11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5

Homework module 5
Due: 10:59pm on Monday, November 25, 2024 Part C
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy With current technology, we expect to be able to detect (directly) gravitational waves from a binary system of two neutron stars or two black holes
__________.
Prelecture Video: Gravitational Waves ANSWER:

from a few days after the two objects merge, when the merged object suddenly explodes

only from the times when the objects first formed from the supernovas of the stars that produced them
First, launch the video below. Then, close the video window and answer the questions that follow. You can watch the video again at any point.
from any time during which the two objects orbit each other

only from the instant when the two objects merge into one

Correct
As the orbits decay, the two objects should eventually merge into one, and that event can produce gravitational waves strong enough for us to
detect with instruments like LIGO.

Part D

LIGO detects gravitational waves because the lengths of its arms change as gravitational waves pass by. About how much are these lengths expected to
change when LIGO detects gravitational waves from the merger of two neutron stars or two black holes?
Part A
ANSWER:
Which of the following accurately describe some aspect of gravitational waves?

Select all the statements that are true. by about 0.1% of the arm's length
ANSWER:
by an amount smaller than the diameter of a proton

The existence of gravitational waves is predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity. by about the size of an atom

The existence of gravitational waves is predicted by Newton's universal law of gravitation. by about 1 meter

Gravitational waves are an extremely low-energy form of light.

Gravitational waves come from funnel-shaped regions of the universe. Correct

Note that this is a remarkably small change in length, but LIGO is capable of measuring it.
Gravitational waves carry energy away from their sources of emission.

Gravitational waves are predicted to travel through space at the speed of light.
Part E
The first direct detection of gravitational waves came in 2015.
Given such small length changes (as noted in Part D), what can give scientists confidence that they have really detected a gravitational wave signal?

ANSWER:
Correct
Note that the four correct statements are all clearly stated in the video. observing the gravitational wave event with a visible-light telescope that can actually see two objects merge

detecting the same changes at more than one location

Part B detecting the same changes repeatedly, each several minutes apart
Consider a binary system of two neutron stars. How should the emission of gravitational waves affect this system? checking all wiring really carefully to be sure there are no errors in the measurements
ANSWER:

It should cause the orbits of the two objects to decay with time. Correct
That is why LIGO uses detectors in different locations.
It should cause the two objects to gain mass with time.

It should cause the orbits of the two objects to grow larger with time.

It should cause the two objects to lose mass with time.

Problem 10.6

Correct
Energy must be conserved, so the fact that gravitational waves are carrying energy away from the system means the system must be losing
orbital energy, causing the orbits of the two neutron stars to decay with time. The same would also occur in other systems with two massive Part A
objects in close orbits, such as a system with two black hole or with a neutron star and a black hole.
A neutron star is

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ANSWER:
Reset Help

an object with gravity so strong that not even light can escape.

the remains of a star that died in a supernova.

the remains of a star that died in a planetary nebula.

an object made of elements with high atomic mass numbers.

Correct
During a collapse core supernova, the core of the star often contracts into a neutron star. White dwarf Neutron star
may be surrounded by a supernova
may be in a binary system that remnant
undergoes nova explosions
Process of Science: Identifying Stellar Corpses may repeatedly dim and brighten
may be surrounded by a planetary more than once per second
nebula
may be in a binary system that
emits most strongly in visible and undergoes X-ray bursts
ultraviolet
Learning Goal:
To understand how observations allow scientists to determine whether a compact object is a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole. can have a mass of 1.5 solar masses

Part A
The following items describe observational characteristics that could indicate that an object is either a white dwarf or a neutron star. Match each
characteristic to the correct object. Correct
Be sure you understand why each of these observations goes with the indicated object. For example, white dwarfs may be surrounded by
planetary nebulae because they are the remains of low-mass stars, while neutron stars form only in supernovae.
Hint 1. What can cause an object to dim and brighten rapidly?
You observe an object that periodically dims and brightens at a rapid rate, such as once per second. A reasonable explanation for this dimming and
brightening is that the object is __________. Part B
ANSWER:
The following items describe observational characteristics that may indicate that an object is either a neutron star or a black hole. Match each
characteristic to the correct object; if the characteristic could apply to both types of object, choose the bin labeled "Both neutron stars and black holes."
generating energy in its core by nuclear fusion, and rapid changes in the core temperature cause rapid changes in the fusion rate

rapidly rotating so that we see a bright spot with each rotation Hint 1. What is an X-ray binary?

An X-ray binary is a binary star system in which gas from an ordinary star is accreting onto a compact object. The accreting gas emits X rays
periodically passing in front of and behind an ordinary star, so that we see changes in brightness with these transits and eclipses
because it _________.

ANSWER:

Hint 2. What is the difference between a nova and an X-ray burst?

it contains a great deal of mass
According to current theory, both nova explosions and X-ray bursts occur in binary systems in which an ordinary star orbits either a white dwarf or
a neutron star. However, novae involve hydrogen fusion on the surface of a stellar corpse, while X-ray bursts involve helium fusion. What can you consists mostly of hydrogen from the outer layers of the companion star
conclude from this fact?
is very hot
ANSWER:

X-ray bursts must occur on objects with much stronger surface gravity than those that produce novae.
Hint 2. What are X-ray bursts?
Novae must occur much more frequently than X-ray bursts.
An X-ray burst is thought to occur when __________.
Novae must involve much higher temperatures than X-ray bursts. ANSWER:

two stars collide and merge in a binary system

Hint 3. The white dwarf mass limit (Chandrasekhar limit)
gas accreting onto the surface of a neutron star undergoes a sudden burst of fusion
Theoretical calculations show that the maximum possible mass for a white dwarf is 1.4 times the mass of the Sun (1.4 solar masses).
an accretion disk is hot enough to emit X rays

ANSWER:

Hint 3. What is a pulsar?

Pulsars were originally discovered when astronomers observed sources that emitted rapid pulses of radio waves. It was soon realized that all
pulsars are actually __________.

ANSWER:
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You should now be ready to consider a "mystery object" to see how astronomers would determine its nature.
highly magnetized black holes

neutron stars in binary systems

Part C
rapidly rotating neutron stars
The Chandra X-Ray Observatory has detected X rays from a star system that contains a main-sequence star of spectral type B6. The X-ray emission is
strong and fairly steady, and no sudden bursts have been observed. Which of the following statements are reasonable conclusions about this system?
Check all that apply.
Hint 4. If black holes emit no light, how can we detect them?
No light can escape from a black hole. Therefore, to detect a black hole, we must observe __________. Hint 1. What is an X-ray binary?
ANSWER: An X-ray binary is a binary star system in which gas from an ordinary star is accreting onto a compact object. The accreting gas emits X rays
because it __________.
thermal radiation that peaks in the black part of the spectrum ANSWER:

radiation coming from hot gas that is falling toward a black hole
contains a great deal of mass
a round, black disk in space
is very hot

consists mostly of hydrogen from the outer layers of the companion star
Hint 5. Is there a maximum mass for a black hole?

In principle, a black hole can have a mass __________.

ANSWER: ANSWER:

only up to about 3 solar masses The main-sequence star must orbit a white dwarf.
only up to 1.4 solar masses Some time in the next few decades, this system will undergo a nova explosion.
of any amount The main-sequence star is emitting X rays.

The main-sequence star must orbit a black hole.

The main-sequence star must orbit a neutron star.

ANSWER:
The main-sequence star orbits either a neutron star or a black hole.

Reset Help The main-sequence star orbits either a white dwarf or a neutron star.

Gas from the main-sequence star makes an accretion disk around another object.

All attempts used; correct answer displayed

The system is an X-ray binary, which means the companion to the main-sequence star can be either a neutron star or a black hole. The X rays come
from the hot accretion disk consisting of gas that the compact object’s gravity is pulling away from the main-sequence star.

Part D
Neutron star only Black hole only Both neutron stars and black holes
What is the key observation needed to determine whether the compact object in Part C is a neutron star or a black hole?
ANSWER:
may emit rapid pulses of radio
is detectable only if it is accreting may be located in an X-ray binary
waves
gas from other objects
Measure Doppler shifts in the spectrum of the main-sequence star so that you can determine the mass of the compact object.
may be surrounded by a supernova
may be in a binary system that
can have a mass of 10 solar masses remnant Obtain high-resolution images of the compact object, so that you can determine whether it emits any light.
undergoes X-ray bursts
Study the X-ray emission to determine the temperature of the gas in the accretion disk.

Correct
The Doppler shifts will allow you to determine the speed (or at least the component of the speed that is in your line of sight) of the main-
sequence star as it orbits the compact object. You can then use this speed along with the known mass of the main-sequence star to determine
All attempts used; correct answer displayed the compact object’s mass (or a lower limit on its mass). If this mass is greater than the neutron star limit of about 3 solar masses, then the
Be sure you understand why each of these observations goes with the indicated object(s). For example, radio pulses and X-ray bursts cannot come object must be a black hole.
from black holes, because both are caused by events that happen on the surface of a compact object. Note also that the fact that two important
items go in the "Both" bin indicates that it can be more difficult to distinguish between neutron stars and black holes than between white dwarfs and
neutron stars.
Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.01
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Correct
It occurs when fresh hydrogen from the accretion disk piles up on the surface.

Part A
What is a white dwarf? Problem 10.2
ANSWER:

It is the remains of a star that ran out of fuel for nuclear fusion.

It is a type of star that produces energy by gravitational contraction. Part A

It is a star that follows a period-luminosity relation. If you had something the size of a sugar cube that was made of white dwarf matter, it would weigh about as much as
ANSWER:
It is a main-sequence star of spectral type F, which tends to look white in color.

a truck
Correct an average person
Once the nuclear fuel runs out, the star can no longer shine; for relatively low-mass stars, gravity then compresses its remaining core into a
white dwarf. the entire Earth

a feather

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.06

Correct
A white dwarf has a mass about that of the Sun compressed into a size about that of Earth, which gives it a density of more than a ton per
cubic centimeter.

Part A
What would happen if a white dwarf gained enough mass to reach the 1.4=solar-mass white dwarf limit? Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.13
ANSWER:

The white dwarf would undergo a nova explosion.

The white dwarf would explode completely as a white dwarf supernova. Part A

The white dwarf would collapse in size, becoming a neutron star. What do we mean by the event horizon of a black hole?

The white dwarf would collapse to become a black hole.

Hint 1.

You may find it helpful to watch the video "Voyage to a Black Hole."
Correct
ANSWER:

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.05 It is the center of the black hole.

It is the place where x-rays are emitted from black holes.

It is the point beyond which neither light nor anything else can escape.

It is the distance from the black hole at which stable orbits are possible.
Part A
According to our modern understanding, what is a nova?
ANSWER: Correct
It gets its name because we cannot get any information about events inside the event horizon.

a rapidly spinning neutron star

an explosion on the surface of a white dwarf in a close binary system

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.14
the sudden formation of a new star in the sky

the explosion of a massive star at the end of its life

Part A

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Imagine that our Sun were magically and suddenly replaced by a black hole of the same mass (1 solar mass). How would Earth's orbit change?
The fact that we see strong x-ray emission tells us that the system must contain a black hole.

Hint 1. Cygnus X-1 is a powerful x-ray burster, so it must contain a black hole.
You may find it helpful to watch the video "Voyage to a Black Hole." It emits x-rays as we expect from a system with an accretion disk, but the unseen star in the system is too massive to be a neutron star.

No light is emitted from this star system, so it must contain a black hole.
ANSWER:

Earth would slowly spiral inward until it settled into an orbit about the size of Mercury's current orbit. Correct
The x-rays tell us that the system contains either a neutron star or a black hole, so if the mass is too big to be a neutron star, then it must be a
Earth would almost instantly be sucked into oblivion in the black hole. black hole.

It would not change; Earth's orbit would remain the same.

Earth would orbit faster, but at the same distance.

Process of Science: The Galactic Center — Mass of the Black Hole

Correct
Orbits are determined by the strength of gravity, which depends only on mass. Because the Sun's mass did not change, the orbit would not
change.
Learning Goal:
To calculate the approximate mass of the central object in the Milky Way using real data.
Introduction. The diagram in shows orbits of stars around a compact object at the
Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.16 center of the Milky Way Galaxy. The colored dots represent stellar positions at
approximately one-year intervals, with each color representing a different star; the
background photo is an infrared image showing the stars at one particular time. The
dashed ellipses represent the orbits calculated for the stars based on the observed
stellar motions. (These data are courtesy of Andrea Ghez at UCLA; her team
continues to collect these data.)
Part A
What do we mean by the singularity of a black hole?

Hint 1.
You may find it helpful to watch the video "Voyage to a Black Hole."

ANSWER:

It is the edge of the black hole, where one could leave the observable universe.

The term is intended to emphasize the fact that an object can become a black hole only once, and a black hole cannot evolve into anything
else.

It is the "point of no return" of the black hole; anything closer than this point will not be able to escape the gravitational force of the black hole.

It is the center of the black hole, a place of infinite density where the known laws of physics cannot describe the conditions.

Part A

Correct To calculate the dashed orbits from the stellar positions, astronomers had to assume that __________.
Keep in mind that we generally have no direct way to observe a singularity, even in principle, because it is located inside the event horizon. (The
exception is so-called "naked singularities," which may or may not really exist.)
Hint 1. What laws describe the basic characteristics of orbits?

The basic characteristics of all bound orbits are most simply described by __________.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.17 ANSWER:

Kepler's laws

Einstein's general theory of relativity

Part A Newton's universal law of gravitation

What makes us think that the star system Cygnus X-1 contains a black hole?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:

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if they observed for many more years, the dots would trace out parabolas Hint 1. How time is depicted in the diagram

Each dot on the diagram represents a particular star in a different year. For example, if you look at three consecutive dots for a particular star, you
the stars are all main-sequence stars are seeing how this star's position changed over a period of about three years. You can therefore determine the orbital period of any star on the
diagram by estimating how many dots would be needed to cover its entire orbit.
the central object has a mass of about 4 million solar masses

if they observed for many more years, the dots would trace out ellipses
ANSWER:

Correct 5 yr
This is simply a consequence of Kepler's first law, which tells us that bound orbits are always ellipses.
20 yr

45 yr
Part B
100 yr
Notice that some of the stars on the diagram are represented by a series of dots that are very close together, while others have their dots farther apart.
Keeping in mind that all the stellar positions were measured at approximately one-year intervals, which stars are moving the fastest in their orbits during
the time period indicated by the dots?
Correct
The 19 dots visible on the highlighted orbit span nearly the entire orbit, so 20 years is a reasonable estimate of the orbital period.
Hint 1. Determining speed from a bouncing-ball strobe photo
This photograph of a bouncing ball was taken with a blinking strobe, so that the time separating each individual image is always the same. Notice
that the images are closer together at the top of each arc and farther apart at the bottom. From your own experience with bouncing a ball, where is Part D
the ball moving fastest: at the top of an arc or as it hits the ground?
Look again at the orbit of the star with the highlighted orbit. By comparing the orbit to the scale bar shown on the diagram, you can estimate that this orbit
has a semimajor axis of about _____.

Hint 1. What is a "semimajor axis"?

The semimajor axis of an ellipse is defined as __________.

ANSWER:

the length of the ellipse in its longest direction

the length of the ellipse in its shortest direction

half the length of the ellipse in its longest direction

ANSWER:

12 AU

250 AU

ANSWER: 1150 AU

2300 AU
the dots farthest apart

The fastest stars are the ones with the most dots . Correct
the dots closest together Notice that, in its longest direction, this orbit is a little less than 1 1/2 times the length of the scale bar, which represents 1600 AU . Therefore
the entire orbit is about 2300 AU long. The semimajor axis is about half of this length, about 1150 AU .

Correct Part E
Dots that are farther apart represent faster motion, since all the dots represent positions one year apart. Note also that the speeds of the stars
vary, with each star moving faster (dots farther apart) when it is closer to the central object than when it is farther away—which is what we The following equation, derived from Newton's version of Kepler's third law, allows us to calculate the mass (M ) of a central object, in solar masses, from
expect from Kepler's second law. an orbiting object's period (p) in years and semimajor axis (a ) in astronomical units:
3
a
M =
2
p

Part C Using this formula with the values you found in Parts C and D, what is the approximate mass of the central object?

To determine the mass of the central object, we must apply Newton's version of Kepler's third law, which requires knowing the orbital period and average
orbital distance (semimajor axis) for at least one star. We could consider any of the stars shown in the figure, so let's consider the star with the highlighted Hint 1. How to approach the problem
orbit (chosen because its dots are relatively easy to distinguish). What is the approximate orbital period of this star?

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From Part D you know that the semimajor axis distance is about a = 1150 AU, and from Part C you know that the orbital period is about A neutron star is supported against the crush of gravity by neutron degeneracy pressure. On a deeper level, this means that the force that is
p = 20 years . You can now find the correct answer by plugging these values into the given formula (M = a /p ); you'll probably want to use
3 2
counteracting gravity is the strong force, which is the strongest of the four known forces in nature. Therefore, if gravity becomes strong enough to
your calculator. Note that you should not include units with this special version of the formula, which already assumes a period in years and overcome neutron degeneracy pressure, there is no other known force that can stop the gravitational collapse.
semimajor axis in AU . The numerical value of your final answer for M will be the mass in units of solar masses.

ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Observations of other black holes have shown that this size and mass is typical, so this object must also be a black hole.
0.004 solar masses
The central object does not show up in the infrared photo, so we conclude that it must be black.
40 solar masses
The mass is far above the maximum possible mass for a neutron star, so the object must be a black hole.
400 solar masses
There is no known way to pack so much mass into such a small volume without it collapsing into a black hole.
200,000 solar masses

4 million solar masses

Correct
40 million solar masses Even if the mass were not a black hole originally, it would have quickly collapsed into one, which is why we conclude that there must be a black
hole there now.

Correct
From Part D you know that the semimajor axis distance is about a = 1150 AU, and from Part C you know that the orbital period is about Problem 10.11
p = 20 years . Plugging these values into the given formula gives a mass of about 4 million solar masses.

Part F
From Part E you know the mass of the central object. Now consider its size. Based on what you can see in the diagram, you can conclude that the Part A
diameter of the central mass is __________.
What predicted the existence of gravitational waves?
ANSWER:
Hint 1. How close do stars come to the central object?
From the orbits shown on the diagram and the scale bar, you can conclude that some of the stars sometimes pass as close as _____ to the
central object. Newton's universal law of gravitation

ANSWER: the nebular theory

Einstein's general theory of relativity

100 AU
Chandrasekhar limit
1150 AU

2300 AU
Correct
Einstein predicted the gravitational waves that were directly detected by the LIGO in 2015.

ANSWER:
Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.18
no more than about 70 AU

approximately 200 AU

approximately 1150 AU
Part A
at least 2300 AU
Suppose two neutron stars or two black holes are closely orbiting one another. What do scientists predict will eventually happen to them, and why?
ANSWER:
Correct
Notice that some of the star orbits come within about 100 AU of the central object, so the central object must be smaller than this in size.
Their orbits will gradually grow larger because of the centrifugal force involved as they circle around each other.

Their orbits will spiral inward until the two objects merge because of energy lost through gravitational waves.
Part G
The orbits would remain stable unless there were a third object orbiting along with them.
You've now found that the central object has a mass of about 4 million solar masses but is no more than about 70 AU in diameter—which means it
cannot be much larger than the size of our planetary system. Why do these facts lead astronomers to conclude that the central object is a black hole? Their orbits will spiral inward as a result of friction with the surrounding gas until all the gas clears, after which their orbits will remain stable.

Hint 1. Why neutron stars don't collapse Correct

The gravitational waves carry away energy as predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity, causing the orbits to decay until they merge.

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Pre-Lecture Reading Question 10.03 Reset Help

Part A

The maximum mass of a white dwarf is __________. spiral arm

ANSWER:

about 1.4 times the mass of our Sun

about 3 times the mass of our Sun

limitless; there is no theoretical limit to the maximum mass of a white dwarf bulge

about the mass of our Sun

disk
Correct
We call this the white dwarf limit (also known as the Chandrasekhar limit).

Components of the Milky Way

Correct
Note that spiral arms are found within the pancake-shaped disk, which surrounds the roughly spherical, central bulge.
Learning Goal:
To identify the major components of the Milky Way Galaxy and understand their differences, especially the differences between the disk and halo.

Part B
Part A
This painting represents the Milky Way Galaxy as it would appear edge-on from a distance. Label the indicated features; be sure to pay attention to where
This painting represents the Milky Way Galaxy as it might appear from a distance. Identify the indicated features. the leader lines are pointing.
Drag the labels to the appropriate blanks on the diagram. Drag the labels to the appropriate blanks on the diagram. You may use a label more than once.

Hint 1. Which is larger: disk or bulge? Hint 1. What is the galactic halo?
The disk of the galaxy __________ than the bulge. The halo of the galaxy is __________.
ANSWER: ANSWER:

is much smaller and closer to the galactic center a large, spherical region that contains few bright stars
extends to much greater distances from the galactic center a ring-shaped region of stars that surrounds the galactic center

a large, spherical region that is bright with densely packed stars

ANSWER:
Hint 2. Where are globular clusters located?
Most globular clusters are located in the _____ of the galaxy.
ANSWER:

bulge

disk

halo

ANSWER:

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Reset Help Reset Help

globular mostly very old both old and

disk halo bulge
clusters stars young stars

mostly very old

halo stars
globular
both old and
clusters bulge
young stars

disk disk

both old and mostly very old

young stars stars

Correct Correct
The central bulge is surrounded by the relatively flat disk and the much larger, spherical region called the halo. Most globular clusters are found Active star formation occurs only in the disk, not in the halo. The halo therefore contains only old stars that formed long ago, while the disk
in the halo. contains stars of all ages.

Part C Part D
Different regions of the galaxy tend to contain stars of different ages. Place labels for the ages of stars in the correct regions of the galaxy painting. Which of the following statements correctly summarize key differences between the disk and the halo?

Drag the labels to the appropriate blanks on the diagram. You may use labels more than once. Check all that apply.

Hint 1. Where can we find young stars? Hint 1. How are stellar masses and colors related to stellar ages?

Young stars can only be found in areas where there is ongoing star formation, and star formation requires the presence of __________. Old stars are generally __________.

ANSWER: ANSWER:

globular clusters of low mass and red

gas and dust of high mass and blue

spiral arms of any mass and any color

ANSWER: ANSWER:

Stars in the disk all orbit in the same direction and nearly the same plane, while halo stars have more randomly oriented orbits.

Disk stars come in a broad range of masses and colors, while halo stars are mostly of low mass and red.

Clusters of young stars are found only in the disk.

Gas and dust are abundant in the disk but not in the halo.

Correct
These distinctions between the disk and halo are fundamental to understanding the structure and evolution of galaxies, including the Milky Way.

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Problem 11.4
It is the set of nuclear reactions by which heavy elements are produced in the cores of massive stars.

It describes the orbits of the stars and interstellar medium around the center of the galaxy.

It is the continuous recycling of gas in the galactic disk between stars and the interstellar medium.

Part A It is the idea that stars in close binary systems can exchange gas with one another.

Compared to gas in the rest of the galaxy, the gas in star-forming regions is typically
ANSWER: Correct
This cycle is critically important to our existence because it explains how elements manufactured by past generations of stars, which are the
elements of which we and our planet are made, came to be incorporated into star systems that formed later, including our own solar system.
hotter and of lower density.

hotter and denser.

colder and of lower density. Process of Science: Understanding a Correlation in Galaxy Data
colder and denser.

Correct Learning Goal:

Stars are born from molecular clouds. Molecules can form in regions of relatively low temperatures and relatively high densities. To examine real data for galaxies and show how astronomers use an observed correlation to infer results, make discoveries, and decide what the next step
should be in a scientific investigation.
Introduction. The graph shows actual data for galaxies that are the
brightest in their clusters. The "infrared color ratio," plotted on the
Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.03 vertical axis, tells us whether the galaxy emits more strongly at
longer or shorter infrared wavelengths.

Part A

The Sun's location in the Milky Way Galaxy is __________.

ANSWER:

in the galactic disk, roughly halfway between the center and the outer edge of the disk

near the galactic center

at the outer edge of the galactic disk

in the halo of the galaxy, about 27,000 light-years above the galactic disk

Correct
The Sun lies about 27,000 light-years from the center of the galaxy, which is just over half the roughly 50,000-light-year radius of the disk.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.05

Part A
Part A
Which statement describes the trend among the galaxies shown on this graph?
What do we mean by the star-gas-star cycle?

ANSWER:
Hint 1. What is a statistical trend?
Consider a sample of people of different weights and heights. Which statement is true?
ANSWER:

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ANSWER:
Height has no effect on weight, because the average weight is the same for people of all heights.

Taller people tend to weigh more than shorter people, although there are exceptions for people who are overweight or unusually thin. Study only the galaxies in the first study that are exceptions to the general trend to learn what types of galaxies they are.

We cannot claim any trend linking height and weight, because two people of the same height can have very different weights. Study some of the galaxies from the first study to see how the exceptions to the general trend compare to those that follow the trend.

Repeat the first study, but with a different set of galaxies that are each the brightest in their clusters.

ANSWER:
ANSWER:
There is no trend because there are some exceptions.

The galaxies fall into two distinct groups: nearby galaxies with a small infrared color ratio and distant galaxies with a large infrared color ratio. Yes, by studying other galaxies in the new cluster to see if any of them have unusually bright centers.

More distant galaxies tend to have a smaller infrared color ratio, but there are some exceptions. Yes, by photographing the new cluster with better angular resolution to see whether its brightest galaxy has an unusually bright center.

More distant galaxies tend to have a larger infrared color ratio, but there are some exceptions. No. The follow-up study will not improve your confidence in your distance estimate, because you cannot know whether your new galaxy
follows the general trend.

Yes, by studying many more galaxies that are the brightest in their clusters so that you can estimate the fraction of these galaxies that have
Correct both bright centers and infrared color ratios of 0.65.
In other words, the data points tend to slope upward from left to right.

Correct
Part B If the brightest galaxy does not have an unusually bright center, then you can be more confident that it follows the general trend. If it does have
an unusually bright center, then you can use this fact to improve your estimate, because the exceptions tend to have higher-than-expected
You discover a new cluster of galaxies, and the brightest galaxy in this new cluster has an infrared color ratio of 0.65. Based on the data in the graph, infrared color ratios for particular distances.
what is the approximate distance to this new cluster?

Hint 1. What does each tick mark represent along the vertical axis? Part D

Each of the small tick marks along the vertical axis represents an increase in the infrared color ratio of _____ . Consider both the original study (with data shown on the graph) and the follow-up study showing that the exceptions to the general trend are galaxies with
unusually bright centers (as described in Part C). Which of the following conclusions are supported by this pair of studies?
ANSWER:
Select all that apply.

0.05 ANSWER:

1.2
The unusually bright nuclei in the exceptions are powered by energy released as gas falls into supermassive black holes.
0.1
Galaxies with unusually bright nuclei were more common when the universe was young than they are today.

Galaxies with unusually bright nuclei are more common at greater distances.

On average, more distant galaxies have larger infrared color ratios.

ANSWER:

1 billion light-years
Correct
2.5 billion light-years We can conclude that, on average, more distant galaxies have larger infrared color ratios, because that is the general trend shown on the graph.
We can conclude that galaxies with unusually bright nuclei are more common at greater distances, because the graph shows that there are more
4 billion light-years exceptions at large distances. We can conclude that galaxies with unusually bright nuclei were more common when the universe was young,
because large distances mean looking farther back in time, which means to a time when the universe was younger.
Unknown, since the exceptions to the general trend make it impossible to estimate the cluster's distance.

Correct
Visual Activity: Exploring the Active Galactic Nucleus in M87
You can estimate the cluster's distance by drawing a "best-fit" straight line through the data points. An infrared color ratio of 0.65 would fall on
this line at a point corresponding to a distance of about 1 billion light-years.

Click on the image below to launch the video: Exploring the Active Galactic Nucleus in M87. Once you have watched the entire video, answer the graded
Part C follow-up questions on the right. You can watch the video again at any point.
A follow-up study showed that the galaxies that are exceptions to the general trend on the original graph have unusually brighter centers; that is, these
galaxies contain active galactic nuclei. Based on this follow-up study, could you improve your confidence in your distance estimate for the new cluster
discussed in Part B, and, if so, how?

Hint 1. How was the second study conducted?

Part C tells us that the follow-up study concluded that the exceptions to the trend in the original study are galaxies with unusually bright centers.
What tests would scientists have done to reach this conclusion?
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ANSWER:

The bright central region is the bulge of the galaxy, and around it we see spiral arms.

The bright central region is a place where many young stars are being born, and the surrounding material is the gas from which these stars are
made.

The black background in this photo is the supermassive black hole, and we see bright spots on top of it where nearby gas is emitting light.

The black hole is located deep within the bright central region, and around this region we see gas that is orbiting the central black hole.

Correct
The bright center marks where most of the energy is coming from, and from Part A you already know that the energy source is thought to be a
Part A supermassive black hole. The immense gravity of the black hole causes surrounding gas (and stars) to orbit around it.
Why do astronomers hypothesize that a massive black hole lies at the center of M87?

Part C
Hint 1. What is the significance of the jet of particles in the video?
Assuming that the bright core of M87 is powered by a supermassive black hole, which of the following best describes the source of energy that makes the
Notice the jet of particles shooting out (at very high speed) from the active nucleus of M87. The existence of this jet tells us that the active
core appear so bright?
nucleus __________.
ANSWER:
Hint 1. Where is the singularity of a black hole located?

must contain a black hole True of False? The singularity of a black hole is located within the event horizon of the black hole.
ANSWER:
is releasing an enormous amount of energy

is disintegrating True

False

ANSWER:
Hint 2. What role do stars play in generating energy near the black hole?
Historical records show that a supermassive star at the center of M87 exploded as a supernova, leaving behind a black hole.
Suppose that there were no stars at all within a few hundred light-years of the supermassive black hole in M87, but there was plenty of gas. In that
case __________.
Time-lapse images from space telescopes show stars falling to the center of M87 and then disappearing from view.
ANSWER:
Images of M87 made with powerful telescopes show a well-defined black region devoid of any stars.

A very small region at the center of M87 releases an enormous amount of energy. there would be no light of any kind coming from the center of the galaxy

the center of the galaxy would still be a source of radio waves, but it would not emit any visible light

Correct the center of the galaxy would still be quite bright

The video shows that no matter how much we zoom in, we still cannot resolve the bright source at the galactic center. The brightness of the
source (and the fact that it is shooting out a jet of particles) tells us that it is releasing an enormous amount of energy. The fact that we cannot
resolve its structure tells us that it is very small in size. Calculations show that the only way that such a small region can release so much
energy is if its central power source is the infall of matter into a supermassive black hole.
ANSWER:

Part B The black hole emits intense light as its huge mass is squeezed to infinite density at the black hole’s singularity.

The third image in the video (with the most detailed view of the galactic center) is labeled "gas disk." Which of the following best describes what we are Gravitational potential energy is converted to thermal energy as matter from the surrounding gas disk spirals into the central black hole.
seeing in this photo?
The immense gravitational force exerted by the central black hole in M87 triggers nearby stars to explode as supernovae.

Hint 1. How large (in the photos) is the central black hole in M87? Gas and dust clouds form stars at a rapid rate due to forces from the central black hole in M87.

If you could actually see the event horizon of the suspected black hole in the video sequence, how large would it appear?
ANSWER: Correct
The black hole itself does not emit any light. Rather, the bright light comes from hot gas surrounding the black hole. This gas becomes hot in the
It would cover most of the galaxy shown in the first image. process of falling toward the black hole because a large fraction (up to 40%) of its gravitational potential energy is converted into thermal energy
(through friction in the disk) as it falls inward. Most of this energy is ultimately radiated away as light, explaining why the central region is so
It is about the size of the square in the middle photo that contains the "active nucleus." bright.

It would be a tiny point in the third (most detailed) photo.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.11

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Part A
an enormous collection of dark matter, explaining why we detect no light at all from the galactic center
Collisions between galaxies typically unfold over a period of __________.
a black hole of about 4 million solar masses
ANSWER:
a dense cluster of young, hot stars

thousands of years a gigantic x-ray binary system

several months

hundreds of millions of years Correct

The black hole's existence is inferred from the orbits of stars near the galactic center, which tell us that an approximately 4-million-solar-mass
several days object lies there but is so small in size that it can only be a black hole. X-rays from this region presumably come from an accretion disk around
the black hole.

Correct
Remember that typical galaxies are 100,000 light-years in diameter, so even at the speed of light a collision would take hundreds of thousands
of years. Galaxies actually collide at relative speeds less than 1/1000 of the speed of light, so the collisions unfold over hundreds of millions of Problem 11.9
years.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.17

Part A
A collision between two large spiral galaxies is likely to produce

ANSWER:

Part A
two large elliptical galaxies.
According to the model in which active galactic nuclei are powered by supermassive black holes, the high luminosity of an active galactic nucleus
primarily consists of __________. a large elliptical galaxy.

ANSWER: one large spiral galaxy and one large elliptical galaxy.

a large spiral galaxy.

radio waves emitted from radio lobes found on either side of the galaxy we see in visible light

the combined light of thousands of young, high-mass stars that orbit the black hole
Correct
intense radiation emitted by the black hole itself Tidal forces between the colliding galaxies tear apart both disks, and most of the gas sinks to the collision's center, which results in a large
elliptical galaxy.
light emitted by hot gas in an accretion disk that swirls around the black hole

Correct Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.07

As matter falls toward the black hole, as much as 40% of its mass-energy can be converted into thermal energy and radiation.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 11.13

Part A

What do halo stars do differently from disk stars?

ANSWER:

Part A
Halo stars remain stationary, quite unlike disk stars, which orbit the galactic center.
What kind of object do we think lies in the center of the Milky Way Galaxy?
Halo stars orbit the center of the galaxy at much lower speeds than disk stars.

Hint 1. Halo stars explode as supernovae much more frequently than disk stars.

You may find it helpful to watch the video "The Galactic Center." Halo stars orbit the galactic center with many different inclinations, whereas disk stars all orbit in nearly the same plane.

ANSWER:
Correct
These differing orbital patterns explain why the stars form two distinct populations.

Problem 11.3

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Part A Correct
What is the typical hydrogen content (by mass) of stars that are forming right now in the vicinity of the Sun? At time = 0, each dot is separated from the next by 1 cm. Therefore, the distance from dot B to dot D, which are separated by two spaces, is 2
cm.

Hint 1. After the Big Bang

The initial chemical composition of ordinary matter in the universe was about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. Part B
As you increase the time shown on the slider, you will notice the distances between the dots increasing. To help you see the pattern, let's start by
investigating how the distance from dot A to dot B changes as the time increases.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:

30% hydrogen

50% hydrogen

100% hydrogen

70% hydrogen At time = 0, the distance from dot A to dot B is 1 cm

Correct At time = 1 s, the distance from dot A to dot B is 1.5 cm

After more than 12 billion years of galactic recycling, the gaseous component of the galaxy is about 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 2% of
heavier elements.
At time = 2 s, the distance from dot A to dot B is 2 cm

Interactive Figure: Balloon Analogy to Expansion of the Universe

At time = 3 s, the distance from dot A to dot B is 2.5 cm

At time = 4 s, the distance from dot A to dot B is 3 cm

This tutorial uses an expanding balloon as an analogy to the expanding universe. Use the interactive figure below to help you answer the following questions.

Correct

Part C

Based on your answers to Part B, how fast is dot B moving away from dot A as the balloon expands?
ANSWER:

0 cm/s

0.5 cm/s

1 cm/s

1.5 cm/s

2 cm/s

Part A 2.5 cm/s

Just to be sure you understand how to use and interpret the interactive figure, start with the Time slider set to zero. What is the distance from dot B to dot 3 cm/s
D?
ANSWER:
Correct
In Part B, you found that with each passing second, the distance from dot A to dot B increased by 0.5 cm. Therefore, as viewed from dot A, dot
1 cm B is traveling away at a speed of 0.5 cm/s as the balloon expands.

2 cm

3 cm Part D
4 cm Let's next investigate how the distance from dot A to dot C changes as the time increases.

ANSWER:

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At time = 0, the distance between dot A and dot C is 2 cm At time = 0 s, the distance between dot A and dot D is 3 cm

At time = 1 s, the distance between dot A and dot C is 3 cm At time = 1 s, the distance between dot A and dot D is 4.5 cm

At time = 2 s, the distance between dot A and dot C is 4 cm At time = 2 s, the distance between dot A and dot D is 6 cm

At time = 3 s, the distance between dot A and dot C is 5 cm At time = 3 s, the distance between dot A and dot D is 7.5 cm

At time = 4 s, the distance between dot A and dot C is 6 cm At time = 4 s, the distance between dot A and dot D is 9 cm

Correct Correct

Part E Part G
Based on your answers to Part D, how fast is dot C moving away from dot A as the balloon expands? Based on your answers to Part F, how fast is dot D moving away from dot A as the balloon expands?
ANSWER: ANSWER:

0 cm/s 0 cm/s

0.5 cm/s 0.5 cm/s

1 cm/s 1 cm/s

1.5 cm/s 1.5 cm/s

2 cm/s 2 cm/s

2.5 cm/s 2.5 cm/s

3 cm/s 3 cm/s

Correct Correct
In Part D, you found that with each passing second, the distance from dot A to dot C increased by 1 cm. Therefore, as viewed from dot A, dot C In Part F, you found that with each passing second, the distance from dot A to dot D increased by 1.5 cm. Therefore, as viewed from dot A, dot
is traveling away at a speed of 1 cm/s as the balloon expands. D is traveling away at a speed of 1.5 cm/s as the balloon expands.

To summarize, you have found so far in this tutorial that as viewed from dot A, at time = 4 s:
Part F
dot B is 3 cm away and moving farther away at a speed of 0.5 cm/s.
The pattern is probably coming clear, but just to be sure, now investigate how the distance from dot A to dot D changes as the time increases.
dot C is 6 cm away and moving farther away at a speed of 1 cm/s.
ANSWER: dot D is 9 cm away and moving farther away at a speed of 1.5 cm/s.

Part H
For the real universe: Hubble's law states that, as viewed form Earth, the recession speed (v) of any galaxy (due to expansion of the universe) is Hubble's
constant (H0) times the galaxy's disance. That is, v = H0 x d.

For the balloon: We can define a similar "bubble constant" (thinking of the balloon as a "bubble"), but we have to do it for a particular time in the balloon's
history. Let's choose t = 4 s. In that case, we can write:

At t = 4 s for the balloon, the speed (v) of any other dot as viewed from dot A is v = B0 x d. where B0 is the "bubble constant" for the expanding
balloon (at t = 4 s).

Based on your previous answers, what is the "bubble constant" for the expanding balloon (at t = 4 s)?

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Technical Note: The reason we must choose a particular time (like t = 4 s) is that both the "bubble constant" for the balloon and Hubble's constant for the
real universe are "constant" in the sense of applying everywhere in the universe (or everywhere on the balloon), but their values actually change with time. another name for a main-sequence star
We must therefore define them at particular moments. For the real universe, we always choose the present time. For the balloon, we chose t = 4 s, but we
could have chosen some other time. a 7-cm-long wax candle
You did not open hints for this part. a light source of known luminosity
ANSWER: another name for a barred spiral galaxy

6 s
Correct
1 Standard candles have known luminosities.
4 s

2 s

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 12.03

2 s

4 s

6 s

Part A
What is a Cepheid variable?
Part I Complete previous part(s)
ANSWER:

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 12.01 a main-sequence star of spectral type B5

a type of very luminous star that makes an excellent standard candle

a type of galaxy that varies in its light output

a bright source of variable x-ray emission, thought to harbor a supermassive black hole
Part A
If star A is closer to us than star B, then star A's parallax angle is __________.
Correct
ANSWER:
Cepheids are pulsating variable stars for which we can infer the luminosity from the time between peaks of brightness, which makes them
valuable as standard candles.
fewer parsecs than that of star B

larger than that of star B

Key Concept: The Expanding Universe
smaller than that of star B

hotter than that of star B

Learning Goal:
Correct
To understand what we mean by an expanding universe and how we know that the universe is expanding.
A larger parallax angle means the star is closer.
The idea that we live in an expanding universe is fundamental to much of modern astronomy. But we can’t actually see the universe growing larger, so how do
we know that it really is expanding? This tutorial should help you understand the evidence. Now, click on the image below to launch the video: The Expanding
Universe. Once you have watched the entire video, answer the follow-up questions on the right. You can watch the video again at any point.
Pre-Lecture Reading Question 12.02

Part A
A standard candle is __________.
ANSWER:

Part A
Which of the following statements best describes what astronomers mean when they say that the universe is expanding?

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Hint 2. Does the distance between Raisin 1 and Raisin 2 change?
Hint 1. How big is the observable universe?
As the cake expands, the separation between Raisin 1 and Raisin 2 _________.
The size of the observable universe depends on __________.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
stays the same
the power of our telescopes
decreases
the age of the universe
increases
the number of galaxies we observe

ANSWER:
Hint 2. What is a galaxy?

A galaxy is best described as __________.

Raisin 1 moves away from her while Raisin 3 moves toward her.
ANSWER:
Raisin 1 and Raisin 3 both move toward her.

a hot, glowing ball of gas that generates energy through nuclear fusion in its core Raisin 1 moves toward her while Raisin 3 moves away from her.

a star and the planets that orbit it Raisin 1 and Raisin 3 both move away from her.

a very large collection of stars held together by gravity

Correct
In fact, observers at any raisin would see all the other raisins moving away. Note also that the farther away a raisin is located from the observer,
the faster it moves away — which is just what Hubble discovered for galaxies in the universe.
ANSWER:

The observable universe is growing larger in radius at a rate of one light-year per year. Part C

The universe itself is not growing, but our knowledge of the universe is increasing with time. The table in the video shows you the speeds of Raisins 1, 2, and 3 as measured from the Local Raisin. Suppose instead that you measured speeds as
seen from Raisin 2. An observer at Raisin 2 would measure __________.
The average distance between stars in the Milky Way Galaxy is increasing with time.

All objects in the universe, including Earth and everything on it, are gradually growing in size. Hint 1. How does speed depend on distance?

The average distance between galaxies is increasing with time. Suppose two people start walking away from you. If they are both 10 meters away when they start walking and 30 meters away when they both
stop at the same time, you can conclude that __________.

ANSWER:
Correct
Keep in mind that while the universe as a whole is expanding, individual galaxies (and gravitationally bound groups or clusters of galaxies) and
both people are walking at a speed of 20 meters per hour
their contents do not expand. That is why the average distances between galaxies grow with time, but objects such as people, Earth, the solar
system, and the Milky Way Galaxy remain stable in size.
the first person is walking faster than the second

they are both walking at the same speed

Edwin Hubble discovered two key observation facts: (1) Virtually every galaxy outside our Local Group is moving away from us. (2) The more distant the
galaxy, the faster it is moving away. The raisin cake analogy shows how these two facts lead to the conclusion that the universe is expanding. Click “Play” to
watch the video; observe the motions of the raisins and note how the values in the table change as the cake expands.
Hint 2. How far does Raisin 1 travel?

Part B As viewed from Raisin 2, how far does Raisin 1 travel?

Note that an observer located at the Local Raisin would see Raisins 1, 2, and 3 all move away from her during the video. What would an observer located ANSWER:
at Raisin 2 see?
1 centimeter
Hint 1. How would an observer located at Raisin 2 describe her own motion?
2 centimeters
As the raisin cake expands, an observer located at Raisin 2 would say that __________.
3 centimeters
ANSWER:

she is staying in the same place

ANSWER:
she is moving outward through the cake

she is moving away from the Local Raisin

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Local Raisin speed = 4.0 cm/hr; Raisin 1 speed = 2.0 cm/hr; Raisin 3 speed = 2.0 cm/hr Correct
Like any scientific model, the raisin cake analogy has limitations, but it gives us a good overall picture of how the universe is expanding.
Local Raisin speed = 2.0 cm/hr; Raisin 1 speed = 2.0 cm/hr; Raisin 3 speed = 2.0 cm/hr

Local Raisin speed = 2.0 cm/hr; Raisin 1 speed = 4.0 cm/hr; Raisin 3 speed = 6.0 cm/hr
Part E
Local Raisin speed = 4.0 cm/hr; Raisin 1 speed = 2.0 cm/hr; Raisin 3 speed = 4.0 cm/hr
Based on what you’ve learned from the raisin cake analogy, which two properties of distant galaxies do astronomers have to measure to show that we live
Local Raisin speed = 6.0 cm/hr; Raisin 1 speed = 4.0 cm/hr; Raisin 3 speed = 2.0 cm/hr in an expanding universe?

Hint 1. Open this hint if you are stuck

Correct
Note that the observer at Raisin 2 sees essentially the same thing as the observer at the Local Raisin: The nearest raisins (Raisins 1 and 3 in The key to answering Part E is to understand how someone living in the raisin cake could conclude that the cake is expanding. Watch the video
this case) are moving away at 2 cm/hr and the next nearest (the Local Raisin in this case) is moving away at 4 cm/hr. If the cake were bigger, again and review Parts A through D. You’ll realize that if you lived in an expanding raisin cake, you’d see all other raisins moving away from yours,
the pattern would continue. The key point is this: It does not matter which raisin you observe from; in an expanding raisin cake — or an with more distant ones moving faster. So if you really did live in the raisin cake, what two things would you have to measure to conclude that more
expanding universe — all observers see all the other raisins (galaxies) moving away, with more distant raisins (galaxies) moving faster. distant raisins are moving away from you faster? These are the same things we must measure for galaxies in order to conclude that we live in an
expanding universe.

Part D ANSWER:

The following statements describe ways in which the analogy might apply to the real universe. Which statements are correct?
their distances and masses
Check all that apply.
their distances and speeds

Hint 1. What is the universe? their ages and distances

The universe is best defined as __________. their ages and masses
ANSWER:

the collection of objects that we can see (with or without telescopes) in the night sky Correct
The analogy shows that if you lived in an expanding raisin cake, you would see all other raisins moving away from yours, with more distant ones
our solar system, including the Sun and the planets moving faster. This is exactly what we observe for galaxies outside our Local Group, which is why we conclude that we live in an expanding
universe.
the sum total of all matter, energy, space, and time

the Milky Way Galaxy

Part F
Today, the evidence that we live in an expanding universe is extremely strong because astronomers have measured the motions of millions of galaxies.
Nevertheless, in science, we must always remain open to the possibility that some future observation could call even our most strongly supported
Hint 2. How does the temperature of the universe change with time? theories into question. Which of the following hypothetical observations would not be consistent with what we expect in an expanding universe?
As the universe expands, its overall temperature _________.
ANSWER: Hint 1. What is a “hypothetical” observation?
When we say that an observation is "hypothetical," we are talking about __________.
increases
ANSWER:
stays the same

decreases an observation that we have not yet made, but probably will in the future

an observation that we have not actually made

an observation that could not possibly be made

ANSWER:

The average distance increases with time both between raisins in the cake and between galaxies in the universe.
ANSWER:
Raisin 1 is near the center of the cake, just as our galaxy is near the center of the universe.

The raisins stay roughly the same size as the cake expands, just as galaxies stay roughly the same size as the universe expands. You discover a pair of distant galaxies that are colliding with one another.

Both the raisin cake and the universe have a well-defined inside and outside. You discover an extremely distant galaxy that is moving toward us.

The temperature starts low and ends high in both the raisin cake and the universe. You discover an extremely distant galaxy that is moving away from us at 90% of the speed of light.

An observer at any raisin sees more distant raisins moving away faster, just as an observer in any galaxy sees more distant galaxies moving
away faster.

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11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5

Correct the gradual motion of stars in the local solar neighborhood

In an expanding universe, extremely distant galaxies must be moving away from us, just as distant raisins in the raisin cake must be moving
away. It would make no sense to find an extremely distant galaxy that was moving toward us, and such an observation would, therefore, cause the gradual change in the patterns of the constellations over thousands of years
us to question the very idea of an expanding universe.
Earth's orbit around the Sun

the varying speed of Earth in its orbit around the Sun

Key Concept: Measuring Distance Through Stellar Parallax
Correct
Stellar parallax occurs because we see stars from different vantage points as Earth orbits the Sun. As shown in the video, this causes the
positions of relatively nearby stars to appear to shift over the course of each year (compared to the positions of more distant objects).
Learning Goal:
To understand how stellar parallax offers proof that Earth orbits the Sun, and how the ancient Greeks' inability to detect parallax affected the ancient debate
over Earth's place in the universe. Part C
Launch the video below, then answer the questions that follow.
Compared to a nearer star, a more distant star will have a __________.

Hint 1. How long does it take for a star to make one complete cycle of apparent motion due to stellar parallax?
Suppose you observe a star's position today and then observe the star's position shift due to stellar parallax. How long will it take for the star to
be back to today's position?
ANSWER:

6 months

1 year

it depends on the star's distance

Part A

You learned about the general concept of parallax in Chapter 2, and the video offers a review of the basic ideas. To check your understanding of the
concept, which of the following is a valid way of demonstrating parallax for yourself?
ANSWER:

Hint 1. Definition of parallax smaller parallax angle

Parallax is the apparent shift in position of an observed object due to a change in the position of the observer.
larger parallax angle

parallax shift taking less time to go back and forth

ANSWER:
parallax shift taking more time to go back and forth

Hold up your hand in front of your face, and alternately close your left and right eyes.

Hold up your hand in front of your face, and move it slowly back and forth. Correct
To summarize: Tthe greater a star's distance, the smaller its parallax angle.
Look up at a star, and notice how it moves toward the western horizon during the night.

Get a camera, and photograph a person who is running back and forth.
Parts D through F use the parallax formula:
1
d (in light-years) = 3.26 ×
Correct p (in arcseconds)

The key point is that parallax is an apparent shift in an object's position caused by a change in how you view it, not an actual motion of the
Review the video if you need help understanding this formula.
object.

Part D
Part B Suppose there was a star with a parallax angle of 1 arcsecond. How far away would it be?
Which of the following makes it possible for us to observe stellar parallax (from Earth)? Select all that apply.

ANSWER:
Hint 1. Definition of stellar parallax

Stellar parallax is an apparent shift in the position of a star (against the background of more distant objects) resulting from a change in the position
from which we observe the star.

ANSWER:

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3.26 parsecs 2 times smaller

1 light-year 5 times smaller

1/3.26 light-years 5 times larger

3.26 light-years

32.6 light-years
ANSWER:

Correct throughout the Local Group of galaxies (including the Andromeda galaxy), but not in more distant galaxies
You can see this simply by putting in p = 1 in the parallax formula, which gives you d = 3.26 light-years. If this still isn't clear, review the video,
where you will see this exact question as the Pause and Predict question that is answered for you. throughout the observable universe

throughout the Milky Way Galaxy, but not in the Andromeda galaxy or other more distant galaxies

Part E only within about 10,000 light-years of Earth

Use the parallax formula to complete the following statements correctly. only within about 1,000 light-years of Earth
ANSWER:

Correct
Reset Help To see why, notice that 0.00002 arcsecond is 5 times smaller than 0.0001 arsecond, and from Part E you know that the distance to star with a
parallax angle of 0.0001 arcsecond is 32,600 light-years. Therefore, the ability to measure parallax angles as small as 0.00002 arcsecond
means GAIA can in principle measure distances to stars about 5 times farther than that, or roughly 150,000 light-years, which means it can
measure distances throughout the Milky Way galaxy (diameter about 100,000 light-years), but not to stars in the Andromeda galaxy (distance
A star with a parallax angle of 0.1 arcsecond is 32.6 light-years away from us.
2.5 million light-years) or beyond.
0.326 light-year
A star with a parallax angle of 0.01 arcsecond is 326 light-years away from us.

Prelecture Narrated Figure: The Cosmic Distance Scale—Hubble's Law

A star with a parallax angle of 0.001 arcsecond is 3260 light-years away from us.
10,000 light-years

1000 light-years A star with a parallax angle of 0.0001 arcsecond is 32,600 light-years away from us.

3.26 light-years Learning Goal:

To understand how we calibrate Hubble's law and use it to estimate galaxy distances.
First, launch the video below. Then, close the video window and answer the questions at right. You can watch the video again at any point.

10 light-years

1 light-year

100 light-years

0.1 light-year

Part A
Correct
Notice the simple pattern arising from the simple parallax formula. Hubble's law expresses a relationship between __________.

Hint 1. What is a galaxy's recession velocity?

Part F
What do we mean by a galaxy's recession velocity?
The GAIA spacecraft is capable of measuring parallax angles as small as about 0.00002 arcsecond (20 microarcseconds). Based on this fact, GAIA
should in principle be able to measure the distances of stars located __________. ANSWER:

The speed at which it is moving away from Earth due the expansion of the universe.
Hint 1. How does 0.00002 arcsecond compare to 0.0001 arcsecond?
Compared to an angle of 0.0001 arcsecond, an angle of 0.00002 arcsecond is __________. The speed at which its outermost stars are orbiting its galactic center.

ANSWER: The speed at which particles ejected from its central black hole are receding from us.

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11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5
30,000 km/s

ANSWER: d =
km/s
22
million light-years

You can complete the calculation with a calculator.

the recession velocity of a galaxy and the speed at which it is moving away from us

Hubble's constant and the recession velocity of a galaxy

ANSWER:
the distance of a star from the center of its galaxy and its orbital speed
910 million light-years
the distance of a galaxy and the speed at which it is moving away from us
45 million light-years

2.7 billion light-years

Correct
Hubble's law is a relationship between galaxy distances and the speeds at which they are moving away from us due to the expansion of the 1.4 billion light-years
universe, also known as their recession velocities. Other factors also affect total galaxy speeds, such as the gravitational influence of
neighboring galaxies, so Hubble's law works well only when these other factors are small compared to the speed due to expansion. This is why
Hubble's law works well only for very distant galaxies: Their recession speeds are so great that any motions caused by neighboring galaxies are
tiny in comparison. Correct
You should now see the value of Hubble's law: Once it has been calibrated, which requires measurements of only a relatively small number of
galaxies, it can be used to estimate the distance of any other distant galaxy.

Part B

We can always determine the recession velocity of a galaxy (at least in principle) from its redshift. But before we can use Hubble's law, we must first
Part D
calibrate it by __________.
Based on what you have learned, which of the following best describes the meaning of Hubble's constant (H0 )?

Hint 1. Definition of "calibration" in the context of Hubble's law

The word "calibrate" means "to determine the precise measurement." In the context of Hubble's law, this means determining precisely how galaxy Hint 1. Reading the units of Hubble's constant
recession velocities vary with distance. Therefore, to calibrate Hubble's law, we must measure both the recession velocities and distances of many The graph in the Interactive Figure shows that the best-fit value of Hubble's constant is H0 = 22 km/s/million light-years . We read this as
galaxies. The distance measurements must come from some technique that does not depend on Hubble's law itself, such as a standard candle "22 kilometers per second, per million light-years." Look closely at the axes on the graph and you should see where these units come from.
technique using Cepheids or white dwarf supernovae.

Hint 2. What if Hubble's constant were larger?

ANSWER: Suppose that Hubble's constant is actually larger than the current best-fit value of 22 km/s/million light-years. Compared to what we now calculate
from Hubble's law, the larger value of Hubble's constant would tell us that a galaxy located 1 billion light-years away is __________.
measuring the distances to many distant galaxies with a standard candle technique ANSWER:

using Hubble's law to estimate the distances of many galaxies

is more massive but still moving at the same speed
measuring the distances to many distant galaxies with parallax
moving away from us slower due to the expansion of the universe
determining the age of the universe
moving away from us faster due to the expansion of the universe

Correct
We need distant standard candles, such as white dwarf supernovae, to measure the distances of galaxies so that we can plot them on a graph
of recession velocity (which we can always measure from redshift) versus distance. It is from this graph that we learn Hubble’s law and find the ANSWER:
value of Hubble's constant.

It describes the total mass of our expanding universe.

Part C It describes the expansion rate of the universe, with higher values meaning more rapid expansion.

Suppose that you measure a galaxy's redshift, and from the redshift you determine that its recession velocity is 30,000 (3 × 10
4
) kilometers per second. It describes the expansion rate of the universe, with higher values meaning less rapid expansion.
According to Hubble's law, approximately how far away is the galaxy?
It describes the distances at which galaxies are located in an expanding universe.

Hint 1. Finding the answer with the Interactive Figure

You can use the Interactive Figure to find the answer to Part C. From the main screen, click on the blue label for "Hubble's Law," then click the Correct
"Use Hubble's Law" button. You can now use the slider to select the recession velocity and read off the distance for the galaxy. Note that 1000 The larger the value of Hubble's constant, the faster galaxies are being carried away from us with the expansion of the universe. For example, if
million light-years is the same as 1 billion light-years. a galaxy's velocity depended only on the expansion of the universe, then a galaxy that is 1 million light-years away would have a recession
velocity of 22 kilometers per second, a galaxy 10 million light-years away would have a recession velocity of 220 kilometers per second, and a
Hint 2. Finding the answer with a calculation galaxy 100 million light-years away would have a recession velocity of 2200 kilometers per second. In other words, Hubble's constant essentially
tells us the expansion rate of the universe, since it tells us how fast galaxies are moving at different distances away from us. A higher value of
You can find the answer to Part C using the Interactive Figure. However, if you prefer to use an equation, it is easy to calculate with Hubble's law. Hubble's constant would mean higher recession speeds—which would mean a more rapid expansion rate for the universe.
The law states
v = H0 × d

where v is the recession velocity, d is the distance, and H0 is Hubble's constant. Solving for d, we find
v The Cosmic Distance Scale—Cepheids
d =
H0

Therefore, for a recession velocity of 30,000 km/s, the distance is

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11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5

Learning Goal: ANSWER:
To understand the properties of Cepheids and how they are used to measure distances to nearby galaxies.

First, launch the interactive figure below. Cepheids are a key link in the chain of techniques used to measure distances throughout the universe. This tutorial 10,000
will guide you through exploring Cepheids in detail.
30,000

500

3000

Correct
You can now see why the period-luminosity relation is so useful. It's relatively easy to measure a Cepheid's period, and once we've done that,
we can use the period-luminosity relation to determine the Cepheid's average luminosity.

Part C
Next, click the label on the bottom of the Interactive Figure that reads Cepheids as Standard Candles to bring up the next screen. Read the instructions
that appear in the upper left hand corner and study the animation.

You may also find it useful to watch the video Galaxies and the Foundation of Modern Cosmology, which discusses the cosmic distance scale starting at What actually causes a Cepheid to vary in apparent brightness?
about 3:20 into the video.

Hint 1. What factors determine the luminosity of a star?

Part A
The two properties of a star that affect its luminosity are its __________.
To get started, click on the blue Cepheids link on the main screen of the Interactive Figure. The Interactive Figure (in red) shows a graph of the Cepheid
period-luminosity relation. This graph indicates that __________. ANSWER:

mass and radius

Hint 1. What are Cepheids?
Cepheids are a type of _____. radius and surface temperature

ANSWER: mass and distance

gas cloud

star ANSWER:

galaxy
The Cepheid varies in radius, and its luminosity is greater when its radius is smaller.

The Cepheid varies in mass, and its luminosity is greater when its mass is smaller.

ANSWER: The Cepheid varies in mass, and its luminosity is greater when its mass is larger.

The Cepheid varies in radius, and its luminosity is greater when its radius is larger.
Cepheids with longer periods have lower luminosities
The Cepheid moves alternately toward and away from us, and its apparent brightness is greater when it is closer.
Cepheids become more luminous as more time passes

Cepheids with longer periods have higher luminosities

Correct
Cepheids with longer periods are more likely to vary in luminosity As the animation shows, a Cepheid's apparent brightness varies as the Cepheid varies in size. Because a Cepheid is at a fixed distance from
Earth, these changes in apparent brightness reflect changes in luminosity. This fact, along with the fact that all Cepheids have similar surface
temperature, explains the period-luminosity relation: A larger Cepheid will be more luminous and will take longer to pulsate in size than a smaller
Cepheid.
Correct
The graph shows how the average luminosity of a Cepheid variable star depends on its period. Each dot represents a different Cepheid. The
data points suggest a clear trend: The longer the period of a Cepheid, the higher its luminosity.
Part D

From here, click the Next button in the Interactive Figure to bring up the screen that shows a Cepheid light curve in the upper left.
Part B
What is the approximate luminosity of the Cepheid whose light curve is shown in the graph?
A Cepheid with a period of 30 days has an average luminosity that is about __________ times the luminosity of the Sun.

Hint 1. What is the Cepheid's period?

Hint 1. Reading the graph
Approximately what is the period of the Cepheid whose light curve is shown?
The key to reading the graph is to focus on the solid red “best-fit” line, not on the individual dots. Find a period of 30 days on the horizontal axis,
then look upward to find where this period meets the red line. Now, look left to find the luminosity that goes with the 30-day period. ANSWER:

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11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5

Step 2: From Part D, you already know that the luminosity of the Cepheid is about 9600 LSun , which in scientific notation is 9 × 103
20 days L Sun . Set the luminosity slider so the readout is as close as possible to this value. It doesn't have to be exactly 9.

Step 3: Now move the Distance slider until the "Predicted brightness" matches the "Apparent brightness" listed for this Cepheid; you
100 days have now found the Cepheid's distance. You should see that as the distance increases, the "Predicted brightness" gets smaller
(because moving an object farther away makes it appear less bright).
10 days

ANSWER:

Hint 2. Using the graph to find the Cepheid's luminosity

17 million light-years
Follow this procedure to find the Cepheid's luminosity:
25,000 light-years
Step 1: Place your cursor over the light curve, and it will show you the position in days along the horizontal axis. Measure the number
of days from one peak to the next; this is the period. 2 million light-years
Step 2: Now place your cursor over the graph of the period-luminosity relation. As you move it, you should see two labeled yellow
lines, as shown in the figure below. For the point where the lines intersect, the vertical line tells you the period in days and the 300,000 light-years
horizontal line tells you the luminosity in solar units. Be sure that you place the cursor on the blue curve and that you set the period
to the period you found in Step 1. You can then read the luminosity that goes with this period.

Note that the cursor is very sensitive, but as long as you are approximately correct, you should get the right answer. Correct
To find this answer, set the luminosity slider to the value you found in Part D. Then adjust the distance slider until the "Predicted brightness"
matches the Cepheid's apparent brightness of 1.3 × 104 (in the units shown). Notice that you've now found the Cepheid's distance by starting
only from its period, which is generally easy to measure.

Part F
Which of the following three-step processes correctly describes how we use Cepheids as a tool to make cosmic distance measurements?

In all cases, assume that the Cepheid's apparent brightness has been carefully measured through observations.
ANSWER:

Step 1: Measure the period of the Cepheid's brightness variations.

Step 2: Use the period to determine the amount that the Cepheid changes in radius as it pulsates.
Step 3: Use the period-luminosity relation to determine the Cepheid's distance.

Step 1: Measure the changes in the Cepheid's radius as it pulsates.

Step 2: Calculate the Cepheid's luminosity from its radius and surface temperature.
ANSWER: Step 3: Calculate the Cepheid's distance from its luminosity and apparent brightness.

5000 LSun Step 1: Measure the period of the Cepheid's brightness variations.
Step 2: Use the period-luminosity relation to determine the Cepheid's luminosity.
8000 LSun Step 3: Calculate the Cepheid's distance from its luminosity and apparent brightness.

20,000 LSun
Step 1: Measure the luminosity of the Cepheid.
2000 LSun Step 2: Use the period-luminosity relation to determine the Cepheid's period.
Step 3: Find the Cepheid's distance from its period and luminosity.

Correct
By mousing over the Cepheid light curve, you should have found that the period is about 20 days. Then, by mousing over the graph of the
period-luminosity relation, you'll find that a Cepheid with a period of 20 days has a luminosity of about 8000 LSun . You've essentially just done
Correct
Using this simple process, we can measure the distance to any galaxy in which we can identify an individual Cepheid variable star. We can now
what an astronomer does: You've taken the measured period of a Cepheid and used to find the Cepheid's luminosity.
identify Cepheids (and the galaxies in which they reside) up to about 100 million light-years away from Earth.

Part E
Problem 12.7
Notice that the window with the light curve also has a box that tells you the average apparent brightness of the Cepheid, which shows a value of
1.3 × 10 . (The units are shown in the box, but you only need to focus on the numerical value.) Based on this apparent brightness and the luminosity
4

you found in Part D, what is the approximate distance to this Cepheid?

Hint 1. Procedure for finding the distance with the Interactive Figure
Part A
Follow this procedure to find the Cepheid's distance:
When the ultraviolet light from hot stars in very distant galaxies finally reaches us, it arrives at Earth in the form of
Step 1: Be sure you are on the correct screen of the Interactive Figure; you should see a light curve at the top left and a graph of the
period-luminosity relation at the top right. If you are not on the correct screen, go back to the main screen, click the blue Cepheid
label, then click the Cepheids as Standard Candles button, and then click the Next button at the lower left. Hint 1. Expanding Universe

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11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5 11/24/24, 6:35 PM Homework module 5

Consider what happens to the wavelength of a light wave as it travels through an expanding universe.
Problem 12.9
ANSWER:

slightly more energetic ultraviolet light.

Part A
radio waves.
If you observed the redshifts of galaxies at a given distance to be twice as large as they are now, the value you would determine for Hubble's constant
visible or infrared light. would be
x-rays.
Hint 1. Hubble's Law

Use tha fact the redshift is proportional to recession speed and Hubble's law.
Correct
The expansion of the universe causes redshift of the light, which stretches light to longer wavelengths. Ultraviolet light from a distant galaxy will
be redshifted to visible of even infrared light when it reaches Earth. ANSWER:

half its current value.

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 12.12
twice its current value.

equal to its current value.

Part A Correct
Redshift is proportional to recession speed, and the recession speed is proportional to the product of distance and Hubble's constant. If the
Which of the following statements correctly explains why galaxy collisions should have been more common in the past than they are today? distance is unchanged, then double redshift means double Hubble's constant.
ANSWER:
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 90.5%.
Galaxies were much bigger in the past because they had not contracted completely. You received 31.69 out of a possible total of 35 points.

Galaxies were more active in the past and therefore would have collided with each other more frequently.

Galaxies attracted each other more strongly in the past because they had not yet turned most of their mass into stars.

Galaxies were closer together in the past because the universe was smaller.

Correct
As the universe expands, the average distance between galaxies increases, making collisions less likely (on average) as time passes. (Note
that this does not affect the likelihood of collisions within clusters, because clusters are gravitationally bound and are not expanding with time.)

Pre-Lecture Reading Question 12.13

Part A

Telescopes designed to study the earliest stages in galactic lives should be optimized for observations in __________.

ANSWER:

visible light

infrared light

radio waves

x-rays

Correct
We must observe distant galaxies to see how galaxies looked when they were young, and these galaxies have such large redshifts that any light
they emitted as visible or ultraviolet has been shifted into the infrared.

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