Earth Science

Inside the Earth

What Is Earth Made Of?
Inside the Earth
What Is Earth Made Of? THE CRUST
❖ The thinnest, outermost layer of the Earth
is the Crust.
There are two main kinds of crust:
Continental crust and Oceanic crust.

❖ The continental crust forms the continents.

It is thicker and less dense than the oceanic
crust. The continental crust can be up to 100
km thick.
❖ The oceanic crust is found beneath the
oceans. It contains more iron than
continental crust. Most oceanic crust is 5 km
to 7 km thick.
How is oceanic crust different from continental crust?
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Inside the Earth
What Is Earth Made Of? THE CRUST
❖ The thinnest, outermost layer of the Earth
is the Crust.
There are two main kinds of crust:
Continental crust and Oceanic crust.

❖ The continental crust forms the continents.

It is thicker and less dense than the oceanic
crust. The continental crust can be up to 100
km thick.
❖ The oceanic crust is found beneath the
oceans. It contains more iron than
continental crust. Most oceanic crust is 5 km
to 7 km thick.
Inside the Earth
What Is Earth Made Of? THE MANTLE
❖ The layer of the Earth between the crust
and the core is the mantle.
❖ The mantle is much thicker than the crust.
❖ It contains most of the Earth’s mass. The
mantle contains more magnesium and less
aluminum than the crust.
❖ This makes the mantle denser than the
crust.
❖ Its temperature varies between 1600 oF at
the upper part to 4000 oF near the bottom.
Why is the mantle denser than the crust?
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Inside the Earth
What Is Earth Made Of? THE CORE
❖ The Inner Core
It is the center and the hottest layer of the
Earth. The inner core is solid and made of iron
and nickel with temperatures up to 9392℉.

❖ The Outer Core

The Earth’s outer core is similar to a very hot
ball of metals, whose temperature is around
4000℉ to 90000℉. It is so hot that the metals
inside are all liquid. The outer core is around
1800 miles under the crust and is approximately
1400 miles thick. It is composed of metals such
as iron and nickel.
Inside the Earth

❖ The outer layer is the

lithosphere. It is a cool, stiff
layer that includes all of the
crust and a small part of the
upper mantle. The lithosphere is
divided into pieces. These
pieces move slowly over the
Earth’s surface.
Inside the Earth

❖ The asthenosphere is the layer

beneath the lithosphere. It is a
layer of hot, solid rock that
flows very slowly.
Inside the Earth

❖ Beneath the asthenosphere is

the mesosphere, which is the
lower part of the mantle.
The mesosphere flows more slowly
than the asthenosphere.
Tectonic Plates of the Earth

What Are Tectonic Plates?

▪ Pieces of the lithosphere that move around on top

of the asthenosphere are called tectonic plates.

▪ Tectonic plates can contain different kinds of

lithosphere. Some plates contain mostly oceanic
lithosphere. Others contain mostly continental
lithosphere. Some contain both continental and
oceanic lithosphere.
Tectonic Plates of the Earth
Tectonic Plates of the Earth
How Do Scientists Study Earth’s Interior?

Much of what scientists know about Earth’s layers comes from studying
earthquakes. Earthquakes create vibrations called seismic waves. Seismic
waves travel at different speeds through the different layers of Earth. Their
speed depends on the density and composition of the material that they pass
through. Therefore, scientists can learn about the layers inside the Earth by
studying seismic waves.
Scientists detect seismic waves using instruments called seismometers.
Seismometers measure the times at which seismic waves arrive at different
distances from an earthquake.
Tectonic Plates of the Earth
How Do Scientists Study Earth’s Interior?

Earthquakes create vibrations called

seismic waves. Seismic waves travel at
different speeds through the different
layers of Earth.
Their speed depends on the density and
composition of the material they pass
through. Therefore, scientists can
learn about the layers inside the Earth
by studying seismic waves.
Tectonic Plates of the Earth
How Do Scientists Study Earth’s Interior?

Scientists detect seismic waves using

instruments called seismometers.
Seismometers measure the times
at which seismic waves arrive at
different distances from an
earthquake. Seismologists can use
these distances and travel times to
calculate the density and thickness of
each physical layer of the Earth.
Continental drift

Continental drift

Continental drift is the hypothesis

that the continents once formed a
single landmass, broke up, and drifted
to their present locations.
The evidence for continental drift
included the fit of the continents; the
distribution of ancient fossils, rocks,
and mountain ranges; and the
locations of ancient climatic zones
Mid-ocean ridges

Mid-ocean ridges are mountain chains on

the ocean floor. They form a continuous
chain that is 50,000 km long.
The chain wraps around Earth like the
seams of a baseball. Mid-ocean ridges are
the sites of intense volcanic activity.
At a mid-ocean ridge, melted rock rises
through cracks in the sea floor. As the
melted rock cools and hardens, it forms new
crust. The newly formed crust pushes the
older crust away from the mid-ocean ridge.
This process is called sea-floor spreading.
Mid-ocean ridges

Mid-ocean ridges are mountain chains on

the ocean floor. They form a continuous
chain that is 50,000 km long.
The chain wraps around Earth like the
seams of a baseball. Mid-ocean ridges are
the sites of intense volcanic activity.
At a mid-ocean ridge, melted rock rises
through cracks in the sea floor. As the
melted rock cools and hardens, it forms new
crust. The newly formed crust pushes the
older crust away from the mid-ocean ridge.
This process is called sea-floor spreading.
Theory of Plate Tectonics

The theory of plate

tectonics states that Earth’s
lithosphere is broken into
many pieces—tectonic
plates—that move slowly
over the asthenosphere.

Scientists can detect this

motion only by using
special equipment, such
as global positioning
systems (GPS).
Theory of Plate Tectonics

The places where tectonic plates meet

are called boundaries.

There are three types of plate boundaries:

• divergent boundaries, where plates

move apart;
• convergent boundaries, where plates
move together; and
• transform boundaries, where plates
slide past each other.
Theory of Plate Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES

A divergent boundary forms where plates

are moving apart. Most divergent
boundaries are found beneath the oceans.
Mid-ocean ridges form at these divergent
boundaries. Because the plates are
pulling away from each other, cracks form
in the lithosphere. Melted rock can rise
through these cracks. When the melted
rock cools and hardens, it becomes a new
lithosphere
Theory of Plate Tectonics

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

A convergent boundary forms where

plates are moving together. There are
three different types of convergent
boundaries:
 Theory of Plate Tectonics
Continent-Continent
Boundaries
These form when the
continental lithosphere on one
plate collides with the
continental lithosphere on
another. Continent-continent
convergent boundaries can
produce very tall mountain
ranges, such as the
Himalayas.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Continent-Ocean
Boundaries
These form when the
continental lithosphere on
one plate collides with the
oceanic lithosphere on
another. The denser oceanic
lithosphere sinks
underneath the continental
lithosphere in a process
called subduction.
Subduction can cause a
chain of mountains, such as
the Andes, to form along the
plate boundary
Theory of Plate Tectonics

Ocean-Ocean Boundaries
These form when the oceanic
lithosphere on one plate
collides with the oceanic
lithosphere on another. One
of the plates subducts
beneath the other. A series of
volcanic islands, called an
island arc, can form along
the plate boundary
Theory of Plate Tectonics

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES

A transform boundary forms where

plates slide past each other
horizontally. Most transform
boundaries are found near mid-ocean
ridges. The ridges are broken into
segments or pieces. Transform
boundaries separate the segments
from one another. One well-known
transform boundary is the San
Andreas fault system in California. It
is located where the Pacific and North
American plates slide past each other.
Theory of Plate Tectonics

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES

A transform boundary forms where

plates slide past each other
horizontally. Most transform
boundaries are found near mid-ocean
ridges. The ridges are broken into
segments or pieces. Transform
boundaries separate the segments
from one another. One well-known
transform boundary is the San
Andreas fault system in California. It
is located where the Pacific and North
American plates slide past each other.
 Earthquakes

An earthquake is a movement or shaking of

the ground. Earthquakes happen when the rock
breaks under pressure. When the rock breaks,
it snaps back to its original shape. This
snapback is called an elastic rebound. When
the rock breaks and rebounds, it gives off
energy. This energy creates faults and causes
the ground to shake.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes.
Scientists who study earthquakes are called
seismologists.
.
 Earthquakes

Where Do Most Earthquakes Happen?

Most earthquakes happen at places where two

tectonic plates touch. Tectonic plates are
always moving. In some places, they move away
from each other. In some places, they move
toward each other. And in some places, they
grind past each other.
The movements of the plates cause Earth’s
rocky crust to break. A place where the crust is
broken is called a fault. Earthquakes happen
when the rock breaks and slides along a fault.
 Earthquakes

How Does Earthquake Energy Travel?

When an earthquake occurs, a lot of

energy is given off. This energy travels
through the Earth in the form of
waves called seismic waves.
There are two kinds of seismic waves.
Body waves are seismic waves that
travel through the inside of Earth to
the surface. Surface waves are seismic
waves that travel through the top part
of Earth’s crust.
 Earthquakes
What Is an Earthquake Zone?

A place where there are a lot of faults

is called an earthquake zone. The San
Andreas Fault Zone in California is an
example of an earthquake zone. Most
earthquake zones are near plate
boundaries, but some are
in the middle of tectonic plates.

Why are most earthquake zones near

plate boundaries?
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 Earthquakes

BODY WAVES

There are two kinds of body waves: P waves and

S waves.
P waves are also called pressure waves. They
are the fastest kind of seismic wave. P waves can
move through solids, liquids, and gases. When
a P wave travels through a rock, it squeezes and
stretches the rock. P waves make the ground move
back and forth.
S waves are also called shear waves. S waves move
rock from side to side. They can travel only through
solids. S waves travel more slowly than P waves.
 Earthquakes

SURFACE WAVES

Surface waves travel along the top of Earth’s

crust. Only the very top part of the crust
moves when a surface wave passes.
Surface waves travel much more slowly than
body waves. When an earthquake happens,
surface waves are the last waves to be felt.
Surface waves cause a lot more damage to
buildings and landforms than body waves do.
 Earthquakes

What Is the Magnitude of an

Earthquake?

The Richter scale can be used to

compare the magnitudes of different
earthquakes. When the Richter
magnitude of an earthquake goes up
by one unit, the amount of ground
shaking caused by the earthquake
goes up 10 times. For example, an
earthquake with a magnitude of 5.0 is
10 times stronger than an earthquake
with a magnitude of 4.0.
Volcanic Eruption
 Volcanic Eruption
Volcanoes are fascinating geological Definition and Types of Volcanoes
formations with complex processes
and significant impacts on the Earth's
environment and human life.

Volcano: A volcano is an opening in the

Earth's surface that allows molten
rock, ash, and gases to escape from
below the crust. This can form
mountains or other landforms over
time.
Volcanic Eruption
Volcanic Eruption
Volcanic Eruption

Calderas:

▪ Large, basin-shaped depressions

formed by the collapse of a volcano
after a major eruption.
▪ Can fill with water to form lakes.
▪ Example: Crater Lake in Oregon, USA.
 Volcanic Eruption

Fissure volcanoes are produced by eruptions that occur along

elongated fissures versus at a central vent. Fissure eruptions
occur when magma-filled dikes intersect the surface. Fissure
eruptions usually do not build substantial edifices, but instead
feed lava flows that can travel great distances.
 Volcanic Eruption

Structure:
1.Magma Chamber: Reservoir of
magma beneath the surface.
2.Vent: An opening through which
magma erupts.
3.Crater: Bowl-shaped depression
at the summit.
4.Conduit: Passage through which
magma travels to the surface.
5.Lava Flow: Molten rock that
flows from an erupting vent.
6.Tephra: Fragmented material
ejected by an eruption (ash, lapilli,
volcanic bombs).
 Volcanic Eruption
Formation:

Formation: Volcanoes form at

tectonic plate boundaries
(convergent, divergent) and hotspots.
•Convergent Boundaries: Oceanic
plates subduct beneath continental
plates, leading to melting and magma
formation.
•Divergent Boundaries: Plates pull
apart, allowing magma to rise from
below the Earth's crust.
•Hotspots: Mantle plumes create
volcanoes away from plate boundaries
(e.g., Hawaiian Islands).
 Volcanic Eruption
Volcanic Materials
Lava: Molten rock on the surface;
types include basaltic (low viscosity),
andesitic, and rhyolitic (high viscosity).
Tephra:
•Ash: Fine particles less than 2 mm.
•Lapilli: Particles between 2 mm and
64 mm.
•Volcanic Bombs: Larger than 64 mm,
ejected as molten rock that solidifies
in the air.
Gases: Water vapor, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
other gases released during eruptions.
 Volcanic Eruption
Eruption Types:

1.Effusive Eruptions:
1. Lava flows steadily out of the volcano.
2. Typically associated with shield volcanoes.
3. Example: Kilauea in Hawaii.
2.Explosive Eruptions:
1. Violent releases of gas, ash, and volcanic rocks.
2. Can produce pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, and lava
bombs.
3. Associated with stratovolcanoes.
4. Example: Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, Mount Pinatubo
in 1991.
3.Phreatomagmatic Eruptions:
1. The interaction of water with magma causes
explosive eruptions.
2. Produces steam and fragmented material.
3. Example: Krakatoa in 1883.
 Volcanic Eruption
Volcanic Hazards

1.Lava Flows: Can destroy property but usually

move slowly enough for evacuation.
2.Ashfall: Can disrupt air travel, cause
respiratory issues, and damage infrastructure.
3.Pyroclastic Flows: Fast-moving currents of
hot gas and volcanic matter, extremely deadly.
4.Lahars: Volcanic mudflows caused by the
mixing of volcanic material with water, often
from melting snow or ice.
5.Volcanic Gas Emissions: These can cause air
pollution and respiratory problems.
6.Tsunamis: Underwater eruptions or massive
landslides can trigger tsunamis.
 Volcanic Eruption
Monitoring and Prediction
Techniques:
1.Seismology: Detects earthquakes that often
precede eruptions.
2.Ground Deformation: GPS and InSAR
(satellite radar) monitor changes in the
volcano's shape.
3.Gas Emissions: Measures gas output to
detect changes in volcanic activity.
4.Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery to monitor
thermal activity and ash plumes.
Prediction: While predicting exact eruption
times is challenging, monitoring changes in
volcanic activity can provide warnings and help
mitigate risks.
 Volcanic Eruption
Famous Volcanoes

1.Mount Vesuvius, Italy: Famous for the AD

79 eruption that buried Pompeii.
2.Mount St. Helens, USA: Notable for its
1980 eruption that caused significant
destruction.
3.Mount Fuji, Japan: Iconic stratovolcano
with historical eruptions.
4.Krakatoa, Indonesia: Known for its 1883
eruption that generated massive tsunamis.
5.Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland: Erupted in 2010,
disrupting European air traffic.
 Volcanic Eruption
Importance of Volcanoes:

1.Geological Processes: Play a crucial role in

Earth's geological and atmospheric processes.
2.Soil Fertility: Volcanic ash contributes to
fertile soils, supporting agriculture.
3.Mineral Resources: Volcanic regions are rich
in minerals and geothermal energy.
4.Scientific Research: Provide insights into
Earth's interior and tectonic activity.
5.Tourism: Volcanic landscapes attract
tourists, boosting local economies.
WEATHERING
 Weathering

Weathering is the process by which rocks and

minerals are broken down into smaller particles
through various physical, chemical, and
biological mechanisms. This natural process
plays a crucial role in the formation of soil, the
shaping of landscapes, and the cycling of
essential nutrients. Weathering is typically
categorized into three main types: physical
(mechanical), chemical, and biological
weathering, each of which contributes uniquely
to the disintegration and decomposition of
geological materials.
Weathering

Physical Weathering
Physical weathering also known as mechanical
weathering, involves the breakdown of rocks and
minerals through direct contact with atmospheric
conditions such as temperature, water, ice, and wind.
This type of weathering does not change the chemical
composition of the rocks but rather fractures them into
smaller pieces.
 Weathering
Freeze-Thaw Cycles: Water infiltrates cracks and pores in rocks. When the temperature
drops, the water freezes and expands, exerting pressure on the rock and causing it to crack.
Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing progressively weaken the rock, leading to its
eventual breakage.
 Weathering
Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Repeated temperature fluctuations, particularly in desert environments where temperatures
can vary drastically between day and night, can cause rocks to fracture and peel away in thin
layers, a process known as exfoliation.
 Weathering
Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Repeated temperature fluctuations, particularly in desert environments where temperatures
can vary drastically between day and night, can cause rocks to fracture and peel away in thin
layers, a process known as exfoliation.
 Weathering
Abrasion: Wind, water, and ice can carry particles that physically scrape and grind against
rock surfaces, wearing them down over time. This process is evident in the smooth, rounded
shapes of riverbed stones and the sculpted forms of wind-eroded rock formations.
 Weathering
Pressure Release (Unloading): When overlying materials such as soil or rock are removed
through erosion, the pressure on the underlying rock is reduced. This decrease in pressure
can cause the rock to expand and fracture in sheets, a phenomenon often observed in
granite formations.
Weathering
Chemical Weathering:

Chemical Weathering:
Chemical weathering involves the
alteration of the chemical composition of
rocks and minerals through reactions with
water, acids, and gases in the
environment. This type of weathering
often works in conjunction with physical
weathering to break down rocks.
Weathering
Chemical Weathering:

Hydrolysis:
: The reaction of minerals with water
can result in the formation of new
minerals and the dissolution of others.
For example, feldspar in granite reacts
with water to form clay minerals and
soluble ions.
Weathering
Chemical Weathering:

Oxidation:
The reaction of minerals with oxygen,
particularly in the presence of water,
can lead to the formation of oxides.
Iron-rich minerals, for instance, can
oxidize to form iron oxides (rust),
which weaken the rock and make it
more susceptible to further
weathering.
Weathering
Chemical Weathering:

Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere dissolves in rainwater to
form weak carbonic acid. This acid
reacts with minerals such as calcite in
limestone, leading to the formation of
soluble calcium bicarbonate. This
process is responsible for the
development of karst landscapes,
characterized by features such as caves
and sinkholes.
Weathering
Chemical Weathering:

Dissolution: Some minerals,

particularly salts and carbonates,
dissolve readily in water. This
dissolution process can lead to the
gradual removal of material from rocks,
contributing to their breakdown.
Weathering
Biological Weathering:

Biological Weathering:
Biological weathering involves the
contributions of living organisms to the
breakdown of rocks and minerals. This
type of weathering can include both
physical and chemical processes facilitated
by plants, animals, fungi, and
microorganisms.
Weathering
Biological Weathering:

Root Expansion: Plant roots

can grow into cracks and crevices
in rocks, exerting pressure as they
expand and causing the rock to
fracture and break apart. This
process is particularly evident in
rocky terrains where vegetation is
present.
Weathering
Biological Weathering:

Organic Acids: Plants, fungi,

and lichens produce organic acids
as part of their metabolic
processes. These acids can
chemically weather rocks by
dissolving minerals and altering
their composition.
Weathering

Burrowing Animals: Animals

such as earthworms, ants, and
rodents can burrow into the
ground, disturbing the soil and
exposing rocks to weathering
agents. Their activities can
enhance both physical and
chemical weathering by
increasing the surface area of
rocks exposed to air and water.
Weathering

Microbial Activity:
Microorganisms such as bacteria
can accelerate chemical
weathering through the
production of acids and other
chemical compounds. These
microorganisms can also form
biofilms on rock surfaces,
facilitating further chemical
reactions.
 Weathering

Climate-Weathering Relationships: The interplay between climate and

weathering processes shapes landscapes and soil properties. For example:
Tropical Climates: High temperatures and abundant rainfall lead to intense
chemical weathering, resulting in deep, well-developed soils rich in clays and iron
oxides.
Arid Climates: Limited rainfall and high-temperature fluctuations favor physical
weathering processes like thermal expansion and contraction, producing coarse,
rocky soils and desert landscapes.
Temperate Climates: Moderate temperatures and precipitation support a
balanced combination of physical, chemical, and biological weathering, leading to
diverse soil profiles and landscapes.