terms involving to LHS and remaining terms to RHS:
𝑃1
𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2
1− − =− − +
2𝛾 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝑃1 2𝛾 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝜌1
 45
𝑷𝟐 𝝆𝟐
Appendix 3: Derivation of and
𝑷𝟏 𝝆𝟏
𝑃2
• Make the subject:
𝑃1
𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝛾−1 𝜌2 2𝛾 𝜌2 𝛾 + 1
𝑃2 − + 1 − −1 + − 1 −1 +
2𝛾 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝜌1 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝛾 − 1
= = =
𝑃1 𝛾 − 1 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 2𝛾 𝜌2 𝛾 + 1 𝜌2
1− − −1− −
2𝛾 2𝛾 𝜌1 𝛾−1 𝜌1 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1
𝜌2
• Now, rearrange to move terms involving to LHS and remaining terms to RHS:
𝜌1
𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2
−1 − + = − −
2𝛾 𝑃1 2𝛾 𝜌1 2𝛾 𝑃1 2𝛾 𝑃1
𝜌2
• Make the subject:
𝜌1
𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 𝛾−1 𝑃2 2𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾 + 1
𝜌2 − 2𝛾 + 𝑃1 −1 + 2𝛾 −1 +
𝑃1
−
𝛾−1
+1 1+
𝑃1 𝛾 − 1
= = =
𝜌1 𝛾 − 1 𝛾 − 1 𝑃2 2𝛾 𝑃 𝛾 + 1 𝑃2
−1 + − − +1− 2 +
2𝛾 2𝛾 𝑃1 𝛾−1 𝑃1 𝛾 − 1 𝑃1