ANAPHY FINALS RVW Hematopoiesis

 Hematopoiesis is the process that produces

BLOOD(CHAP11) formed elements.
 In the fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in several
Functions of Blood tissues, including the liver, thymus, spleen,
1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.
products  After birth, hematopoiesis is confined
2. Transport of processed molecules primarily to red bone marrow, but some
3. Transport of regulatory molecules white blood cells are produced in lymphatic
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis tissues.
5. Maintenance of body temperature  All the formed elements of blood are
6. Protection against foreign substances derived from a single population of cells
7. Clot formation called stem cells, or hemocytoblasts.
 These stem cells differentiate to give rise to
Composition of Blood different cell lines, each of which ends with
 Plasma: the formation of a particular type of formed
 55% of total blood element.
 pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells
 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other Erythrocytes
 Formed Elements:  Red blood cells (RBC)
 45% of total blood  Disk-shaped with thick edges
 cells and cell fragments  Nucleus is lost during development
 erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes  Live for 120 days
 Function: transport O2 to tissues
Plasma Proteins
 Albumin:
 58% of plasma proteins
 helps maintain water balance
 Globulins:
 38% of plasma proteins
 helps immune system
 Fibrinogen:
 4% of plasma proteins
 aids in clot formation
Embolism- clot that travels from site where it
was formed.(an obstacle or blockage in a blood
vessel)
Thrombus- Blood clot that forms in a
vessel(formation of a blood clot)

Hemoglobin
 Main component of erythrocytes
 Transports O2
 Each globin protein is attached to a
heme molecule
 Each heme contains one iron atom O2
binds to iron
 Oxyhemoglobin: • hemoglobin with an
O2 attached

Production of Erythrocytes
1. Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to
increase production of erythropoietin.
2. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow
to produce more erythrocytes. Leukocytes
3. Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in  White blood cells (WBC)
blood O2 levels.  Lack hemoglobin
 Larger than erythrocytes
 Contain a nucleus
 Functions:
 fight infections
 remove dead cells and debris by
phagocytosis

Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes: contain specific granules and
include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
1. Neutrophils:
 most common
 remain in blood for 10 to 12 hours then
move to tissues
 Phagocytes
Fate of Old Erythrocytes and Hemoglobin 2. Eosinophils:
 Old red blood cells are removed from blood  reduce inflammation
by macrophages in spleen and liver  destroy parasites
 Hemoglobin is broken down 3. Basophils:
 Globin is broken down into amino acids  least common
 Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled  release histamine and heparin
 Heme is converted to bilirubin
 Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released Agranulocytes: no specific granules
into small intestine as part of bile 1. Monocytes:
 largest sized white blood cells
 produce macrophages
2. Lymphocytes:  Vascular spasm is an immediate but
 immune response temporary constriction of a blood vessel
 several different types (T cells and B that results when smooth muscle within the
cells) wall of the vessel contracts.
 lead to production of antibodies  This constriction can close small vessels
completely and stop the flow of blood
through them.
 Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals
released by cells of the damaged blood
vessel wall and by platelets

Platelet Plug Formation

 A platelet plug is very important in
maintaining the integrity of the damaged
blood vessels.
 The formation of a platelet plug can be
described as a series of steps, but in
actuality many of these steps occur at the
same time.
Platelets  Platelet adhesion occurs first, when
 Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each platelets stick to the exposed collagen in the
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm damaged blood vessel wall.
surrounded by a cell membrane.  After platelets adhere to collagen, they
 They are produced in the red bone marrow become activated, change shape, and
from large cells called megakaryotes. release chemicals.
  In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen forms
 Small fragments break off from the bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of
megakaryocytes and enter the blood as numerous platelets, resulting in a platelet
platelets. plug.
 Platelets play an important role in
preventing blood loss.

Blood Loss
 When blood vessels are damaged, blood
can leak into other tissues and disrupt
normal function.
 Blood that is lost must be replaced by
production of new blood or by a transfusion.

Preventing Blood Loss Blood Clotting

1. Vascular spasm: temporary constriction of Blood can be transformed from a liquid
blood vessel to a gel
2. Platelet plugs: can seal up small breaks in  Clot:
blood vessels  network of thread-like proteins called
3. Blood clotting (coagulation) fibrin that trap blood cells and fluid
 depends on clotting factors
Vascular Spasm  Clotting factors:
 proteins in plasma
 only activated following injury
  made in liver
 require vitamin K

Steps in Clot Formation

1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive
clotting factors to become activated due to
exposed conn. t issue or release of
thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed
and acts upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its Blood Grouping
active form f ibrin Injury or surgery can lead to a blood
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood transfusion
(clots)  Transfusion reactions/Agglutination:
 clumping of blood cells (bad)
 Antigens:
 molecules on surface of erythrocytes
 a substance that the body recognizes
as foreign
 it stimulates the immune system to
release antibodies
 Antibodies:
 proteins in plasma
 Blood groups:
 named according to antigen (ABO)

Clot Formation Control ABO Blood Groups

Clots need to be controlled so they don’t  In the ABO blood group system, there are
spread throughout the body two types of antigens that may appear on
Anticoagulants: the surface of the red blood cells, type A
 prevent clots from forming antigen and type B antigen.
 Example - heparin and antithrombin  Type A blood has type A antigens, type B
Injury causes enough clotting factors to blood has type B antigens, and type AB
be activated that anticoagulants can’t work in blood has both types of antigens.
that particular area of the body  Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens.
 The types of antigens found on the surface
Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis of the red blood cells are genetically
 Clot retraction: determined.
 condensing of clot  Antibodies against the antigens are usually
 serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot present in the plasma of blood.
 helps enhance healing  Plasma from type A blood contains anti-B
 Fibrinolysis: antibodies, which act against type B
 process of dissolving clot antigens; plasma from type B blood
 plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks contains anti-A antibodies, which act
down clot (fibrin) against type A antigens.
 Type AB blood plasma has neither type of
antibody, and type O blood plasma has both Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy
anti-A and anti-B antibodies.  If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the
 In Caucasians in the United States, the mother can be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal
distribution is type O, 47%; type A, 41%; blood leaks through placenta and mixes
type B, 9%; and type AB, 3%. with mother’s blood.
 Among African-Americans, the distribution  First time this occurs mother’s blood
is type O, 46%; type A, 27%; type B, 20%; produces antibodies against antigens.
and type AB, 7%.  Any repeated mixing of blood causes a
reaction.

Hemolytic Disease of Newborn

This condition
 occurs when mother produces anti-Rh
antibodies that cross placenta and
agglutination and hemolysis of fetal
erythrocytes occurs
 can be fatal to fetus
 prevented if mother is treated with
RhoGAM which contains antibodies
against Rh antigens

Diagnostic Blood Tests

 Complete blood count:
 provides information such as RBC count,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC
count
 Hematocrit:
 % of total blood volume composed of
RBC
 Hemoglobin:
 determines amount of hemoglobin
 indicate anemia

Blood Donor and Recipient According to Diagnostic Blood Tests

ABO Blood  Prothrombin time: time it takes for blood
 Types O are universal donors because they to begin clotting (9 to 12 sec.)
have no antigens  White blood cell count: total number of
 Type A can receive A and O blood white blood cells
 Type B can receive B and O blood  White blood cell differential count:
 Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood  Determines the % of each 5 kinds of
 Type O can only receive O blood leukocytes
 neutrophils: 60 to 70%
Rh Blood Group  lymphocytes: 20 to 25%
 Rh positive means you have Rh antigens  monocytes: 3 to 8%
 95 to 85% of the population is Rh+  eosinophils: 2 to 4%
 Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is  basophils: 0.5 to 1%
exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or
from mother to fetus
BLOOD VESSELS AND CIRCUOLATION  Tunica adventitia:
(CHAP13)  outermost layer
 connective tissue
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels outside the heart are Types of Arteries
divided into two classes:  Elastic arteries:
1. The pulmonary vessels, which transport  largest in diameter
blood from the right ventricle of the heart  thickest walls
through the lungs and back to the left  Example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
atrium  Muscular arteries:
2. The systemic vessels, which transport  medium to small size
blood from the left ventricle of the heart  thick in diameter
through all parts of the body and back to the  contain smooth muscle cells
right atrium  can control blood flow to body regions

Blood Vessel Functions Capillaries

1. Carry blood  Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries
2. Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases  Capillaries branch to form networks
within tissues  Blood flow is regulated by smooth muscle
3. Transport substances cells, precapillary sphincters
4. Regulate blood pressure
5. Direct blood flow to tissues

Vessel Structures
 Arteries:
 carry blood away from heart
 thick with a lot of elastic
 Veins:
 carry blood toward heart
 think with less elastic
 Capillaries: Types of Veins
 exchange occurs between blood and  Blood flows from capillaries into venules
tissue fluids  Blood flows from venules into small veins
 All 3 tunics are present in small veins
Blood Flow  Medium sized veins: collect blood from
 Blood flows from arteries into arterioles small veins and deliver to large veins
 Arterioles into capillaries  Large veins: contain valves
 Capillaries into venules
 Venules to small veins Pulmonary Circulation Vessels
 Veins return to heart  Pulmonary circulation:
 blood vessels that carry blood from right
Blood Vessel Walls ventricle to lungs and back from left
 Tunica intima: atrium of heart
 innermost layer  Pulmonary trunk:
 simple squamous  blood pump from right ventricle towards
 Tunica media: lung
 middle layer  Pulmonary veins:
 smooth muscle with elastic and collagen  exit lungs and carry O2 rich blood to left
atrium
Systemic Circulation Vessels  Right subclavian artery:
 The systemic circulation carries blood  branches off brachiocephalic artery
from the left ventricle to the tissues of the  supplies blood to right upper limbs
body and back to the right atrium.
 Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary Arteries of the Upper Limbs
veins passes from the left atrium into the  Axillary arteries:
left ventricle and from the left ventricle into  continuation of subclavian
the aorta.  supply blood deep in clavicle
 Arteries distribute blood from the aorta to  Brachial arteries:
all portions of the body  continuation of axillary
 where blood pressure measurements are
Parts of the Aorta taken
 Ascending:  Ulnar arteries:
 passes superiorly from left ventricle  branch of brachial artery
 Aortic arch:  near elbow
 3 major arteries which carry blood to  Radial arteries:
head and upper limbs  branch of brachial artery
 Descending:  supply blood to forearm and hand
 extends through thorax and abdomen to  pulse taken here
pelvis
 Thoracic: Abdominal Aorta Branches
 part of descending aorta that extends  Celiac trunk arteries:
through thorax to diaphragm  supply blood to stomach, pancreas,
 Abdominal: spleen, liver, upper duodenum
 descending aorta that extends from  Superior mesenteric arteries:
diaphragm where it divides at the  supply blood to small intestines and
common iliac arteries upper portion of colon
 Inferior mesenteric arteries:
Arteries of the Head and Neck  supply blood to colon
 Branches of aortic arch:  Renal arteries: supply blood to kidneys
 brachiocephalic artery  Hepatic arteries: supply blood to liver
 left common carotid artery  Testicular arteries: supply blood to testes
 left subclavian  Ovarian arteries: supply blood to ovaries
 Brachiocephalic artery:  Inferior phrenic arteries: supply blood to
 first branch off aortic arch diaphragm
 supplies blood to right side of head and  Lumbar arteries: supply blood to lumbar
neck vertebra and back muscles
 Left common carotid artery:
 2nd branch off aortic arch Arteries of Pelvis
 supplies blood to the left side of head  Common iliac arteries:
and neck  branches from abdominal aorta
 Left subclavian artery:  divides into internal iliac arteries
 3rd branch off aortic arch  External iliac arteries:
 supplies blood to left upper limbs  division of common iliac artery
 Right common carotid artery:  supply blood to lower limbs
 branches off brachiocephalic artery  Internal iliac arteries:
 supplies blood to right side of head and  division of common iliac
neck  supply blood to pelvic area
Arteries of the Lower Limbs  Azygos veins:
 Femoral arteries: supply to thigh  drain blood from thorax into superior
 Popliteal arteries: supply blood to knee vena cava
 Anterior and posterior arteries: supply  Internal thoracic veins:
blood to leg and foot  empty into brachiocephalic veins
 Fibular arteries: supply blood to lateral  Posterior intercostal veins:
leg and foot  drain blood from posterior thoracic wall
 drains into azygos vein on right side
Veins  Hemiazygos vein:
 Veins return blood to the heart.  receives blood from azygos vein of left
 In the systemic circulation, the blood side
returning to the heart is deoxygenated.
 In the pulmonary circulation, the blood Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
returning to the heart in the pulmonary  Common iliac vein:
veins is oxygenated.  formed from external and internal iliacs
 Superior vena cava:  empty into inferior vena cava
 returns blood from head, neck, thorax,  External iliac vein:
and right upper limbs  drains blood from lower limbs
 empties into right atrium of heart  empty into common iliac vein
 Inferior vena cava:  Internal iliac vein:
 returns blood from abdomen, pelvis,  drains blood from pelvic region
lower limbs  empties into common iliac vein
 empties into right atrium of heart  Renal vein:
 drains blood from kidneys
Veins of the Head and Neck
 External jugular vein: Hepatic Portal System
 drain blood from head and neck Liver is a major processing center for
 empties into subclavian veins substances absorbed by intestinal tract.
 Internal jugular vein:  Portal system:
 drain blood from brain, face, neck  vascular system that begins with
 empty into subclavian veins capillaries in viscera and ends with
 Subclavian veins: capillaries in liver
 forms brachiocephalic veins  uses splenic vein and superior
 Brachiocephalic veins: mesenteric vein
 join to form superior vena cava
Veins of the Lower Limbs
Veins of the Upper Limbs  Femoral veins: drain blood from thigh and
 Brachial veins: empty into axillary vein empty into external iliac vein
 Cephalic veins: empty into axillary vein  Great saphenous veins: drain from foot
and basilic vein and empty into femoral vein
 Median cubital veins:  Popliteal veins: drain blood from knee and
 connects to cephalic vein empty into femoral vein
 near elbow
Blood Pressure
Veins of the Thorax Blood pressure is the measure of force
 Right and left brachiocephalic veins: blood exerts against blood vessel walls.
 drain blood from thorax into superior  Systolic pressure: contraction of heart
vena cava  Diastolic pressure: relaxation of heart
 Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
Pulse Pressure  In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and
Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic cardiac muscle, these hormones cause the
and diastolic blood pressures. blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood
 Example - 120 for systolic / 80 for diastolic; flow.
pulse pressure is 40 mm Hg
 pulse pressure points can be felt near large Mean Arterial Pressure
arteries  An adequate blood pressure is required to
maintain blood flow through the blood
Capillary Exchange vessels of the body.
 Most exchange across capillary wall’s  Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that
occurs by diffusion blood pressure remains adequate for this
 Blood pressure, capillary permeability and task.
osmosis affect movement of fluids across  Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is a
capillary walls. calculated value that reflects an average
 Net movement of fluid from blood into arterial pressure in various vessels of the
tissues body.
 Fluid gained in tissues is removed by  The body’s MAP is equal to the cardiac
lymphatic system output (CO) times the peripheral resistance
(PR).
Local Control of Blood Flow  Cardiac output is equal to the heart rate
 Local control achieved by relaxation and (HR) t imes the stroke volume (SV).
contraction of precapillary sphincters  Peripheral resistance is the resistance to
 Sphincters relax blood flow increases blood f low in all the blood vessels.
 Precapillary sphincters controlled by  MAP=CO PR
metabolic needs of tissues  The MAP changes in response to changes
 Concentration of nutrients also control in HR, SV, or PR.
blood flow  The mean arterial pressure changes over
 Blood flow increases when oxygen levels our lifetime.
decrease  MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.
 It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg from
Nervous Control of Blood Flow adolescence to middle age, and may reach
 Vasomotor center: 110 mm Hg in a healthy older person.
 sympathetic division
 controls blood vessel diameter Baroreceptor Reflexes
 Vasomotor tone:  Baroreceptor reflexes activate responses to
 state of partial constriction of blood blood pressure in normal range
vessels  Baroreceptors respond to stretch in arteries
 increase causes blood vessels to due to increased pressure
constrict and blood pressure to go up  Located in carotid sinuses and aortic arch
 Change peripheral resistance, heart rate,
Hormonal Control of Blood Flow stroke volume in response to blood pressure
 The sympathetic division also regulates
hormonal control of blood flow through Chemoreceptor Reflex
the release of epinephrine and  Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in
norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla. blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH
 In most blood vessels, these hormones  Chemoreceptors are located in carotid
cause constriction, which reduces blood bodies and aortic bodies which lie near
flow. carotid sinuses and aortic arch
 They send action potentials along sensory
nerve to medulla oblongata

Adrenal Medullary Mechanism

1. Stimuli increase sympathetic stimulation to
adrenal medulla
2. Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
norepinephrine into blood
3. This causes increased heart rate and stroke
volume and vasoconstriction
4. Vasodilation of blood vessels in skeletal
and cardiac muscle

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to
release renin
2. Renin acts on angiotensinogen to produce
angiotensin
3. Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts
angiotensin I to angiotensin II
4. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction
5. Angiotensin II acts on adrenal cortex to
release aldosterone
6. Aldosterone acts on kidneys causes them to
conserve sodium and water
7. Result less water lost in urine and blood
pressure maintained

Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism

1. Nerve cells in hypothalamus release
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) when
concentration of solutes in plasma increases
or blood pressure decrease
2. ADH acts of kidneys and they absorb more
water (decrease urine volume)
3. Result is maintain blood volume and blood
pressure

Aging and Blood Vessels

 Arteriosclerosis:
 makes arteries less elastic
 Atherosclerosis:
 type of arteriosclerosis
 from deposit of materials in artery walls
(plaque)
 Factors that contribute to atherosclerosis:
 lack of exercise, smoking, obesity, diet
high in cholesterol and trans fats, some
genetics
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY Lymphatic Organs
(CHAP14)  Tonsils:
 palatine tonsils on each side of oral
Functions of the Lymphatic System cavity
1. Fluid balance  pharyngeal tonsils near internal
2. Fat Absorption opening of nasal cavity (adenoid)
3. Defense  lingual tonsils posterior surface of
tongue
Components of the Lymphatic System  form a protective ring of lymphatic
 Lymph: tissue around nasal and oral cavities
 fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries
composed of water and some solutes Lymph Nodes
 Lymphocytes  Lymph nodes are:
 Lymphatic vessels  rounded structures that vary in size
 Lymph nodes  located near lymphatic vessels
 Tonsils  groin, armpit, neck
 Spleen  lymph passes through lymph nodes
 Thymus gland before entering blood
 lymph moves through and immune system
Lymphatic Capillaries  is activated (lymphocytes produced) if
Carries fluid in one direction from foreign substances are detected
tissues to circulatory system  removal of microbes by macrophages
Fluid moves from blood capillaries into
tissue spaces The Spleen
 Lymphatic capillaries:  The spleen is:
 tiny, closed-ended vessels  size of clenched fist
 fluid moves easily into  located in abdomen
 in most tissues  filters blood
 join to form lymphatic vessels  detect and respond to foreign substances
 destroy old red blood cells
Lymphatic Vessels1  blood reservoir
 Lymphatic vessels:  white pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding
 resemble small veins arteries
 where lymphatic capillaries join  red pulp: contains macrophages and red
 one way valves blood cells that connect to veins
 Right lymphatic duct:
 where lymphatic vessels from right The Thymus Gland
upper limb and right head, neck, chest  The thymus gland is:
empty  bilobed gland
 empties into right subclavian vein  located in mediastinum behind the
 Thoracic duct: sternum
 rest of body empties from lymphatic  stops growing at age 1
vessels  at age 60 decreases in size
 empties into left subclavian vein  produces and matures lymphocytes
Immunity  Eosinophils:
 Immunity is the ability to resist damage  produced in red bone marrow
from foreign substances.  release chemicals to reduce
 Immunity can protect against microbes, inflammation
toxins, and cancer cells.  Basophils:
 Types of immunity:  made in red bone marrow
 innate  leave blood and enter infected tissues
 Adaptive  can release histamine
 Macrophages:
Innate Immunity  initially were monocytes
 Innate immunity is:  leave blood and enter tissues
 present at birth  can ingest more than neutrophils
 defense against any pathogen  protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood
 accomplished by physical barriers, in
chemical mediators, cells,  spleen and liver
inflammatory response  given specific names for certain areas of
body (Kupffer cells in liver)
Physical Barriers  Mast cells:
 First line of defense  made in red bone marrow
 Skin and mucous membranes to act as  found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal
barriers tract, urogenital tract
 Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens  can release leukotrienes
 Natural Killer Cells:
Chemical Mediators  type of lymphocyte
 Chemical mediators are chemicals that can  produce in red bone marrow
kill microbes and prevent their entry into  recognize classes of cells such as tumor
cells cells or virus infected cells
 Lysozyme: found in tears and saliva to kill  release chemicals to lysis cells
bacteria
 Mucous membranes: prevent entry of Inflammatory Response
microbes  The inflammatory response:
 Histamine: promote inflammation by  involves chemical and cells due to injury
causing vasodilation  signaled by presence of foreign
 Interferons: proteins that protect against substance
viral infections by stimulating surrounding  stimulates release of chemical mediators
cells to produce antiviral proteins
Adaptive Immunity
Cells of the Immune System  Adaptive immunity is defense that involves
 White blood cells: produce in red bone specific recognition to a specific antigen.
marrow and lymphatic tissue that fight  This immunity:
foreign substances  is acquired after birth
 Phagocytic cells:  reacts when innate defenses don’t work
 ingest and destroy foreign substances  slower than innate immunity
 Example—neutrophils and macrophages  has memory
 Neutrophils: first to respond to infection  uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
but die quickly  2 types antibody-mediated and cell-
mediated
Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity  When antigen receptors combine with the
 Antigen: antigen, the lymphocyte is activated and
 substance that stimulates an immune adaptive immunity begins
response • Example—bacteria, virus,
pollen, food, drugs The MHC Molecule
 Self-antigen: molecule produced by the  The major histocompatibility complex
person’s body that stimulates an immune molecule (MHC):
system response  contain binding sites for antigens
 Antibody: proteins the body produces in  specific for certain antigens
response to an antigen  hold and present a processed antigen on
the surface of the cell membrane
Origin and Development of Lymphocytes  bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells
 Stem cells: and stimulate response
 red bone marrow
 give rise to all blood cells Cytokines
 give rise to some pre T cells and pre B  Cytokines are:
cells  proteins secreted by a cell that regulates
neighboring cells
Lymphocytes  Example—interleukin 1 released by
 Lymphocytes are: macrophages stimulates helper T cells
 type of white blood cell
 involved in adaptive immunity Lymphocyte Proliferation
 develop from stem cells 1. After antigen is processed and present to
 differentiate into specific lymphocytes helper T cells, helper T cell produces
such as B or T cells interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
 B cells: 2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and
 type of lymphocytes stimulates more helper T cells production
 involved in antibody-mediated immunity 3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B
 originate from stem cells cells
 mature in red bone marrow 4. B cells produce antibodies
 move to lymphatic tissue after mature
 lead to production of antibodies Dual Nature of the Immune System
 T cells:  Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of
 type of lymphocyte immune responses: antibody-mediated and
 involved in cell-mediated immunity cell mediated
primarily and antibody-mediated  Antigens can trigger both types of
immunity responses
 mature in thymus gland  Both types are able to recognize self versus
 move to lymphatic tissue after mature nonself, use specificity, and have memory
 4 types
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
Antigen Recognition  Antibody-mediated immunity is:
 Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on  effective against antigens in body fluids
their surface (blood and lymph)
 Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-  effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins
cell receptors on T cells  uses B cells to produce antibodies
 Each receptor only binds with a specific
antigen
Antibody Structure  IgD
 Letter Y shape  0. 2% in serum
 Variable region:  functions as an antigen-binding
 V of Y receptor on B cells
 bind to epitopes of antigen using
antigen- binding site Effects of Antibodies
 Constant region:  Inactivate antigen
 stem of Y  Bind antigens together
 each class of immunoglobulin has same  Active complement cascades
structure  Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
 Antigen-binding site: site on antibody  Facilitate phagocytosis
where antigen binds
 Valence: number of antigen-binding sites Antibody Production
on antibody  The primary response
 5 classes of immunoglobulins used to  1st exposure of B cell to antigen
destroy antigens:  B cell undergoes division and forms
 IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD plasma cell and memory cells
 Plasma cells:
Antibodies  produce antibodies
 IgG  3 to 14 days to by effective against
 80 to 85% in serum antigen
 activates compliment and increases  person develop disease symptoms
phagocytosis  The secondary response involves:
 can cross the placenta and provide  Memory cells:
protection to the fetus  occurs when immune system is exposed
 responsible for Rh reactions, such as to antigen that has been seen before
hemolytic disease of the newborn  B memory cells quickly divided to form
 IgM plasma cells which produce antibodies
 5 to 10% in serum  produces new memory cells
 activates compliment
 acts as an antigen binding receptor on Cell-Mediated Immunity
the surface of B cells  Cell-mediated immunity is used against
 responsible for transfusion reactions in antigens in cells and tissues.
the ABO blood system  It is effective against intracellular bacteria,
 often the first antibody produced in viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
response to an antigen  It uses different types of T cells.
 IgA
 15% in serum Types of T Cells for Cell-Mediated Immunity
 secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto  Helper T cells (TH):
mucous membranes  activate macrophages
 protects body surfaces  help form B cells
 found in colostrum and milk to provide  promote production of Tc
immune protection to the newborn  Cytotoxic T cells (Tc): precursor to
 IgE cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
 0.002% in serum  Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL):
 binds to mast cells and basophils and  destroys antigen on contact
stimulates the inflammatory response  Regulatory T cells (Tr):
 turn off immune system response when
antigen is gone
Types of Adaptive Immunity
 Naturally Acquired Immunity
 Active:
 natural exposure to antigens causes
production of antibodies
 can be lifelong immunity
 Example—mononucleosis
 Passive:
 transfer of antibodies from mother to
child
 Example—breast milk or placenta

 Artificially Acquired Immunity

 Active:
 injection of antigens using vaccines
which cause the production of
antibodies
 immunization is a process of introducing
killed, live, or inactivated pathogen
 Passive:
 injection of antibodies from another
person or animal
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (CHAP15)  Involved in speech
 Olfactory receptors
Respiration  Warms air
Respiration includes the following  Sneezing dislodges materials from nose
processes:
1. Ventilation, or breathing, which is the Pharynx
movement of air into and out of the lungs  Pharynx: a common passageway for the
2. The exchange of oxygen (O2 ) and carbon respiratory and digestive systems
dioxide (CO2 ) between the air in the lungs  Nasopharynx:
and the blood  takes in air Oropharynx:
3. The transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood  extends from uvula to epiglottis
4. The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the  takes in food, drink, and air
blood and the tissues.  Laryngopharynx:
 extends from epiglottis to esophagus
Functions  food and drink pass through
1. Respiration  Uvula:
2. Regulation of blood pH  “little grape”
3. Voice Production  extension of soft palate
4. Olfaction  Pharyngeal tonsil: aids in defending
5. Innate Immunity against infections

Upper Respiratory Tract Lower Respiratory Tract

 External nose  Larynx – lower portions of
 Nasal cavity  Trachea
 Pharynx  Bronchi
 Lungs
Nose
 External nose: Larynx
 composed of mainly of hyaline cartilage  Located in the anterior throat and extends
 Nasal cavity: from the base of the tongue to the trachea
 extends from nares (nostrils) to choane  Consists of cartilages
 choana: openings to pharynx  Thyroid cartilage:
 hard palate is its roof  largest piece of cartilage
 Paranasal sinuses:  called Adam’s apple
 air filled spaces within bone  Epiglottis:
 open into nasal cavity  piece of cartilage
 lined with mucous  flap that prevents swallowed materials
 Conchae: from entering larynx
 on each side of nasal cavity  Vocal folds/cords:
 increase surface area of nasal cavity  source of voice production
 help in cleaning, humidifying, warming  air moves past them, they vibrate, and
of air sound is produced
 Nasolacrimal ducts:  force of air determine loudness
 carry tears from eyes  tension determines pitch
 open into nasal cavity  Laryngitis:
 inflammation of vocal folds
Functions of the Nose  caused by overuse, dry air, infection
 Filters
 Airway for respiration
Trachea Respiratory Membrane
 Windpipe  In lungs where gas exchange between air
 Consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of and blood occurs
cartilage  Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
 Contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epi.  Alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles
 Smoking kills cilia also contribute
 Coughing dislodges materials from trachea  Very thin for diffusion of gases
 Divides into right and left primary bronchi
(lungs) Layers of Respiratory Membrane
 Thin layer of fluid from alveolus
Bronchi  Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
 Divide from trachea  Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
 Connect to lungs  Thin interstitial space
 Lined with cilia  Basement membrane of capillary
 Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage endothelium
 Capillary endothelium (simple squamous)
Lungs
 Primary organ of respiration Pleural Membranes and Cavities
 Cone shaped  Pleura: double-layered membrane around
 The base rests on the diaphragm lungs
 The apex extends above the clavicle  Parietal pleura: membrane that lines
 Right lung has 3 lobes thoracic cavity
 Left lung has 2 lobes  Visceral pleura: membrane that covers
 Contains many air passageways (divisions) lung’s surface
 Pleural cavity: space around each lung
Lung Airway Passages
1. Primary bronchi Ventilation
2. Lobar (secondary) bronchi  Ventilation (breathing):
3. Segmental (tertiary) bronchi  a process of moving air in and out of the
4. Bronchioles lungs
5. Terminal bronchioles  uses the diaphragm, which is a skeletal
6. Respiratory bronchioles muscle that separates the thoracic and
7. Alveolar ducts abdominal cavities
8. Alveoli
 Structures become smaller and more Phases of Ventilation
 numerous from primary bronchi to  Inspiration:
alveoli  breathe in
 Alveoli:  uses the diaphragm and the external
 small air sacs intercostal muscles
 where gas exchange occurs  Expiration:
 surrounded by capillaries  breathe out
 300 million in lungs  uses the diaphragm
 Asthma attack:  Forceful expiration:
 contraction of terminal bronchioles leads  uses internal intercostal muscles
to reduced air flow
Pressure Changes and Air Flow Factors that Influence Pulmonary
 When thoracic cavity volume increases Ventilation
pressure decreases  Lung elasticity:
 When thoracic cavity volume decreases  lungs need to recoil between ventilations
pressure increases  decreased by emphysema
 Air flows from areas of high to low  Lung compliance:
pressure  expansion of thoracic cavity
 affected if rib cage is damaged
Inspiration  Respiratory passageway resistance:
 Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands  occurs during an asthma attack, infection,
 Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure tumor
decreases
 Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) Pulmonary Volumes
alveolar pressure (low)  Spirometer:
 Air moves into alveoli (lungs)  device that measures pulmonary
volumes
Expiration  Tidal volume (TV):
 Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils  volume of air inspired and expired
Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure during quiet breathing
increases  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
 Alveolar pressure is greater than (high)  volume of air that can be inspired
atmospheric pressure (low) forcefully after a normal inspiration
 Air moves out of lungs  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
 volume of air that can be expired
Lung Recoil forcefully after a normal expiration
 Lung recoil:  Residual volume (RV):
 is the tendency for an expanded lung to  volume of air remaining in lungs after a
decrease in size maximal expiration (can’t be measured
 occurs during quiet expiration with spirometer)
 is due to elastic fibers and thin film of  Vital capacity (VC):
fluid lining alveoli  max. amount of air a person can expire
after a max. inspiration
Surfactant  VC = IRV + ERV + TV
 Surfactant:  Total lung capacity (TLC):
 a mixture of lipoproteins  TLC = VC + RV
 is produced by secretory cells of the
alveoli Factors that Influence Pulmonary Volumes
 is a single fluid layer on the surface of  Gender
thin fluid lining alveoli  Age
 reduces surface tension  Height
 keeps lungs from collapsing  Weight

Pleural Pressure Gas Exchange

 Pleural pressure is:  Respiratory membrane:
 pressure in the pleural cavity  where gas exchange between blood and
 less than alveolar pressure air occurs
 keep the alveoli from collapsing  primarily alveoli
 some in respiratory bronchioles and
alveolar ducts
 Respiratory membrane: Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH
 does NOT occur in bronchioles, bronchi,  CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
trachea  CO2 enters blood and is transported in
 influenced by thickness of membrane, plasma, combined with blood proteins,
total area of membrane, partial pressure bicarbonate ions
of gases  CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic
acid
Respiratory Membrane Thickness CO2 + H2 O H2 CO3
 Increased thickness decreases rate of  bicarbonate ions dissociate into a hydrogen
diffusion ion and a bicarbonate ion
 Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion H2 CO3 H+ + HCO3-
 Rate of gas exchange is decreased  Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of
 O2 exchange is affected before CO2 CO2 reacting with water
because CO2 diffuse more easily than O2  CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases

Respiratory Membrane Surface Area Rhythmic Ventilation

 Total surface area is 70 square meters  Normal respiratory rate is 12 to 20
(basketball court) respirations per minute (adults).
 Decreased due to removal of lung tissue,  In children, the rates are higher and may
destruction from cancer, emphysema vary from 20 to 40 per minute.
 The rhythm is controlled by neurons in the
Partial Pressure medulla oblongata.
 Partial pressure:  Rate is determined by the number of times
 the pressure exerted by a specific gas in respiratory muscles are stimulated.
a mixture of gases
 the total atmospheric pressure of all Nervous Control of Breathing
gases at sea level is 760 mm Hg  Higher brain centers allow voluntary
 the atmosphere is 21% O2 breathing
 the partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg  Emotions and speech affect breathing
 the upper case letter P represents partial  Hering-Breuer Reflex: inhibits respiratory
pressure of a certain gas (Po2 ) center when lungs are stretched during
inspiration
Diffusion of Gases in Lungs
 Cells in body use O2 and produce CO2. Chemical Control of Breathing
 Blood returning from tissues and entering  Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata
lungs has a decreased Po2 and increased respond to changes in blood pH
Pco2  Blood pH are produced by changes in blood
 O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary CO2 levels
capillaries (blood)  An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH,
 CO2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli result is increased breathing
 Low blood levels of O2 stimulate
Diffusion of Gases in Tissues chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies,
 Blood flow from lungs through left side of increased breathing
heart to tissue capillaries
 Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
interstitial f luid because Po2 in interstitial
fluid is lower than capillary
 Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into
cells (Po2 ) is less
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (CHAP16) Layers of Digestive Tract Wall
The layers of tract wall are also termed tunics.
Digestion and the Digestive System 1. Mucosa:
 Digestion is the breakdown of large organic  innermost layer
molecules into smaller molecules that can  secretes mucus
be absorbed. 2. Submucosa:
 The digestive system performs the task of  above mucosa
digestion.  contains blood vessels, nerves, small
 Food is taken into the digestive system, glands
where it is enzymatically broken down into 3. Muscularis:
smaller and smaller particles for absorption.  above submucosa
 longitudinal, circular, and oblique
Digestive System Functions muscles
1. Ingestion of solids and liquids 4. Serosa/adventitia:
2. Digestion of organic molecules  outermost layer
3. Absorption of nutrients  peritoneum is present called serosa
4. Elimination of waste  no peritoneum then called adventitia

Digestive System Peritoneum

 The digestive system consists of the Layer of smooth epithelial tissue
digestive tract, plus specific associated  Mesenteries:
organs.  connective tissue of organs in
 The digestive tract is also referred to as the abdominal cavity
GI (gastrointestinal tract)  Lesser omentum:
 The tract is one long tube from the mouth to  mesentery connecting lesser
the anus. curvature of stomach to liver and
diaphragm
Digestive Tract Components  Greater omentum:
 The digestive tract consists of the:  mesentery connecting greater
 oral cavity (mouth) curvature of stomach to transverse
 pharynx colon and posterior body wall
 esophagus
 stomach Oral Cavity
 small intestines  First part of digestive system
 large intestines  Contains stratified squamous epithelia
 rectum  Salivary glands:
 anus  produce saliva which contains enzymes
to breakdown carbohydrates into
Associated Organs glucose
 The digestive system includes some  cleanse mouth
associated organs not directly in the  dissolve and moisten food
digestive tract, but have ducts that lead into  Amylase:
the tract.  salivary enzyme that breaks down
 These associated organs are the: carbohydrates
 salivary glands  Lysozyme:
 liver  salivary enzymes that are active against
 gallbladder bacteria
 Pancreas  Tongue:
 house taste buds and mucus
Teeth Swallowing
 32 teeth in normal adult  Voluntary phase:
 Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom  bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth
 20 primary teeth (baby teeth) and pushed into oropharynx
 Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root  Pharyngeal phase:
 Center of tooth is pulp cavity  swallowing reflex initiated when bolus
 Enamel is hard covering protects against stimulates receptors in oropharynx
abrasions  Esophageal phase:
 Cavities are breakdown of enamel by acids  moves food from pharynx to stomach
from bacteria  Peristalsis:
 wave-like contractions moves food
Palate through digestive tract
 Palate:
 roof of oral cavity Stomach
 Hard palate:  Located in abdomen
 anterior part  Storage tank for food
 Soft palate:  Can hold up to 2 liters of food
 posterior part  Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein
digesting enzymes
Salivary Glands  Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates
 Salivary Glands: and protects epithelial cells on stomach
 includes submandibular, sublingual, wall form acidic pH (3)
parotid’  3 muscular layers:
 produce saliva contains enzymes to  outer longitudinal, middle circular, and
breakdown food inner oblique to produce churning
 mumps is inflammation of parotid gland action
 Rugae:
Pharynx  large folds that allow stomach to
 Throat stretch
 Connects the mouth to the esophagus  Chyme:
 It has three parts:  paste-like substance that forms when
 nasopharynx food begins to be broken down
 Oropharynx  Pyloric opening:
 laryngopharynx  opening between stomach and small
intestine
Esophagus  Pyloric sphincter:
 Tube that connects the pharynx to the  thick, ring of smooth muscle around
stomach pyloric opening
 Transports food to the stomach  Hunger pangs:
 Joins stomach at cardiac opening  stomach is stimulated to contract by
 Heartburn: low blood glucose levels usually 12-24
 occurs when gastric juices regurgitate hours after a meal
into esophagus
 caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating Regulation of Stomach Secretions
or drinking in excess  Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin,
histamine increase stomach secretions
 Cephalic phase:
 1st phase
  stomach secretions are initiated by  Ileum:
sight, smell, taste, or food thought  third part
 Gastric phase:  3.5 meters long
 2nd phase
 partially digested proteins and Mucosa of the Small Intestine
distention of stomach promote  The mucosa of the small intestine is simple
secretion columnar epithelium with four major cell
 Intestinal phase: types.
 3rd phase 1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli,
 acidic chyme stimulates neuronal produce digestive enzymes, and absorb
reflexes and secretions of hormones digested food
that inhibit gastric secretions by 2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective
negative feedback loops mucus
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the
Movement in Stomach intestinal epithelium from bacteria; and
 Mixing waves: 4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory
 weak contraction hormones.
 thoroughly mix food to form chyme  The epithelial cells are located within
 Peristaltic waves: tubular glands of the mucosa, called
 stronger contraction intestinal glands or crypts of Lieberkühn,
 force chyme toward and through at the base of the villi.
pyloric sphincter  Granular and endocrine cells are located in
 Hormonal and neural mechanisms stimulate the bottom of the glands.
stomach secretions  The submucosa of the duodenum contains
 Stomach empties every 4 hours after mucous glands, called duodenal glands,
regular meal, and 6 to 8 hours after high which open into the base of the intestinal
fatty meal glands.

Small Intestine Secretions of the Small Intestine

 Measures 6 meters in length  The epithelial cells in the walls of the small
 Major absorptive organ intestine have enzymes bound to their free
 Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through surfaces.
 Contains enzymes to further breakdown  Peptidases enzymatically breakdown
food proteins into amino acids for absorption.
 Contains secretions for protection against  Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown
the acidity of chyme disaccharides into monosaccharides for
absorption.
Parts of Small Intestine
 Duodenum: Movement in the Small Intestine
 first part  Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the
 25 cm long primary mechanical events that occur in the
 contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, small intestine.
granular cells, endocrine cells  Peristaltic contractions proceed along the
 contains microvilli and many folds length of the intestine for variable distances
 contains bile and pancreatic ducts and cause the chyme to move along the
 Jejunum: small intestine.
 second part  Segmental contractions are propagated for
 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutrients only short distances and mix intestinal
contents.
 The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of  Common bile duct:
the ileum and the large intestine remains  formed from common hepatic duct and
mildly contracted most of the time. cystic duct
 Peristaltic contractions reaching the
ileocecal sphincter from the small intestine Functions of the Liver
cause the sphincter to relax and allow  Digestive and excretory functions
chyme to move from the small intestine into  Stores and processes nutrients
the cecum.  Detoxifies harmful chemicals
 The ileocecal valve prevents movement  Synthesizes new molecules
from the large intestine back into the ileum.  Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
 Bile:
Liver Anatomy  dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid
 Weighs about 3 lbs. and breaks down fats
 Located in the right upper quadrant of the
abdomen under the diaphragm Pancreas
 Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate  Located posterior to stomach in inferior
lobes part of left upper quadrant
 Porta:  Head near midline of body
 gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves  Tail extends to left and touches spleen
enter and exit  Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that
 Receives arterial blood from the hepatic produce insulin and glucagon
artery  Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes
 Lobules: that travel through ducts
 divisions of liver with portal triads at
corners Pancreatic Secretions
 Portal triad:  The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
 contain hepatic artery, hepatic portal 1. Trypsin
vein, hepatic duct 2. Chymotrypsin
 Hepatic cords: 3. Carboxypeptidase
 between center margins of each lobule  Pancreatic amylase continues the
 separated by hepatic sinusoids polysaccharide digestion that began in the
 Hepatic sinusoids: oral cavity.
 contain phagocytic cells that remove  The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-
foreign particles from blood digesting enzyme.
 Central vein:  The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade
 center of each lobule DNA and RNA to their component
 where mixed blood flows towards nucleotides.
 forms hepatic veins
Large Intestine
Liver Ducts  Function is to absorb water from
 Hepatic duct: indigestible food
 transport bile out of liver  Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
 Common hepatic duct:  Cecum:
 formed from left and right hepatic duct  joins small intestine at ileocecal
 Cystic duct: junction
 joins common hepatic duct  has appendix attached
 from gallbladder  Appendix:
 9 cm structure that is often removed
 Colon:  Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein
 1.5 meters long to the liver and enters most cells by
 contains ascending, transverse, facilitated diffusion
descending, sigmoid regions
 Rectum:
 straight tube that begins at sigmoid and
ends at anal canal
 Anal canal:
 last 2 to 3 cm of dig. tract
 Food takes 18-24 hours to pass through
 Feces is product of water, indigestible food,
and microbes
 Microbes synthesize vitamin K

Digestive Process
1. Digestion:
 breakdown of food occurs in stomach
and mouth
2. Propulsion:
 moves food through digestive tract Lipid Digestion
includes swallowing and peristalsis  Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty
3. Absorption: acids and monoglycerides.
 primarily in duodenum and jejunum of  Bile salts surround fatty acids and
small intestine monoglycerides to form micelles.
4. Defecation:  Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of
 elimination of waste in the form of feces intestinal epithelial cells, and the fatty acids
and monoglycerides pass by simple
diffusion into the intestinal epithelial cells.
 Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty
acids and monoglycerides are converted to
triglycerides.
 Proteins coat the triglycerides to form
chylomicrons, which move out of the
intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis.
 The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the
intestinal villi and are carried through the
lymphatic system to the blood.

Carbohydrate Digestion
 Polysaccharides split into disaccharides by
salivary and pancreatic amylases
 Disaccharides are broken down into
monosaccharides by disaccharidases on the
surface of intestinal epithelium
 Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with
Na+ into the intestinal epithelium
Lipoproteins
 Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to
allow transport in the lymph and blood.
 Lipoproteins are molecules that are part
water soluble and part lipid soluble.
 Since lymph and blood contain water and
lipids are not water soluble, lipoproteins are
necessary for transport.
 Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-
density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-
density lipoproteins (HDL).

Water and Minerals

 Water can move across the intestinal wall in
either direction
 The movement depends on osmotic
pressures
 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
 Minerals are actively transported across
wall of small intestine

Protein Digestion
 Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme
secreted by the stomach.
 The pancreas secretes trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into
the small intestine in an inactive state.
 In the small intestines these enzymes are
activated.
 In the small intestine, other enzymes termed
peptidases, bound to the microvilli of the
intestinal epithelium further break down
small peptides into tripeptides.
 Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or
individual amino acids occurs through the
intestinal epithelial cells by various
cotransport mechanisms.