DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
MODULE 8: ADOLESCENCE
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The term adolescence comes from the Latin word “adolescere” meaning to grow
to maturity. It is the transitional period in the human life span linking childhood and
adulthood, it is the stage of human development in which a juvenile matures into adult.
The transition involves biological, social and psychological changes. It is customary to
regard adolescents beginning when children become more sexually mature and ending
when they reach the age of legal maturity.
Young people’s appearance change as a result of hormonal events of puberty.
Their thinking changes, too; they are better able to think abstractly and hypothetically.
Their feelings change about almost everything. All areas of development converge as
adolescents confront their major task “establishing an identity” – including sexual identity
that they will carry over to adulthood.
In this module we will see how adolescents incorporate their drastically changed
appearance, their physical yearnings and their new cognitive abilities into their sense of
self – we will look into the psychosocial aspects of the quest for identity and discuss how
adolescents come to terms with their sexuality. We will identify and examine significant
changes which characterize moral and socioemotional development in adolescence. We
will take into account how teenagers burgeoning individuality expresses itself in
relationships with parents, siblings and peers, we examine sources of antisocial behavior
and ways of reducing the risks of adolescence, so as to make it a time of positive growth
and expanding possibilities.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of the topics and activities presented in this
module you are expected to:
1. Enumerate & explain the characteristics and developmental task of adolescents.
2. Identify & describe the drastic external & internal changes that occur in puberty
and how these changes affect teens.
3. Explain adolescents’ cognitive development.
4. Describe the fundamental changes in morality during adolescence.
5. Apply learned concepts of morality in interacting with peers and others for better
life and proper adjustment.
6. Identify & explain the causes of adolescents fluctuating emotion and ways to help
them develop competently.
LEARNING CONTENT/TOPICS
A. CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENCE:
• Adolescent is an important period
• Adolescent is transitional period
• Adolescent is period of change
• Adolescent is a problem age
• Adolescent is a time for search of identity
• Adolescent is a dreaded age
• Adolescent is a time of unrealism
• Adolescent is a threshold to adulthood
B. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK OF ADOLESCENCE
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with other.
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
3. Achieving one’s physique.
4. Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults.
5. Preparing for marriage and family life.
6. Preparing for an economic task.
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior-developing
an ideology.
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8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
In a strict sense, the term puberty derived from the Latin word “Puberatum”(age of
maturity, manhood) refers to the bodily changes of sexual maturation rather than the
psychosocial and cultural aspects of adolescence development. Adolescence is the period
of psychological and social transition between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence
largely overlaps the period of puberty, but its boundaries are less precisely defined and it
refers as much to the psychosocial and cultural characteristics of development during the
teen years as to the physical changes of puberty.
Puberty can result in the following changes:
n Physical changes- such as rapid
growth spurts, the development of breasts in
girls and an increase in penis size in boys.
n Psychological changes- that often cause
teenagers to become moody, self-conscious,
and aggressive.
n Behavioral changes- that can cause
some teenagers to experiment with new and
potentially risky activities for example smoking,
drinking alcohol and sex .
C. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty is the most important marker of the beginning of adolescence is
heralded by the rapid acceleration in height and weight termed “growth spurt”. It is a
period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and body changes (that occur
primarily during early adolescence) by which a child’s body becomes an adult body capable
of reproduction
External Changes
Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs
Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to
reproduction but signal sexual maturity.
Research have found that male pubertal characteristics develop in this order:
1. Increase in penis and testicle size.
In Boys, testicular enlargement is the first physical manifestation of puberty and
termed gonadarche. Testes in prepubertal boys change little in size from about 1
year of age to the onset of puberty, averaging about 2-3 cm in length and about
1.5-2 cm in width. Testicular size continues to increase throughout puberty,
reaching maximal adult size about 6 years after the onset of puberty. While 18-20
cc is an average adult size, there is wide variation in the normal population.
The testes have two primary functions:
a . to produce hormone
b. to produce sperm
Male Anatomy
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Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For males,
this includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first
ejaculation of semen
Males have both internal and external genitalia that are
responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse.
Males produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the
female's ovulation cycle, the male sperm production
cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily.
The main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles,
the latter of which produce semen and sperm. The semen
and sperm, as a result of sexual intercourse, can fertilize
an ovum in the female's body; the fertilized ovum
(zygote) develops into a fetus which is later born as a
child.
2. Appearance of straight pubic hair.
Pubic hair-Pubic hair often appears on a boy shortly after genitalia begin to grow.
Body hair and facial hair- In
the months and years following
the pubic hair, other areas of
skin that respond to androgens
may develop androgenic hair.
3. Minor voice change.
Under the influence of androgens,
the voice box or larynx, grows in
both sexes. This growth is far
more prominent in boys, causing
the male voice to drop and
deepen, sometimes abruptly
but rarely “overnight”.
ANDROGENIC HAIR DEVELOPMENT
4. Minor voice change.
Under the influence of androgens, the voice box or larynx, grows both sexes. This growth
is far more prominent in boys, causing the male voice to drop and deepen, sometimes
abruptly but rarely “overnight” about one octave, because the longer and the ticker vocal
folds have a lower fundamental frequency.
5. Spermarche – boy’s first ejaculation (which usually occurs through
masturbation or wet dream); is the principal sign of sexual maturity for males.
6. Appearance of kinky pubic hair.
7. Onset of maximum growth.
8. Growth of hair in armpits.
9. More detectable voice changes.
10. Growth of facial hair.
Order of appearance of physical changes in females:
1. Either the breast enlarge or pubic hair appears.
a) Breast development
The first physical sign of puberty in
females is usually a firm, tender
lump under the center stage of the
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areola of one or both breasts,
occurring on average at about
10.5 years of age.
b) Pubic hair
pubic hair is often second noticeable
change in puberty, usually within a few
months of thelarche. It is referred to as pubarche. The pubic hairs are usually visible
first among the labia.
Female Anatomy
Female external genitalia is collectively known as
the vulva, which includes the mons veneris, labia
majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening,
and urethral opening. Female internal
reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus,
fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts the
developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine
secretions, and passes the male's sperm through to
the fallopian tubes while the ovaries release the
eggs. A female is born with all her eggs already
produced. The vagina is attached to the uterus
through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes.
PHYSICAL CHANGES IN FEMALES
2. Hair appears in the armpits
3. As the first two changes occur, the females Increase in height.
4. Hips become wider than the shoulders
5. Menarche – girls first menstruation – comes rather late in the pubertal cycle, this
is the principal sign of sexual maturity for females.
6. By the end of puberty the female’s breast have become more fully rounded
7. Marked weight gains
Internal Changes:
1. Brain Development - recent research suggests that teens’ brains are not
completely developed. The amygdale which handles the processing of information
about emotion develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex which is involved in higher
level cognitive processing. This means that the brain region responsible for putting
the brakes on risky impulsive behavior is still under construction in adolescence.
2. Digestive System - The stomach becomes longer and less tubular, the intestines
grow in length and circumference, the muscle in the stomach and intestinal walls
become thicker and stronger.
3. Circulatory System - The heart grows rapidly during adolescence, by the age of 17
or 18, it is twelve times as heavy as it was in birth.
4. Respiratory System - The lung capacity of girls is almost at the mature level at the
age of 17, boys reach this level several years later.
5. Endocrine System - The increased activity of gonads at puberty results in a
temporary imbalance of the whole endocrine system in adolescence.
6. Body Tissues - The skeleton stops growing at an average age of 18. Tissues, other
than the bone, continue to develop after the bones have reached their mature size.
This is especially true of muscle tissue.
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OTHER CHANGES:
Male musculature and body shape
• By the end of puberty, adult men have
heavier bones and nearly twice as much as skeletal
muscle.
• This muscle develops mainly during the later
stages of puberty and muscle growth can continue
even after a male is biologically adult.
Body odor and acne - Rising levels of androgens
can change the fatty acid composition of
perspiration, resulting in a more adult body odor. As in girls, another
androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin and
the resultant variable amounts of acne. Acne cannot be prevented or
diminished easily, but it typically fully diminishes at the end of puberty.
CHANGES IN FEMALES
Vagina, uterus, ovaries
- the mucosal surface of the vagina also changes in response to increasing levels of
estrogen, becoming thicker and a duller pink in color (in contrast to the brighter red of
the prepubertal vaginal mucosa). -Whitish secretions (physiologic leucorrhea) are a
normal effect of estrogen as well. In the two years following the larche, the uterus, ovaries
and the follicles in the ovaries increase in size. The ovaries usually contain small follicular
cysts visible by ultrasound.
Menstruation and fertility- The first menstrual bleeding is referred to as menarche,
and typically occurs about two years after thelarche. The average age of menarche in girls
is 11.75 years. The time between menstrual periods is not always regular in the first two
years after menarche. Ovulation is necessary for fertility, but may not accompany the
earliest menses.
Body shape, fat distribution and body composition
- Fat issue increases to a greater percentage
of the body composition
than in males, especially in the
typical female distribution of breasts,
hips, buttocks, thighs, upper arms
and pubis. Progressive differences
in fat distribution as well as sex
differences in local skeletal growth
contribute to the typical female
body shape by the end of the puberty.
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Body odor and acne
- Rising levels of androgens
can change the fatty acid composition
of perspiration, resulting in a more
adult body odor. This often precedes
thelarche and pubarche by one or
more years. Another androgen effect
is increased secretion of oil from
the skin. This change increases
the susceptibility to acne, a skin
condition that is characteristic of
puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity.
How do these changes affect teens?
• Teens frequently sleep longer
• Teens may be more clumsy because of growth spurt.
• Teenage girls may become overly sensitive about their weight.
• Teens may be concerned because they are not physically developing at the
same rate as their peers.
• Teens may feel awkward about the demonstrating affection of the opposite
sex parent.
• Teens may ask more direct questions about sex.
D. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
• For most part, the adolescent years are relatively healthy. Health problems often
are associated with poverty or a risk taking lifestyle. Adolescents are less likely
than younger children to get regular medical care.
• Many adolescents especially girls, do not engage in regular, vigorous physical
activity.
• Many adolescents do not get enough sleep.
• Concern with body image often leads to obsessive dieting.
• Three common eating disorders in adolescence are obesity, anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa. All can have serious long term effects
o Anorexia Nervosa – eating disorder characterized by self-starvation.
o Bulimia Nervosa – eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge
quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting,
fasting or excessive exercise.
o Obesity – extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height and body
type.
FIGURE 8.1 ANOREXIA NERVOSA
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BULIMIA NERVOSA
• Adolescent substance abuse and dependence have lessened in recent years; still,
drug use often as children move to high school.
• Marijuana, alcohol and tobacco are the most popular drugs with adolescents can
be gateways to the use of hard drugs.
• The prevalence of depression increases in adolescence, especially among girls.
• Leading causes of death among adolescents include motor vehicle accidents,
firearm use and suicide.
E. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
FORMAL OPERATIONS
Adolescents not only look different from younger children, they also think
differently. Although their thinking may remain immature in some ways, many are capable
of abstract reasoning and sophisticated moral judgments and can plan more realistically
for the future.
According to Piaget, adolescents enter the highest level of cognitive development
– formal operations – when they develop the capacity for abstract thought. This
development, manipulate information. They can engage in hypothetical-deductive
reasoning – Piaget’s formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive
ability to develop hypotheses or best guesses, about ways to solve problems such as
algebraic equation.
By age 16-18 the average young person knows about 80,000 words and can define
and discuss such abstractions as law, justice, freedom, etc. They more frequently use
such terms as however, between, otherwise, anyway, therefore, really and probably to
express logical relations between clauses or sentences. Adolescents also become more
skilled in social-perspectives-taking, the ability to understand another person’s point
of view and level of knowledge and to speak accordingly. This ability is essential in order
to persuade or just to engage in conversation – conscious of their evidence, adolescents
speak a different language with peers than with adults.
Adolescent Egocentrism
This is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents. David Elkind believes
that adolescent egocentrism has two key components: imaginary audience and personal
fable
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imaginary audience – adolescents’ belief that others are interested in them as they
themselves are, as well as attention-getting-behavior attempts to be noticed, visible and
on stage.
Personal fable – the part of adolescent egocentrism involving a sense of
uniqueness and invincibility. Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel
that no one can understand how they really feel. They also show a sense of invincibility,
believing that they themselves will never suffer the terrible experiences
F. MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s Theory
Level III: Post Conventional Reasoning – the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development. People now recognize conflicts between moral standards and make
their own judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. People
generally do not reach this level of moral reasoning until the least early adolescence, or
more commonly in young adulthood, if ever. In Kohlberg’s theory, it is the reasoning
underlying a person’s response to a moral development.
Stage 5: Morality of contract of individual rights and of democratically accepted
law.
People think in rational terms, valuing the will of the majority and welfare of
society. They generally see these values as best supported by adherence to the law. While
they recognize that there are times when human need and the law conflict, they believe
it is better for society in the long run if they obey the law.
Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles.
People do what they as individuals think is right, regardless of legal restrictions or
the opinions of others. They act in accordance with internalized standards, knowing that
they would condemn themselves if they did not.
According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is based on a developing sense of justice
and growing cognitive abilities. Kohlberg proposed that moral development progresses
from external control to internalized societal standards to personal, principled moral codes.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized several grounds, including failure to credit
the role of emotion, socialization and parental guidance.
Changes in Morality During Adolescence
One of the important tasks adolescents must master is learning what the group
expects of them and then being willing to mold their behavior to conform to these
expectations without the constant guidance, supervision, prodding’s and threats of
punishment they experienced as children. They are expected to replace the specific moral
concepts of childhood with general moral principles and to formulate these into a moral
code which will act as a guide to their behavior. Equally important, they must now exercise
control over behavior, a responsibility that was formerly assumed by parents and teachers.
Five Fundamental Changes in Morality During Adolescents:
1. The individual’s moral outlook becomes progressively more abstract and
less concrete.
2. Moral convictions become more concerned with what is right and less concerned
with what is wrong. Justice emerges as a moral force.
3. Moral judgment becomes increasingly cognitive. This encourages the adolescent
to analyze social and personal codes more vigorously than during childhood and
to decide on moral issues.
4. Moral judgment becomes less egocentric.
5. Moral judgment psychologically expensive in the sense that it takes an emotional
toll and creates psychological tension.
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G. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Identity
Who am I? What am I all about? What am I going to do with my life? What is different
about me? How can I make it on my own? These questions reflect the search for an
identity.
Identity is a self portrait composed of many pieces, including the following:
• The career and work path the person wants to follow (vocation, career identity).
• Whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the road (political
identity).
• Whether the person is single, married, divorced and so on (relationship identity)
• The extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectual.
(achievement, intellectual identity)
• Whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual (sexual identity).
• Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person
identifies with his or her cultural heritage. (cultural/ethnic identity)
• The kind of things a person like to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies
and so on (interest)
• The individuals personality characteristics such as being introverted or extraverted,
anxious or calm, friendly or hostile and soon. (personality)
• The individuals body image (physical identity)
Erikson: Identity versus identity confusion (or role confusion)
This is the fifth developmental stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of
Development which individuals experience during adolescence. The chief task of
adolescence said Erikson is to resolve the “crisis” so as to become a unique adult with
coherent sense of self and a valued role in society.(the virtue that should arise from this
crisis is fidelity). Adolescents who satisfactorily resolve the crisis develops the virtue of
fidelity; sustained loyalty, faith or a sense of belonging to a loved one or to friends and
companions. Fidelity can also mean identification with a set of values, ideology and other
components of identity mentioned earlier. Fidelity is also an extension of trust, adolescents
now extend their trust to mentors or loved ones.
Adolescent Sexuality
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ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
Sexual orientation which is the focus of consistent sexual, romantic and
affectionate interests either heterosexual (of the other sex), homosexual (of the same
sex), bisexual (of both sexes) appears to be influenced by an interaction of biological
and environmental factors and maybe at least partly genetic.
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation of sexual fantasies
and realities, of incorporating sexuality into ones identity. They think about whether they
are sexually attractive, how to do sex, and what future hold for their sexual lives. Majority
of adolescents eventually manage to develop a mature sexual identity but most experience
times of vulnerability and confusion.
Sexual behaviors are more liberal than in the past. Teenage sexual activity involves
risks of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Adolescents at greatest risks
are those who begin sexual activity early, have multiple partners, do not contraception
and are ill informed about sex.
Regular condom is the best safeguard for sexually active teens, this gives some
protection against SDT’s as well as against pregnancy. Many teenagers get misleading
information about sexuality.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase. Young adolescents
can be on top of the world one moment and down in the dumps the next. In many
instances, the intensity of their emotions seems out of proportion to the events that elicit
them. It is important for adults to recognize that moodiness is a normal aspect of early
adolescence; and most adolescents make it through this moody times to become
competent adults. Emotional fluctuation in early adolescence maybe related to significant
hormonal changes during this period. However, most researchers conclude that hormonal
influences are small and that when they occur they usually are associated with other
factors such as stress, eating patterns, sexual activity and social relationships. Both
hormonal changes and environmental experiences are involved in the changing emotional
landscape of adolescence – control of one’s emotions is an important aspect of adolescent
development.
Relationship with Family, Peers and Adult Society
Adolescents spend more time with peers and less with family. However, most
teenagers’ fundamental values remain close to their parents than is generally realized.
Even as adolescents to peers for companionship and intimacy, they look to parents for a
“secure base” from which they can try their wings.
Family interactions change during the teenage years. There is more intimacy but
also more conflict over issues of autonomy. Conflict with parents tends to be most
frequent during early adolescence and most intense during mid-adolescence. Authoritative
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parenting is associated with the most positive outcomes. Competent adolescent
development is most likely when adolescents have parents who:
• Show them warmth and respect and avoid the tendency to be too controlling or
too permissive.
• Demonstrate sustained interest in their lives. Parents need to spend time with their
adolescents and monitor their lives.
• Understand and adapt to their cognitive and socioemotional development
• Communicate expectations for high standards of conduct and achievement.
• Display constructive ways of dealing with problems and conflict. Moderate conflict
is a normal part of the adolescent’s desire for independence and search for an
identity.
• Understand that adolescents don’t become adults overnight. Adolescence is a long
journey.
Effects of divorce and single parenting on adolescents’ development depend on
the way they affect family atmosphere. Genetic factors may affect the way young
adolescents adapt to divorce.
Effects of maternal employment depend on such factor as the presence of the
other parent, how closely parents monitor adolescents’ activity, and the mother’s
workload. A mother’s working may help shape attitudes toward gender roles.
Economic stress or lack of money is a major problem in many single-parent families
as well as two-parent families. Poverty can complicate family relationships – and also harm
adolescents’ development – through its impact on parent’s emotional state.
Peers are important source of emotional support during the complex transition of
adolescence, as well as a source of pressure for behavior that parents may strongly
disapprove. The peer group is a source of affection, sympathy, understanding and moral
guidance; a place for experimentation; and a setting for achieving autonomy and
independence from parents. The influence of peers is strongest in early adolescence; and
declines during middle and late adolescence as relationships with parents are
renegotiated.
Adolescents tend to choose friends who are like them and friends influence each
other to become even more alike. Friends tend to have similar academic attitudes and
performance. Intimacy with same sex friends increases during early to mid adolescence
after which it declines as intimacy with the other sex grows. The increased intimacy of
adolescent friendship reflects cognitive as well as emotional development. The capacity
for intimacy is also related to psychological adjustment and social competence.
Adolescents who have close, stable supportive friendships generally have a high opinion
of themselves, do well in school, are sociable and are unlikely to be hostile, anxious or
depressed. A bidirectional process seems to be at work: good friendships foster
adjustment, which in turn foster good friendships.
Antisocial Behavior and Juvenile Delinquency
Research suggests that early and continuing patterns of parent-child interaction
often pave the way for negative peer influence which reinforces and promotes antisocial
behavior.
Antisocial adolescents tend to have antisocial friends, and their antisocial behavior
increases when they associate with them each day. Authoritarian parenting can help
young people internalize standards that may insulate them against negative peer
influences and open them to positive ones. Improvements n parenting during adolescents
can reduce delinquency by discouraging association with deviant peers.
Juvenile Delinquency
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A juvenile delinquent is an adolescent who breaks the
law of engages in behavior that is considered illegal.
Adolescent becomes a juvenile delinquent only after being
judged guilty of a crime by a court of law. Heredity, identity
problems, community influences and family experiences have
been proposed as causes of juvenile delinquency.
Chronic delinquency is associated with multiple
interaction of risk factor, including ineffective parenting,
school failure, peer influences, neighborhood influences and
low socioeconomic status.
Some interventions can reduce or prevent youth
violence. Prevention efforts should include developmentally
appropriate schools, supportive families, and youth
community organizations. One promising strategy for
preventing youth violence is the teaching of conflict
management as part of health education in elementary and
high school.
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