Structural Steel

Assemblies &
Connections
Built-up Sections
When rolled steel sections are inadequate to meet load and
span requirements, built-up sections are used.
These are made up of standard rolled shapes and combined
so that they are designed to act as a single structural unit in
resisting stresses.
These are members made up by a fabricator from two or
more standard sections.
Examples of common built-up sections are shown here, consisting
of sections for columns, beams, and girders, using combined
assemblies of plate and angular sections acting as flange and web
as well as stiffeners.
Girders may be built up of angles and plates riveted
together for long spans and for unusual cases of
very heavy loading.

Those are of two types:

PLATE GIRDERS & BOX GIRDERS
1.Plate Girders.
A plate girder is a beam composed of a wide plate, known
as a web, at the top and bottom of which are riveted angles
and plates.
The simplest type of plate girder consists of a web and four
flange angles.
If this does not give sufficient flange area, cover plates maybe
added.
The web may be frequently reinforced against buckling by
angles riveted to its sides, know as stiffener angles.
2. Box Girders. This is a built up beam in which more
than one web plate is used
Grillage Foundations

Before reinforced concrete was used

universally as a building material, it was
customary to employ steel grillage for
sizable foundations.
Grillage footings consist of one or more tiers of
steel beam sections, where components of each
layer are perpendicular with the other layer.
Ample spaces between the components are
provided for proper placement of concrete
acting as protective cover and to help load
distribution.
Furthermore, separators or diaphragms hold the
components in position.
For very heavy structural loads, grillage beams may
be lighter and more economical than steel columns
with base plates on concrete.
Column Base Plates

A column base plate spreads the column

load over its foundation in various
dimensions in meters and thickness in
increment of 12mm.
Rolled steel bearing plates are placed in absolute
contact with the concrete foundation for proper
distribution of load;
the underside maybe straightened by pressing and
planing, or the undersurface contact is achieved by
providing cement grout.
Anchorage of column base to the reinforced
concrete base is made by passing embedded anchor
bolts through holes in the base plate, with stiffener
plates and angles fastened or welded to the column
web and flanges.
Column Splices
Steel column splices are normally located 60 cm. or
more above the proposed floor levels for better column
to column connection.

Generally, splices are made by fastening or welding

splice plates 10mm to 12mm thick to column flanges.
The splices are not designed to resist loads but only
to hold the column sections in position.
Column splices usually present the following
conditions:

a) Where the upper column differs with The lower

section in terms of width or depth, cover plates would
be sufficient;
b) If it is a bit smaller than the lower column, fewer
filler plates are inserted;

c) If the difference in width or depth is quite great,

aside from the additional filler plates, a horizontal plate
is used to attain Full bearing area against the lower
column.
Beam/ Girder Bearing Plates

Beam bearing plates are

provided for any steel beam or
girder resting on masonry or
concrete abutment in order to
provide ample bearing area and
to seat the beam at its proper
elevation.
Thus, this affords a uniform beam load distribution to
its supports.

Sometimes, the bearing plate may not be mechanically

secured nor welded to the beam flange.
Seated Connections
A seated connection applies to a connection between a beam
or girder to a supporting column or pier, consisting of a shelf
or seat angle attached to the column flange, which provides
support to the beam or girder.

A top or clip angle is used only to hold the beam in position

but does not resist nor transfer beam loads to the column.
Framed Connections
A framed connection refers to a connection between a girder to a
smaller beam wherein the beams are directly placed on top of
the girder, or angles are attached to the web of the beams, which
can provide a flush-top connection – where the upper surfaces of
the top flanges of the beams are made at the same level, done by
cutting a portion of the upper flange (by coping or blocking such
connections).
Steel Separators
Separators or diaphragms are used
when two or more structural
sections are held to give lateral
support to the compression flanges
and provide proper alignment; they
are not counted upon to transfer
load from one member to the other
in the event of unequal loading.
Four types of separators are used:
the pipe separators being the most commonly used for S-
sections and channels of shallow depth, angle separators,
plate and angle, and rod separators.

The maximum spacing of separators is often limited to

1.50m., and they should also be placed at the ends of the
structural sections.
PLATE 4. STEEL FOUNDATION & CONNECTION DETAILS
Building Framing
Systems
Framing is the process of connecting building
materials together to create a structure.
Framing is a construction system.
• Studs, plates, headers, rafters, girders, flooring
and joists are all terms used to identify different
components in framing.
Steel Roof Framing Components:

• Bay – a regularly repeated spatial element defined

by supports in a building structure.
•Cross-bracing – any system of bracing in which the
diagonals intersect (x- bracing)
• Purlin – a horizontal member spanning from truss
to truss where roofing material is attached.
• Ridge – the horizontal line at the junction or
intersection of the upper edges of two sloping roof
surfaces.
• Sag rod – steel bar attached or secured to purlins at
centers or one-third of purlin span to provide lateral
support.
• Rigid frame – a framework usually
designed to carry both a lateral and
vertical load which is transverse to the
length of a framed structure.
• Span – the distance between any two consecutive
supports of a structural member.
• Girt – bracing element located in bays to provide
lateral support between adjacent main roof trusses,
rafters, or bents.
• Eaves – the lower edge of a sloping roof that part
which projects beyond the wall.
• Turnbuckle – a device for connecting and
tightening a wire, rod, or stay, consisting of a right
screw and a left screw which are coupled by means
of a link.
Steel Truss Components:
• Chords – principal members (top
and bottom)
• Gusset – a plate, usually triangular
or trapezoidal in shape, used to
connect two or more slender
members, to add strength to a
framework.
• Web members – king post, verticals, diagonals, horizontals (occasional)

• Panel – sections between adjacent truss joints along the chords

• Rise – height

• Span – length

• Truss joints – heel joint, center joint, peak joint, and intermediate joints
Types of trusses:
a. Triangular (pitched top
chords)
• Fink (standard or cambered)
• Pitched Howe
• Pitched Pratt
• Belgian
• Scissors
b. Parallel-chord (rafter/beam/ girder trusses)
• Warren
• Flat Howe
• Flat Pratt
c. Curvilinear
• Bowstring (continuous or
segmental top chord)
• Crescent ( concentric or
nonconcentric chord radii)

Note: The cambered Fink, Scissors,

and Crescent truss designs can
accommodate curved or domed
ceiling sections
Open-Web Steel Joists Applications:
a) floor joists;
b) decking;
c) purlins;
d) beams and struts
Small prefabricated steel Warren trusses, called
open-web joists, are commonly used to support
floor and roof surfaces.

They are economical, strong, lightweight, and

easily erected.
The open areas between the webs permit
installation of utilities such as electric conduits,
piping and ducting.

When used in combination with fire-proofing

materials, these joists can carry fire protection
ratings of four hours.
Open-web joists can be obtained with underslung or
square ends.
Some used for roof decking are designed with sloped
upper chords (standard pitch of 1/4” per foot) to
allow roof drainage.
For anchorage the methods most commonly used
are masonry anchors (bolts) embedded in concrete
or masonry, or welding for anchorage to structural
steel.
Temporary support to steel can be made by means of
a hairpin anchor bent around the supporting flange.
Bents/Rigid Frames
For each type of loading, there is a theoretically
ideal structural form – a form having only tensile
and compressive stresses without any bending
stress.
As indicated, the parabolic arch is the ideal form for
the usual uniformly distributed loading.
Galileo discovered the catenary as the shape of a
heavy chain or rope suspended between two
points, and is inversely,
therefore, the ideal form for a load distributed
along the curve itself.
The truss can be an ideal solution for concentrated
loads.
Although these forms also require the least amount
of material for each given structural condition,
they might not be the most desirable solution for
architectural or other reasons.
A rigid frame is a satisfactory answer to the problem
since it can offer a good compromise between the
ideal structural shape and the desired enclosed
space.
When well designed, a rigid frame appears both
functional and graceful.
Such framework can take on almost human
form: a combination of masculine muscle at the
knees and crown with feminine slender at the
legs and ribs (rafter).
The knees and crown of steel rigid frames are
strengthened by increasing the section depth
and plate or angular stiffeners/ bracing are
added to prevent buckling especially at the
web sections.
Rigid frames can be built in a variety of shapes; they
can be made of rolled steel beams of constant depth,
or fabricated from flat steel plates into I - shaped
sections of varying depths.
Configurations:
A. Rectangular
B. Sloping legs
C. Arched
D. Gabled
E. Mill bent
F. Continuous
SPACE FRAMES
• SPACE FRAMES

• A space frame is a
truss-like,
lightweight, rigid
structure composed
of interlocking struts
arranged in a
geometric pattern.
• It resembles a
three-dimensional
framework.
Function:
Space frames are designed to cover large
areas with minimal interior supports, which
allows for open, expansive spaces without
columns or walls obstructing the area
underneath.
Rigidity:
The structure’s inherent rigidity comes from its triangular
units. Triangles are naturally rigid shapes, meaning they
don’t deform easily under load.
In a space frame, flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted along the structure as tension and
compression. Each strut (bar or rod) works to distribute
these forces, creating stability across the frame.
Form:
The simplest type of space frame consists of
interlocking pyramidal shapes, such as square
pyramids or tetrahedra (four-sided pyramids).
These are typically made from materials like
aluminum or tubular steel, which are both
lightweight and strong.
Space frames are often used for roofs and canopies,
where large, open areas are desired without
interior supports, such as in stadiums, exhibition
halls, and airport terminals.
This shows a real-world application of a space frame
structure, covering a large area without interior
columns.
The open space underneath the frame allows for
versatile use, and the frame’s modular design makes
it adaptable to different architectural needs.
This is a computer-generated model of a space frame.
It highlights the geometric, interlocking triangular
formations that make up the structure.
• Each node (joint) connects
multiple struts, creating a
network of triangles, which
adds rigidity and distributes
loads evenly across the
structure.
This is a tetrahedron (a four-faced pyramid), one of the
basic units in a space frame. The tetrahedron’s shape
provides high structural stability because its triangular
faces prevent deformation under pressure.
By connecting these units, larger space frames can
achieve strong, stable configurations suitable for
covering extensive areas.
Together, these images illustrate how space frames
leverage geometry and modularity for efficient load
distribution, making them ideal for large-span
structures like stadiums, exhibition halls, and other
expansive buildings.
The historical development of space frames is rooted
in innovative efforts to create lightweight yet rigid
structures.
The concept of a space frame structure—
specifically the Octet Truss—was first explored by
Alexander Graham Bell around the early 1900s
and later popularized by Buckminster Fuller in the
1950s.
Alexander Graham Bell’s Contribution
Alexander Graham Bell, known for inventing the
telephone, also pioneered the Octet Truss as part of
his experiments with lightweight frameworks in
aeronautical engineering.
Around 1900, Bell began exploring tetrahedral
structures to create rigid frameworks for aircraft. He
recognized that using interlocking tetrahedrons could
produce a stable, self-supporting structure that was
both light and durable.
Bell's work with tetrahedral structures led to the development
of geometrically stable frameworks that could handle
stresses through tension and compression, which are the
hallmarks of a space frame.

His innovation laid the groundwork for the idea of modular,

geometric construction in engineering and architecture.
Bell saw potential in this structure for creating rigid
frames that could withstand external forces,
making it suitable for aeronautics where weight
and stability were crucial.
Buckminster Fuller’s Contribution
In the 1950s, Buckminster Fuller expanded on Bell's ideas and
adapted the Octet Truss concept for architectural purposes.

Fuller was an architect and inventor interested in designing

efficient structures that could be assembled easily and used
for large spans with minimal materials.
His approach was based on his philosophy of "doing
more with less," aiming to use structural designs
that maximized strength while minimizing weight
and material usage.
Fuller was particularly interested in the tetrahedral and
octahedral units in the truss design, which formed the basis
of his architectural space frames.

He saw these geometries as inherently strong shapes that

could provide robust support for wide spans without
intermediate supports.
Fuller applied the Octet Truss in geodesic domes
and other architectural projects, pushing the
boundaries of lightweight, prefabricated
structures that could be constructed quickly and
cover large spaces.
Key Characteristics of the Octet Truss

The Octet Truss is a three-dimensional space frame consisting

of tetrahedrons (four-faced pyramids) and octahedrons
(eight-faced shapes). The truss leverages the structural
stability of triangles and distributes forces efficiently
throughout the structure.
This design allows it to handle loads across large
areas with minimal deformation.

The inherent rigidity of these shapes makes the

Octet Truss ideal for architectural applications
where stability and span are critical, such as in
domes, stadium roofs, and exhibition halls.
Legacy and Applications
Bell’s and Fuller’s work on the Octet Truss has had a
lasting impact on structural engineering and
architecture.

Today, space frames inspired by their designs are used

worldwide in large-span structures such as airport
terminals, sports arenas, and canopies.
The Octet Truss principles remain relevant in
modern design due to their efficiency, modularity,
and adaptability to various structural needs.
In summary, Alexander Graham Bell introduced the
Octet Truss for aeronautical frameworks, focusing on
its potential for rigidity in lightweight structures, while
Buckminster Fuller adapted it for architectural use,
emphasizing large spans and minimal material usage.
Their combined efforts transformed structural design,
bringing forth a lightweight, efficient, and visually
distinctive framework that remains widely used.
Space frames are highly versatile structures known
for their strength, lightweight properties, and
ability to cover large spans without internal
supports.
These characteristics make them ideal for various
architectural and engineering applications. Here are
some key applications of space frames:
1. Large-Span Roof Structures

•Stadiums and Arenas: Space frames are often used

in sports stadiums and arenas because they can span
wide areas without the need for interior columns,
allowing for unobstructed views and flexible seating
arrangements.
. Exhibition Halls and Convention Centers:
These facilities require vast, open spaces for trade
shows and events.
Space frames support large roofs without
requiring numerous support columns, creating a
spacious and adaptable interior.
-Airport Terminals:
Due to the high volume of passenger flow and the
need for large, open spaces, airport terminals
benefit from space frame roofs that create
expansive, column-free interiors for circulation and
retail areas.
2. Canopies and Entrance Structures
•Transportation Hubs: Bus and train stations
often use space frames for canopies over waiting
areas and platforms, providing shelter while
maintaining an open and airy feel.
-Commercial Complexes:
Shopping malls and large commercial buildings use
space frame canopies at entrances to create a
visually appealing and welcoming structure that
also provides weather protection.
- Gas Stations: Many gas stations use space frame
structures for their overhead canopies, offering
durability, weather resistance, and an attractive
design.
3. Architectural Domes and Geodesic Domes
•Planetariums and Observatories: Space frame
domes provide a stable, open interior space ideal
for planetariums and observatories, where
minimizing structural obstruction is essential.
- Public Assembly Buildings: Geodesic domes, a
popular form of space frame structures, are used
in auditoriums, concert halls, and other public
gathering spaces due to their strength and visual
appeal.
- Greenhouses: The lightweight and modular
nature of space frame domes make them suitable
for greenhouses, where maximizing sunlight
exposure and creating a controlled environment
are key.
4. Bridges and Pedestrian Walkways
•Pedestrian Bridges: Space frames are used in the
construction of pedestrian bridges, offering a
lightweight yet strong solution that can cover long
spans.
•The geometric design adds both structural
efficiency and aesthetic appeal.
- Footbridges over Highways: These bridges often
use space frames for their structural efficiency
and reduced material usage, providing a stable
and safe crossing.
- Covered Walkways: In parks, schools, and other
large campuses, space frame structures are used
to cover walkways, providing shade and weather
protection while maintaining a sense of
openness.
5. Industrial and Commercial Warehouses
•Warehouses and Storage Facilities: Space frames are ideal for
large storage buildings, where open, column-free interiors
allow for maximum storage flexibility and efficiency in space
usage.
•Manufacturing Facilities: In industrial settings
where machinery and assembly lines need a clear
span without obstructions, space frame roofs
provide the necessary open area.
6. Modern Architectural Façades and Skylights
•Atriums and Skylights: In office buildings, hotels, and
shopping malls, space frames are often used for skylights and
atrium roofs, creating a bright, open environment by allowing
natural light to enter.
•Curtain Wall Systems: Space frames can support
large glass façades, offering a unique aesthetic
while maintaining strength and stability. This
application is popular in modern, high-rise
buildings.
7. Temporary Structures and Emergency Shelters

•Exhibition Pavilions: Space frames are widely used in

temporary structures like trade fair pavilions due to their
modularity and ease of assembly and disassembly.
-Emergency Shelters and Relief Structures:
Space frame structures can be quickly assembled to
create temporary shelters or clinics in disaster-affected
areas, providing a stable and durable structure under
challenging conditions
8. Art Installations and Landmark Structures
•Public Art Installations: Due to their flexibility and
aesthetic potential, space frames are often used in
large-scale art installations, creating dynamic, visually
intriguing shapes.
•Landmark Structures: Some landmark structures
use space frames to create unique and iconic
designs, as they can be formed into complex shapes
that traditional building methods might not support.
9. Solar Panel Mounting Systems
•Large Solar Arrays: Space frames are used as mounting
systems for solar panel arrays, especially in open fields or on
large rooftops, where their lightweight yet sturdy design
provides an ideal base.
•Agricultural Greenhouses with Solar Integration:
Some agricultural greenhouses use space frames that
incorporate solar panels, providing dual benefits of
crop protection and energy generation.
Advantages of Space Frames in These Applications

•Efficient Load Distribution: Space frames distribute

loads through interconnected triangles, making them
highly stable and capable of bearing heavy loads
without deforming.
•Lightweight: Their design allows for minimal material
usage while maintaining strength, making them ideal
for applications where weight is a concern.
•Flexibility and Modularity: Space frames can be
assembled in various shapes and sizes,
accommodating complex architectural designs and
allowing for easy expansion or modification.
•Quick Assembly and Disassembly: Space frames are
prefabricated and modular, which reduces
construction time and labor costs. This is particularly
useful for temporary structures and emergency
shelters.
Space frames offer numerous advantages, making
them a preferred choice in architectural, engineering,
and industrial applications.

Here’s an overview of their main advantages:

1. Efficient Load Distribution
•Space frames distribute loads through a network of
interconnected triangles, which are structurally rigid.
This configuration allows the loads to be evenly spread
across the frame, reducing the need for extensive
support systems.
•As a result, the structure is stable and capable of
handling heavy loads without excessive deformation.
2. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
•Space frames are lightweight yet incredibly strong.
Because they use materials efficiently by forming a
truss-like structure, they offer a high strength-to-
weight ratio.
•This makes them ideal for large-span applications
where minimizing weight is crucial, such as roofs,
canopies, and domes.
3. Large Span Capability
•One of the greatest advantages of space frames is
their ability to span vast areas without needing
internal support columns.
•This feature is particularly valuable in structures like
stadiums, exhibition halls, and airport terminals,
where open, column-free spaces enhance
functionality and flexibility.
4. Architectural Flexibility and Versatility
•Space frames allow for various geometric shapes,
offering architects creative flexibility.
•They can be used to create complex forms like
domes, curved roofs, and undulating surfaces, giving
buildings a unique and modern aesthetic.
•This versatility makes them suitable for a wide
range of architectural styles and innovative designs.
5. Modularity and Prefabrication
•Space frames are often composed of prefabricated
components, which means they can be assembled
in a modular fashion.
•This allows for faster construction, easier
transportation of parts, and the ability to quickly
disassemble and relocate the structure if needed.
This modularity also allows for easy future
expansions or alterations.
6. Quick Assembly and Cost-Effective Construction
•Since space frames use prefabricated, standardized
parts, they can be quickly and efficiently assembled
on-site.
•This reduces construction time and labor costs.
Additionally, since they are lightweight, there’s less
need for heavy-duty foundation work, which can
further lower construction costs.
7. Resistance to Deformation and Rigidity
•The triangular configuration in space frames creates
inherent rigidity, making the structure resistant to
bending and deformation.
•This feature is especially beneficial in structures
exposed to heavy wind loads, seismic activity, or
other dynamic forces, as it enhances the overall
durability and longevity of the building.
8. Lightweight with High Aesthetic Appeal
•Space frames offer a visually striking, open, and
transparent look that appeals to modern architectural
aesthetics.
•This lightweight appearance, coupled with the
practical benefits of reduced material usage, makes
space frames popular for both functional and aesthetic
reasons, particularly in public structures like airports
and commercial centers.
9. Adaptability for Multiple Applications
•The flexibility and adaptability of space frames make
them suitable for a wide range of applications, from
large public buildings to temporary installations and
emergency shelters.
•They are also used in applications like solar panel
mounts, greenhouses, and artistic structures due to
their modular nature and ease of customization.
10. Sustainability
•Space frames can be made from recyclable materials,
such as aluminum and steel, which contributes to
sustainable construction practices.
•Their minimal material usage, combined with the
potential for recycling and reusing parts, helps in
reducing environmental impact. Furthermore, space
frames' open designs allow for better natural light
penetration, enhancing energy efficiency.
In summary, space frames combine strength,
versatility, efficiency, and aesthetics, making them
ideal for both practical and creative applications in
modern architecture and engineering.
These advantages make them invaluable in
constructing durable, cost-effective, and visually
appealing large-span structures.
Space Frame Construction
By comparison, steel offers much better
compression and tension resistance than
concrete and enables lighter construction.

These structures are then designed into

three-dimensional trusses, so they can be
larger than reinforced concrete counterparts.
Computerized, high-precision stress analysis and innovative
jointing allow an array of structures and shapes.

These frameworks take many forms but their geometry is often

based upon the spatial tetrahedron (a pyramid with a triangular
base) and the regular octahedron, a form composed of eight
equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex (also a
double true pyramid).
Space Frame Design
In architecture and structural engineering, a space
frame or space structure (3D truss) is a rigid,
lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from
interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.
Space frames can be used to span large areas with
few interior supports.
Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of
the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads
(bending moments) are transmitted as tension and
compression loads along the length of each strut.
Space frames are a common feature in modern
building construction; they are often found in large
roof spans in modernist commercial and industrial
buildings.
Space Frame Joints
The major feature in the space frame system is the
manner of connecting the truss members, with
welding as the most commonly used method of
connection.
Several mechanical methods are also applicable, such
as the use of clamps, preformed plates, and spherical
connectors.
The clamping method (Mannesmann system) was
first developed for scaffoldings; the use of plate
connector (Unistrut system) uses bolts;

the popular spherical connector (Mero system) joins

up to 18 members screwed into its threaded holes.
space frame connections in structural engineering.

Space frames are three-dimensional truss systems

that distribute loads efficiently through
interconnected members and joints, making them
useful for long-span structures like roofs, atriums,
and stadiums.
1. Types of Connections
•Welded Connection: Members are permanently
joined through welding, creating a rigid connection.
This method ensures strong joints but can be labor-
intensive and less flexible for disassembly or
modification.
•Bolted Connection: Members are joined using bolts,
allowing for easy assembly, disassembly, and
adjustments. This method is often chosen for its
versatility and ability to accommodate large
structures.
•Threaded Connections: Members are connected
through threaded joints with a spherical node or ball
connector, which allows easy assembly while
providing rotational flexibility.
2. Components
•Members: The primary structural elements, typically circular or
rectangular in cross-section, that carry tension or compression
forces. They form the main framework of the space frame, where
longer members handle tension and shorter ones handle
compression.
• Architectural Expression: The trend of exposing these structural
elements enhances the aesthetic appeal, often making the
structure a visible feature of the architecture.
•Joints: Critical components for both structural
stability and aesthetics. Joints connect the members,
influencing the overall stiffness and strength of the
space frame.
• Weight Contribution: Joints make up 20-30% of
the total weight of the structure, emphasizing
their importance in the design for both stability
and durability.
Various Examples of Space frame Structures
Various Examples of Space frame Structures
Various Examples of Space frame Structures
Various Examples of Space frame Structures
Various Examples of Space frame Structures