LEARNING

Meaning:

Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a

result of experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behaviour indicate that learning
has taken place and that learning is a change in behaviour. Our definition has several
components that deserve clarification. First, learning involves change. This may be good or
bad from an organizational point of view. People can learn unfavourable behaviours-to
hold prejudices or to restrict their output, for ex-as well as favourable behaviours. Second,
the change must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and
fail to represent any learning. Therefore, this requirement rules out behavioural changes
caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations. Third, our definition is concerned with
behaviour. Learning takes place where there is a change in actions. A change in an
individual’s thought processes or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behaviour,
would not be learning. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning. This may
be acquired directly through Observation or practice.

The learning process

The learning process is a mental and habit formation process. Attention is paid to
certain stimuli used for learning which are recognized and translated into reinforcement
and behaviour. If the learner gets a reward for his improved behaviour, he forms it into
behaviour. Proper habits motivate the employee who makes efforts in the right direction.
The efforts result in satisfaction and become a stimulus for further learning. This process
continues and the employee learns in the process.

Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement

Behaviour

Efforts Motives Habit Reward

Fig.. The learning process

Reinforcement: reinforcement is the crucial factor in the learning process. This is also
known as the method of shaping employees’ behaviour. Perception becomes learning only
through reinforcement.

Perception = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation Behaviour

Learning = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement Behaviour Habit.

Reinforcement is the instrument or process of learning

Learning = Input Process Output

= Stimuli Reinforcement Behaviour

Table 4 : Types Of Reinforcement (Learning):

Types of learning Contingent Consequences

Positive reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Favourable and desirable
stimuli behaviour
Negative reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Unfavourable and
stimuli undesirable behaviour
avoided
Punishment Undesirable stimuli Undesirable behaviour
prevented
Extinction Stimuli avoided (no Undesirable behaviour
reinforcement) ignored.

OB modification

1. Identification of behaviour : the first step in the modification of employee

behaviour is to identify favourable behaviour as being distinctive from unfavourable
behaviour. Unfavourable behaviour is to be avoided, while favourable behaviour is
to be strengthened.

2. Measurement of behaviour : the types of behaviour, which are identified, must be

measured to find out their impact on performance and productivity. The manager
and supervisor who are closely associated with the employees should honestly
record the behaviour without any bias and its impact on performance. Self-
reporting and self-appraisal systems are adopted in many organizations to give
employees a sense of responsibility and realize the importance of proper behaviour.
3. Analysis of behaviour: behavioural analysis is done on the basis of cause –
consequences relationships and cognitive processes. It will reveal the impact of
unfavourable behaviour on performance. The behaviour is to be modified as
revealed by analysis.

4. Intervention: modification of behaviour is possible through intervention, i.e.

Reinforcement which may be positive or negative. Punishment and extinction are
also used for the modification of behaviour. Intervention is used to strengthen
desirable and weaken undesirable behaviour.

5. Evaluation of behaviour: systematic evaluation of behaviour helps in modification

and improvement for achieving favourable behaviour and performance. It involves
reaction, learning, change and improvement of behaviour. Modification of behaviour
lays emphasis on self management. Employees are motivated to manage their own
behaviour. They are given opportunities for self-learning, self-monitoring and
adopting favourable behaviour. Incentives to self-learning help self-modification.
Responsibility – oriented employees are accustomed to self-learning and self-
modification.

Theories of learning
There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of
behaviour.

1. Classical conditioning: classical conditioning deals with the association of one

event with another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour or learning. It is a
type of conditioning where an individual responds to some stimulus that would
invariably produce such a response. Learning through classical conditioning was
first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a famous nobel prize winning physiologist, at the turn
of the 20th century.

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study the relation between the dog’s
salivation and the ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure helped him to
measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by the dog. When Pavlov
presented a piece of meat to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation. He termed
the food an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it salivated.
During the second stage, Pavlov merely rang a bell (neutral stimuls), the dog did not
salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of the bell each time the meat
was given to the dog. Thus meat and ringing of the bell were linked together. The
dog eventually learnt to salivate in response to the ringing of the bell even when
there was no meat. Pavlov conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus.

Thorndike called this the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour can be
learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a response.
Unconditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic

response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an
unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If
you see a beach ball in the sand, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a
response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a

response) but now leads to a response. If you used to never pay attention to a
passing dog until you got bit by one, now causing you to feel fear every time you see
a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response

An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs

without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your
favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned
response.

Conditioned Response

A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no

response existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a passing dog,
now causing you to feel fear whenever you see one, the fear you've started to
experience is a conditioned response.

Stages in classical conditioning

The meat was an unconditioned stimulus (us). It invariably caused the dog to react in a
specific way, i.e, noticeable increase in salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned
response (ur). The bell was a conditioned stimulus (cs). It was originally neutral. But when
the bell was linked with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a
response. After conditioning, the dog started salivating in response to the ringing of the bell
alone. In other words, conditional stimulus (cs) led to conditioned response (cr).

Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist, it has had a

tremendous influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.
Behaviorism assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment
and that environment shapes behavior.
Classical conditioning represents only a very small part of total human learning. So it has a
limited value in the study of organizational behaviour. In the words of s.p.robbins, “classical
conditioning is passive”. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular way. It
is elicited in response to a specific identifiable event and as such it explains simple and
reflexible behaviours. But behaviour of people in organizations is emitted rather than
elicited.

The learning of complex behaviours can be better understood by looking at operant

conditioning”.

2. Operant conditioning: Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect. Operant

conditioning is based on the work of B.F. Skinner who advocated that individuals emit
responses that are rewarded and will not emit responses that are either not rewarded or
are punished. Operant conditioning is voluntary or learned behaviour and it is determined,
maintained and controlled by its consequence.

Operant conditioning is based on the premise that behaviour is a function of its

consequences. People learn to behave to get something they desire or to avoid something
they do not like. Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the consequences are favourable and it
is not likely to be repeated if the consequences are unfavourable. Thus, the relationship
between behaviour and consequences is the essence of operant conditioning.

3.Cognitive theories

This theory is given by Edward Tolman. According to him, cognitive learning,

consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectations. He
tested this theory through controlled experiment. He found that a rat could learn to run
through an intricate maze, with purpose and direction, toward a goal (food). Tolman
observed that at each choice point in the maze expectations were established. In other
words, the rat learned to expect that certain cognitive cues associated with the choice point
might eventually lead to food. This approach is explained as S — S (Stimulus to Stimulus).

This theory had a great impact on human relations movement. The worker would
learn to be more production by building an association between taking orders and
expectancies of monetary reward for his effort. In organizational behavior the cognitive
approach has been mainly applied to motivation theories.

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4. Social Learning theory

It combines both behaviorist and cognitive concepts. It emphasizes the interactive,

reciprocal nature of cognitive, behavioural and environmental determinants. This theory is
also a behavioural theory. According to this theory modeling involves observational
learning. That is learning can take place through imitating other. Miller, Dollard, and
Bandura had done research in that.

• Attention processes (model- attractive, repeatedly available, important to us in our

estimation)

• Retention process (how well the Behaviour model’s action is remembered even
after the model is no longer available)

• Motor reproduction processes (new behavior is observed from the model. Watching
must be converted into action)

• Reinforcement processes (will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behaviour if +

incentive/ rewards are provided- more attention, learned better, performed more
often)

• Bandura has done considerable research. He explains the process of learning in

two steps. First, the person observes how others act and then acquires a mental
picture of the act and its consequences (reward and punishment). Second, the
person acts out the acquired image. If the consequences are positive, the person
repeats. If they are negative, he will not repeat such action. Bandura concludes that
modeling involves interrelated sub processes such as attention, retention, and
motoric reproduction as well as reinforcement. He also explains the self — efficacy.
It is the self-perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as they arise.
In particular. People who think they can perform well on a task (high self —
efficacy) do better than those who think they will fail (low — efficacy).

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