ASTRONOMY SCI 322

• THE SUN
The Sun is the star at the center of our solar system. It’s a nearly perfect sphere of
hot plasma, generating heat and light through nuclear fusion reactions. It
provides the energy that sustains life on Earth.

CORE
•The core of the Sun is its central region where nuclear fusion takes place. It’s
extremely hot and dense, with temperatures reaching about 15 million degrees
Celsius. In this environment, hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium,
releasing vast amounts of energy in the process. This energy is what powers the
Sun and makes it shine.

RADIATIVE ZONE
•The radiative zone of the Sun is the transition zone between the core and
convection zone. Radiative zone transfers the core’s high energy nuclear
explosions and the resulting plasma to the convection zone through radiation. The
radiative zone is the zone responsible for sourcing Sun’s flares and CMEs.

CONVECTION ZONE
•The convective zone is the layer of the Sun where energy is transported outward
primarily through the movement of hot plasma. Unlike the radiative zone, where
energy is carried by photons, in the convective zone, energy is transported by the
actual movement of material, similar to boiling water in a pot. Hot plasma rises
from the deeper layers, cools as it reaches the surface, and then sinks back down
to be reheated, creating a cycle of convection.
•SOLAR ENERGY AND LIGHT
Solar energy is energy derived from the sun’s radiation. It’s harnessed using
various technologies such as solar panels, which convert sunlight into electricity,
or solar thermal systems, which use sunlight to generate heat for water heating or
space heating. It’s a renewable and sustainable source of energy that has minimal
environmental impact compared to fossil fuels.

The Sun generates energy through a process called nuclear fusion, which occurs
primarily in its core. This process involves the fusion of hydrogen nuclei (protons)
into helium nuclei. The primary fusion reaction in the Sun is known as the proton-
proton chain.

1. Initiation: Two protons combine to form a deuterium nucleus (a hydrogen

isotope with one proton and one neutron), releasing a positron (a positively
charged electron) and a neutrino.

2. Formation of helium-3: The deuterium nucleus combines with another

proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (two protons and one neutron), along
with the release of a gamma ray.

3. Formation of helium-4: Two helium-3 nuclei combine to form a helium-4

nucleus (two protons and two neutrons), releasing two protons.

Throughout these steps, a small amount of mass is converted into energy

according to Einstein’s famous equation E=mc^2, where E is energy, m is mass,
and c is the speed of light squared. This released energy is in the form of gamma
rays, which heat up the core of the Sun.
The light we see from the Sun is also a result of this energy generation process.
The gamma rays produced in the core interact with the surrounding matter,
eventually being converted into photons of visible light. These photons then
travel outward from the Sun’s surface into space, illuminating the planets and
providing warmth to the solar system.

The journey of photons from the Sun’s core to the surface and their subsequent
emission as sunlight involves a complex process of radiation and convection.

Overall, the journey of photons from the Sun’s core to the surface involves a
combination of radiation and convection, gradually transforming the high-energy
gamma rays produced in the core into the visible light that illuminates our planet.

• SOLAR ATMOSPHERE

The solar atmosphere refers to the outer layers of the Sun that extend beyond its
visible surface, the photosphere. The two main layers of the solar atmosphere are
the chromosphere and the corona. These layers are much less dense than the
inner layers of the Sun and have different temperatures and characteristics.

• PHOTOSPHERE

The photosphere, a term which means “sphere of light.” The glowing ball of light
that you see in the sky is the photosphere. The surface of the Sun is the only part
that we can see from Earth on a typical day, without use of specialized equipment
•CHROMOSPHERE
The Chromosphere is a thin layer above the photosphere characterized by a
reddish glow (hence the name “chromosphere”). It is most easily observed during
a total solar eclipse when the photosphere is obscured. The temperature in the
chromosphere increases with height, and it contains features such as solar
spicules and prominences

• TRANSITION REGION
The Transition region is a thin and very irregular layer of the Sun’s atmosphere
that separates the hot corona from the much cooler chromosphere.

• CORONA
The Outermost layer of the Sun is the corona. It’s an extremely hot and tenuous
outer atmosphere that extends millions of kilometers into space. The corona is
visible during total solar eclipses as a faint, pearly-white halo surrounding the
Sun’s disk.
• PROMINENCES
Solar prominences are large, bright features that extend from the Sun’s surface
into its outer atmosphere, the corona. They are composed of hot plasma and are
often shaped by the Sun’s magnetic field. Prominences can last for days or even
weeks and are most easily observed during solar eclipses when they appear as
bright, looping structures extending from the Sun’s limb.

• SOLAR FLARES
Solar flares are sudden and intense bursts of energy and radiation emitted from
the Sun’s surface. They are caused by the release of magnetic energy stored in the
Sun’s atmosphere. Solar flares can produce a range of electromagnetic radiation,
from radio waves to X-rays, and can release vast amounts of energy in a short
period. Solar flares are often associated with sunspots and occur near active
regions of intense magnetic activity.

• SUN SPOTS
Sunspots are dark, cooler areas on the Sun’s surface caused by intense magnetic
activity. They appear darker than their surroundings because they are cooler—still
incredibly hot by Earth’s standards, but cooler than the surrounding areas.
Sunspots are regions where the Sun’s magnetic field is particularly strong,
inhibiting the convective transfer of heat from the Sun’s interior to its surface.

These layers of the solar atmosphere are dynamic and constantly changing due to
the Sun’s magnetic activity and energy output. They are of great interest to
scientists studying solar phenomena and their effects on space weather and
Earth’s environment.