Dr.

Ali Younis
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Contents
• Sinusoidal Waveform
• Sinusoidal Voltage source
• Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Value
• Angular measurement of Sine wave
• The Sine wave Formula
• Introduction to Phasors
• Analysis of AC circuits
• Superimposed DC and AC voltage
• Non Sinusoidal Wave form
• The Oscilloscope

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Introduction
• In the previous chapters we studied DC circuit analysis
• In this chapter we will study AC circuit analysis
• We will study the time varying signal as a voltage source(Sine wave)
• Waveform: the fluctuation of the voltage and current according to a certain
pattern
• An alternating voltage: a voltage changes its polarity at a certain rate
• An alternating current: a current changes its direction at a certain rate

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • The Sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the most common and fundamental
type because all others types can be broken down into a composite sine wave
• Sine wave is aperiodic type of waveform that repeats at a fixed intervals
• Other types of the wave form will be introduced as pulse, triangular and saw
tooth
• The oscilloscope is a device that used to display and measure the AC
waveform

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Sinusoidal Waveform
• Sine wave is the fundamental type of alternating current (AC) and alternating
voltage
• The electrical service provided by the power company is in the form of sine wave
• Harmonics : many individual sine wave that represents a repetitive waveform of the
sine wave
• The sinusoidal voltage produces by two sources
1. Rotating electrical machine (generator)
2. Electronics oscillator circuits
• The symbol for sinusoidal wave form and shape
are shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Sine Wave Parameters
Polarity of the sine wave:
• When an alternating voltage 𝑉𝑠 applied to a resistive load as shown an
alternating current will produce, where the current direction changes as the
voltage polarity changes
• A cycle is a complete positive and negative period

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Period of the sine wave:
• The time required for a sine wave to complete a full cycle is called the period (T)
• The period is constant and can be measured starting from any location
• Example 1: what is the period of the
shown wave 𝑇 = 4 𝑠

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • Example 2: for the shown wave shows three way to measure T

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Frequency of the sine wave:
• Frequency (𝑓) is the number of cycle that a sine wave complete in one
second. Measure in Hertz (𝐻𝑧) or Cycle/s
• The more cycle per second the higher the frequency and the lower time
period as shown
1
• 𝑓 = 𝑇 or
1
• 𝑇=𝑓

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • Example1: For the shown sine waves determine
the frequency and the period
1. For the sine wave shown
1
𝑓 = 3 𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑠
3
1. For the sine wave shown
1
𝑓 = 5 𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑠
5

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Sinusoidal Voltage Source
•
AC generator
The sine waves are produced by two ways
1. Electromagnetically by AC generators
2. Electronically by oscillator circuits
• The AC generator is shown
• When a conductor moves through a
magnetic filed a voltage is produced as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Steps

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • The faster rotation the higher the frequency as shown
• Also the frequency can be increased by increased the number of pole, where the
double the pole pairs double the frequency as shown
𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 ∗ (𝑟𝑝𝑠)
For 𝑟𝑝𝑠 = 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 = 2 𝑓 = 2 ∗ 100 = 200

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Voltage Amplitude
• The voltage amplitude is depend on the number of wire turn N and the
rotation
• The amplitude and frequency are increase as the rotation increase
• Because the frequency is constant so we can increase the voltage amplitude
by increase the number of turn N

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Electronic Signal Generator
• A device that electronically produces sine wave for use in testing or
controlling electronic circuits and systems
• There are various type of signal generators start from special purpose that
produce one wave form a time in a limited frequency range to a
programmable one that produce a different wave forms at any frequency
• All of them have an oscillator and have a control to adjust the amplitude and
frequency
• Electronic signal generators have two forms
1. Function generators
2. Arbitrary waveform generators
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 • Function generators: is an instrument that produces more than one type of
wave form as shown
• Arbitrary waveform generator: can be used to generate standard signal like
sine wave, triangular waves and pluses with variable shape and characteristics
as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Value
• The value of the sine wave can be expressed in five different ways
1. Instantaneous value: The value of the voltage or current at different
instants of times as shown. It represents using lower case letters as shown
2. Peak value: The value of the voltage or
current positive Or negative maximum w.r.t zero as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

3. Peak-to-peak value
The value of the voltage or current from the positive peak to the negative peak as shown
𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 2𝑉𝑃 and 𝐼𝑃𝑃 = 2𝐼𝑃
4. rms (root mean square) value
• Used in multimeters, Called effective value
• Measure the heat effect of the sine wave
• Equal to the DC voltage that produces
the same amount of heat in a resistive load as
the sinusoidal voltage as shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
• 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝑉𝑃 and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝐼𝑃 or 𝑉𝑃 = 1.414𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and 𝐼𝑃 = 1.414 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
• 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 2.828𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and 𝐼𝑃𝑃 = 2.828 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
5. Average value :The average value of the sine wave over a complete cycle is equal to zero
because the positive half cycle is equal to the negative half cycle
• In some devices, the average value is calculated only over a half cycle
• Average value is equal to the total area under a half cycle divided by the horizontal distance in
2
radian 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑃 = 0.637𝑉𝑃
𝜋
2
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑃 = 0.637𝐼𝑃
𝜋
• Example: for the shown wave find all five values
• 𝑉𝑃 = 4.5 𝑉, 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 9 𝑉, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 3.18 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2.87 𝑉
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Angular Measurement of the Sine Wave
• The sine wave can be expressed in term of angular
measurement in radian or degree instead of time
• The angular measurement of the sine wave is related
to the angular rotation as shown
• Full cycle equal to 360 degree rotation
• A degree is the angular measurement corresponding to 1/360
of a cycle or complete revolution
• A radian is the angular measurement along the circumference
of the circle that is equal to the radius of the circle a shown
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 57.30 and 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 3600

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • The radian and degree equivalent are shown
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1800
• 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1800
∗ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 and 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
∗ 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜋
• Example convert 600 to radian and 6 to degree
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜋 1800 𝜋
• 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1800
∗ 600 =
3
and 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
∗
6
= 300
• Sine wave angle: the angular measurement of the sine wave is based on 3600
or 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 for full cycle or 1800 or 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 for half cycle
• Sine wave phase :is the angular measurement that specify the sine wave
reference, when it is shift left or right it has a phase shift as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • Calculate the phase shift for the shown figure
1. phase shift =450

1. phase shift =−300

Note : in practical when
The phase shift is measure
The signal should have the
Same amplitude

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 The Sine Wave Formula
• The sine wave can represent the voltage or current in
the vertical axis and the angular measurement
(radian or degree) in the horizontal axis
• The general expression for the sine wave as shown is
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• For shift right sine wave as shown
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜃 − ∅)
• For shift left sine wave as shown
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜃 + ∅)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • Example: for the shown wave find the output voltage at angle 900
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 10 sin 900 = 10 𝑉
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜃 + ∅) = 5 sin 900 + 200 = 4.7 𝑉
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜃 − ∅) = 8 sin 900 − 450 = 5.66 𝑉

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Introduction to Phasors
• Phasors: provide a graphical measurement for representing
quantities that have both magnitude and direction
• Sine wave can be represent as phasors
• Vectors: quantities that have both magnitude and direction as velocity force and
acceleration
• The shown figure is an example of phasors where the length of the arrow represent the
magnitude and 𝜃 represent the angular position

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Phasor of the Sine Wave
• The figure shows the phasor representation of a complete cycle of the sine wave
• For the vector phasor
at angle 450 is shown
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Positive angle is measure
from o CCW
• negative angle is measure
from o CW

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

• Example: for the shown figure find the instantaneous value and find the negative
angle
1. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0 , 00 − 3600 = −3600
2. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 5𝑉 , 300 − 3600 = −3300
3. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 10𝑉 , 900 − 3600 = −2700
4. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛135 = 7.07𝑉 , 1350 − 3600 = −2250
5. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛270 = −10𝑉 , 2700 − 3600 = −900
6. 𝑣 = 10𝑠𝑖𝑛330 = −5𝑉 , 3300 − 3600 = −300

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Phasor Diagram
• A phasor diagram is used to show relative relationship
of two or more sine wave of the same frequency
• The two sine wave shown can be represent in phasor diagram as shown
• Example : represent the show wave using phasor
• The phasor is

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Angular velocity of Phasors
• The velocity of the sine wave is the angular velocity 𝜔
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓 , 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑇
• Example : for sine wave 𝑉𝑃 = 10 𝑉 at 𝑓 = 50 𝑘𝐻𝑧 find the voltage at 𝑡 = 3𝜇𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 8.09 𝑉

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 AC Circuit Analysis
• When an AC source is applied to a circuit the DC circuit laws
are still applied for AC circuit analysis
• When an AC voltage is applied to a resistor an AC current
will be produced in phase with the voltage as shown
• when the current and voltage are expressed they must have the same form in term
of rms, peak-to-peak and son
• KVL is applied for the AC circuit as shown
Where the sources voltage equal to the sum of
All the voltage drop
• Also Ohm’s law and KCL are applied
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 • The power in the AC circuits can be calculated as in the DC circuit using the rms value
because it has the same heating effect as the DC value
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 𝑅
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅
• Example 1 : for the shown circuit find the rms voltage and
current across each resistor. The source voltage is in rms value
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 1𝑘Ω + 560Ω = 1.56 𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 110 𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 70.5 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1.56 𝑘Ω
𝑉1(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅1 = 70.5 𝑚𝐴 ∗ 1𝑘Ω = 70.5 𝑉
𝑉2(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅2 = 70.5 𝑚𝐴 ∗ 560Ω = 39.5 𝑉
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 110 𝑉 ∗ 70.5 𝑚𝐴 = 7.75 𝑊

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 • Example 2 : for the shown circuit. Find the unknown
peak voltage all the given value are in rms
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑉3(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠) − 𝑉1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑉2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 24 𝑉 − 12 𝑉 − 8 𝑉 = 4 𝑉
𝑉3(𝑃) = 1.414𝑉3(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 4 ∗ 1.414 = 5.66 𝑉
Example 3 : for the shown circuit find the total rms
current and power (𝑉𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 24 𝑉 )
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐼2(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 10 𝑚𝐴 + 3𝑚𝐴 = 13𝑚𝐴
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 24 𝑉 ∗ 13 𝑚𝐴 = 312 𝑚𝑊
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Superimposed DC and AC voltage
• In some circuit you can find both AC and DC voltage combined
• These problem can be solved using superposition theorem as before
• For the shown circuit, there are AC and DC voltage
• They produce an AC voltage riding DC voltage across R
• if the DC voltage greater than the peak value of the AC voltage,
the sine wave never reverse its polarity (non alternating as shown)
• if the DC voltage less than the peak value of the AC voltage,
the sine wave reverse its polarity
(alternating as shown)
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 • In both cases 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + 𝑉𝑃 and 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝑃
• Example 1: for the circuit shown find the minimum and maximum current across the
resistor
1. 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + 𝑉𝑃 = 12 𝑉 + 10 𝑉 = 22 𝑉
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝑃 = 12 𝑉 − 10 𝑉 = 2 𝑉
The total voltage is non alternating wave from change
between 22 V and 2 V as shown
2. 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + 𝑉𝑃 = 6 𝑉 + 10 𝑉 = 16 𝑉
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝑃 = 6 𝑉 − 10 𝑉 = −4𝑉
The total voltage is alternating wave from change
between 16 V and -4 V as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Non Sinusoidal Waveform
(Pulse Waveform)
• The sine wave is not only the alternating source, there are two other sources pulse
and triangular wave forms.
• The pulse wave form has two ideal forms positive and negative going waveform as
shown
• In ideal the pulse can’t
be change from one level to
another instantaneously
• There must be a time for transition

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

• The figure shows the practical pulse which has the following
1. Rise time is the time required fro the pulse to go
from 10% of its amplitude to 90 % of its amplitude
2. Fall time is the time required fro the pulse to go
from 90% of its amplitude to 10 % of its amplitude
3. Pulse width is the time between the point of the rising
edge, where the value is 50 % of amplitude to the point on
the falling edge, where the value is 50 % of the amplitude
as shown
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Repetitive Pulse
• Periodic waveform: any waveform that repeats its self at fixed interval as shown
• Pulse repetitive frequency is the rat at which the pulse repeated and it’s the fundamental
frequency of the waveform
1
• Period (T) is the time from one point to the corresponding point in the waveform𝑓 = 𝑇
• Duty cycle is the ratio of the pule width to the pulse period in percent
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑤
Τ𝑇 ∗ 100%
1
• For the shown waveform 𝑇 = 10 𝜇𝑠 , 𝑓 = 10 𝜇𝑠
= 100𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑡𝑤
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 = Τ𝑇 ∗ 100% = 0.1 ∗ 100% = 10%
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Square Wave
• A square wave is a pulse waveform with duty cycle 50 % where the pulse width equal to
half the period as shown
• The average value of the pulse waveform is
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + (𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)(𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒)
• Example : for the shown waveforms find the average
1. 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 0 𝑉 + 0.1 2 𝑉 = 0.2 𝑉
2. 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 1 𝑉 + 0.5 5 𝑉 = 3.5 𝑉
3. 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = −1 𝑉 + 0.5 2 𝑉 = 0 𝑉

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Triangular and Sawtooth Wave form
• They are formed by voltage or current ramp
• Ramp is a linear increase or decrease of the voltage
or current as shown
• Example: find the slop of the shown waveforms

𝑉 10 𝑉 𝑉 −5 𝑉
= = 2 𝑉/𝑚𝑠 = = −0.05 𝑉/𝑚𝑠
𝑡 5 𝑚𝑠 𝑡 100 𝑚𝑠
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022
 Triangular Waveform
• It composed on positive and negative going ramp as shown
• The period is measured from the peak to corresponding one
• The waveform is alternating and have an average value of zeros
• also it may be have non zero average as for the shown pulse
• Sawtooth: It is a special case of the triangular wave form, composed of two
ramps one has more duration than the other as shown
• It used in many electronic device as TV

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Harmonics
• A repetitive non sinusoidal waveforms is composed of a fundamental frequency
and harmonics frequencies
• Fundamental frequency is the repetition rate of the waveform
• Harmonics are higher frequencies sine wave that are multiple of the fundamental
frequency
• Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiple of the fundamental frequency
of the waveform
• Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiple of the fundamental
frequency of the waveform

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Composite Waveform
• All non sinusoidal signals have fundamental frequency and harmonics, some
have odd and some have even and some have both
• The shape of the wave is determine by its harmonics and fundamental
frequencies
• Square wave is one that has fundamental and odd harmonics as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 The Oscilloscope
• Oscilloscope (scope) is the test instrument used for observing and measuring
waveform
• It can be used to measure amplitude , period,
frequency, duty cycle and all times
• Most of the scope can display two waveforms at a
time as shown
Scope may be digital
or analog as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Scope Operation
• The scope has two channels to represent signals
• Each channel has its vertical and horizontal control
• The vertical is the signal amplitude and the horizontal is the time

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022

 Example
• Find the period and peak to peak voltage for the shown
1. 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 6 ∗ 0.5 = 3 𝑉
𝑇 = 10 ∗ 2 𝑚𝑠 = 20 𝑚𝑠
2. 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 5 ∗ 50 = 250 𝑚𝑉
𝑇 = 6 ∗ 0.1 𝑚𝑠 = 0.6𝑚𝑠
3. 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 6.8 ∗ 2 = 13.6 𝑉
𝑇 = 20 ∗ 10 𝜇𝑠 = 200 𝜇𝑠
1. 𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 4 ∗ 5 = 20 𝑉
𝑇 = 2 ∗ 2 𝜇𝑠 = 4 𝜇𝑠

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First term 2022