Edexcel IGCSE

Pakistan Studies Geography Section A Notes

Written by IGCSE II Girls (2020-21)

Copyright © 2021 by Khadeejah Syedah, Minahil Imran, Eshaal Malik, Sumrun Fatima, Maimoona Imran, Fatima
Ishtiaq, Nida Zahid, Syeda Ayesha Kakakhel
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 1.1 Location, climate and biomes
(a) Position of Pakistan in South Asia and globally, and regional variations in climatic
zones (humid subtropical, desert/ semi-arid, temperate and Mediterranean).

Regional Variations in Climatic Zones

Humid Subtropical Climate

➔ Includes: Northern, Western, and North-Western mountains.
➔ Winters: long, cold and snowy.
➔ Summers: short and mild.
➔ Rainfall: highest, increases with altitude
➔ Rainfall Sources: Monsoon Winds, Western Depressions, Relief Rainfall.
➔ Presence of: rainshadow areas, retarded growth and landsliding.
➔ Farming: often not possible
➔ Main Crops: apples, apricots and grapes
➔ Main Industrial Activities: carpeting, embroidery work, pottery, cottage industries.
➔ A common occurrence of natural disasters leads to large scale migration; most people living here
are nomads.

Desert/Semi-Arid Climate
➔ Includes: South-Western Balochistan and the South-Eastern Deserts
➔ Features: Hot dusty winds, Scanty rainfall, Heat, dryness and dust storms, less moisture, barren,
infertile land..
➔ Main sources of rainfall: monsoon winds, western depressions
➔ Majority are nomads (low population density)
➔ Irrigation: through Karez system and perennial canals by Balochistan rivers (inefficient and
insufficient water supply)
➔ Main Crops: apples, grapes, melons and peaches, wheat, rice, cotton and oil seeds (difficult crop
cultivation)
➔ Cold nights, hot days

Temperate Climate
➔ Includes: Upper and Lower Indus Plain
➔ Summers: hot
➔ Winters: cold
➔ Main sources of Rainfall: Monsoon Winds, Western Depressions, Relief and Convectional
Rainfall.
➔ Features: thunderstorms, fertile area, irrigated by Indus and its Tributaries
➔ All major crops are grown here.
➔ High population density.

Meditteranean Climate
➔ Includes: Sindh and Makran Coastal Areas
➔ Maritime Influence keeps the daily range of temperature moderate in all seasons.
➔ Experiences less average rainfall.
➔ Main Sources of Rainfall: Monsoon Winds, Western Depressions, Tropical Cyclones
➔ Economic Activity is conducted throughout the year and this is a hub for trade.
➔ High humidity levels
➔ Population flow is mostly towards Karachi.

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 (b) The nature and causes of seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature,
including the characteristics and causes of the Southwest Monsoon and Western
Disturbances.

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 Monsoon Winds

➔ Winds originate from Bay of Bengal, flow through India and then enter Pakistan.
➔ Pakistan is a low-pressure area in Summer, which is why winds move towards Pakistan from
high-pressure zones.
➔ They mainly cause rainfall in June, August and September.
➔ The summer winds are known as South-West monsoons.

South-West monsoons:

➔ Giant sea breezes that bring heavy rainfall.

➔ They begin when summer sun heats up in tropical continents much faster than in the oceans around.
Warm air rising overland creates a low pressure, which attracts cool, moist air from the sea, and
rain-bearing winds which are pushed further inland and cause heavy rainfall.
➔ They blow towards the heart of the continent in summer.

Western Depressions

➔ Originate from Mediterranean Sea, travel via Afghanistan and enter through western side of Pakistan.
➔ Winds cause rainfall in December to March.
➔ Quetta receives most rainfall from this.
➔ KPK and Northern Punjab also receive rainfall through this source.
➔ They bring moisture for winter crops, recharge reservoirs and are remedy for skin problems.
➔ They lower temperatures massively, increase chances of landslides and avalanches, which lead to
increased road accidents.

Relief Rainfall
➔ It is related to the height of land.
➔ It occurs where moist, unstable air moves up a mountain or scarp edge and is chilled.
➔ This causes heavy condensation and precipitation on the windward side.
➔ The lee slopes tend to receive sinking, warming air and a dry ‘rain shadow’ area may lie leeward of the
barrier.

Convection Currents Causing Thunderstorms

➔ At the start of summer, hot air rises up which also contains a high moisture content. When it reaches the
higher layers of the atmosphere, condensation takes place. This causes rainfall (often as
thunderstorms). Strong winds accompanying the storms may pick up dust as well.
➔ Only Northern and North-Western areas of Pakistan receive rainfall from convection currents.
➔ Southern Pakistan is deprived of conventional rainfall due to a temperature inversion layer (A
temperature inversion layer does not allow condensation to take place at the height of 1600 meters. As
a result, warm air descends and no rainfall occurs).

Tropical Cyclones (for further detail, refer to 1.3 (b),(c) of this document)

➔ They may bring a few hours of very heavy rainfall with destructive winds to the coastal areas.
➔ They originate over the Arabian Sea quite often but only rarely do they reach the coast of Pakistan,
usually once every few years.
➔ This sort of rainfall is therefore totally unreliable in terms of when and where on the coast it will occur.

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 Factors Affecting Temperature in Pakistan

Latitudinal Effect

➔ Areas closer to the equator (Southern Pakistan) have higher temperatures and vice
versa (Northern Pakistan).

Continental Effect

➔ Areas farther from water bodies experience more extreme temperatures in both
summer and winter and vice versa (Karachi and Northern Mountains temperature
difference).

Altitude and Temperature

➔ The higher the altitude, the lower the temperature (Northern, Western Mountains,
Southern Balochistan temperature difference).

Cloud Cover and Temperature

➔ In daytime: reflects back solar radiation to outer space, to create a drop in

temperature during the day.
➔ At Night: traps any outgoing heat to prevent a massive drop in temperature at night
(foggy and cloudy areas such as Lahore).

Latitude and the Angle of the Sun

➔ The Tropic of Cancer (Pakistan is located here) faces longer days, higher
temperatures and summer season and at this time, the opposite occurs in the Tropic
of Capricorn (and vice versa).

(c) Distribution and characteristics of large-scale ecosystems (i.e. biomes).

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 Biomes

➔ Biomes are large naturally occurring communities of flora and fauna occupying a
major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra.
➔ The largest biomes in Pakistan are the deserts that cover over 11 million acres of land.
The deserts are used as agricultural land to make tree plantations.
➔ The 2nd biggest biomes are the scrub and tropical forests. The forest covers over 4
million acres of land.
➔ The 3rd biggest biomes are the coastal regions. The coastal region lies on the side of
the Arabian Sea.
➔ The Alpine Tundra is rather a flat land with much rain and snow. These cold grass
plains are covered with snow 5-6 months a year and when they aren't, it rains.
➔ These many varieties of biomes and climates result in Pakistan having a rich
biodiversity and many ecosystems and a vast variety of wildlife and habitats.

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 Ecological Regions of Pakistan/Biomes

Himalayan Subtropical Pine Forests Indus River Delta Arabian Sea Mangroves
➔ Tropical and subtropical coniferous ➔ Classified as Mangrove biome.
forest biome ➔ Lies on Arabian Sea Coastline
➔ Stretches 3000 km across Himalayas ➔ Instant sufficient Monsoon rainfall.
through Pakistan, India, Nepal and ➔ At times very high temperatures.
Bhutan. ➔ Mangrove trees are dominant Flora
➔ Dominant pine species is charpine. ➔ Common species: grey, red, and
➔ Trees are widely spaced. black Indian mangroves.
➔ Fire is a common occurrence in the ➔ Support rich undergrowth of saplings.
forests. ➔ Mangroves are an important
➔ Burnt slopes are present which are breeding ground for fish and
homes to abundant grass species crustaceans.
and shrub species. ➔ Significant avifauna migration point.
➔ Region is divided into eastern and ➔ Waterbirds inhibit the region.
western parts. ➔ Extensive irrigation, agriculture,
➔ Eastern parts receive more rainfall human encroachment and pollution
from monsoon winds than western are major threats.
parts.
➔ This region is severely damaged
through agriculture and
deforestation.

Thar Desert Indus Valley Desert

➔ Classified as xeric shrublands and ➔ Classified as desert and xeric
deserts biome. shrublands biome.
➔ Lies in the Thar desert found in both ➔ Lies in Indus Valley in Pakistan.
Pakistan and India. ➔ Almost inhospitable with scanty
➔ Little Monsoon rainfall, sand dunes, rainfall and high temperatures.
rockforms, salt lake bottoms are ➔ Shrubs are the most common
common landforms. vegetation. Receives less human
➔ Shrub species and grasses are influence due to extreme conditions.
common vegetation. ➔ Hunting of mammal species is the
➔ Several mammal species have major threat.
adapted to extreme conditions there.
➔ Some conservation reserves are
present as well.
➔ Overgrazing and intro to alien
species are main threats.

1.2 Tectonic and glacial processes and landforms, and geophysical hazards
a) Tectonic processes affecting Pakistan and the formation of the Himalayan landscape
(fold mountains).

Tectonic processes affecting Pakistan

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Earthquakes As the Eurasion and Indian plates converge in northern Pakistan they result in
pressure that causes fractures called faults. As the pressure is released,
sudden movement occurs along the fault lines, resulting in an earthquake

Landsliding Any time plate tectonics move the soil that covers them moves with it. When
earthquakes occur on areas with steep slopes(northern mountains), many
times the soil slips causing landslides.

Formation of the Himalayan landscape

225 million years ago, India and Pakistan formed a large island separated from Asia by the Sea of Tethys. Due t
Eurasion plates) moved towards each other and converged. They collided, applying strong opposing forces resu
had the same density, they did not subduct.
Compression caused them to fold upwards and the process took millions of years after which the Himalayan lan

b) Glacial processes that operate in the Himalayan landscape (long-term and seasonal
accumulation/ablation of glacial systems).

Glaciers shape the land through processes of erosion, weathering,

transportation and deposition, creating distinct landforms.

Erosion

Abrasion Plucking

➔ As the glacier moves downhill, rocks ➔ Rocks become frozen into the bottom
that have been frozen into the base and sides of the glacier. As the
and sides of the glacier scrape the glacier moves downhill, it ‘plucks’ the
rocks frozen into the glacier from the
rock beneath. The rocks scrape the
ground.
bed rock like sandpaper, leaving
scratches called striations behind.

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 Weathering

Freeze-thaw Weathering

➔ Freeze-thaw weathering is the main type of weathering. During the day when
temperatures are higher, the snow melts and water enters the cracks in the rock.
When the temperature drops below 0 degrees Celsius, the water in the crack
freezes and expands about about 9%. This makes the crack larger. As this process
is repeated through continual thawing and freezing, the crack gets larger over time.
Eventually, pieces of rock break off.

Transportation and Deposition

Glaciers move very slowly. As they move, they transport material from one place to another.
These are the ways in which that material is transported and then deposited:

➔ As freeze-thaw weathering occurs along the edge of the glacier, pieces of rock,
which break off larger rocks, fall onto the glacier and are transported.
➔ Rocks plucked from the bottom and side of the glacier move downhill with the ice.
➔ Bulldozing is when rocks and debris found in front of the glacier are pushed downhill
by the sheer force of the moving ice.
➔ Rotational Slip is the circular movement of the ice in the corrie.

Any material carried or moved by a glacier is called moraine. There are 3 different types of
moraine:

➔ Lateral Moraine: material deposited along both sides of the glacier. This moraine is
usually made up of weathered material that has fallen from the valley sides above the
glacier.
➔ Medial Moraine: material deposited in the middle of the glaciers. This is caused by
the lateral moraines of 2 glaciers when they meet.
➔ Terminal Moraine: material deposited at the end of the glacier.

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 Glacial Landforms Created by Glacial Landforms Created by
Erosion and Weathering Transportation and Deposition
A corrie is an armchair-shaped hollow The name given to all material deposited by a
found on the side of a mountain. This is glacier is called glacial till or Boulder clay. The
where a glacier forms. deposited material creates a range of
interesting features such as:
How does it form?
Erratics - these are rocks that have been
➔ Snow collects in a sheltered hole deposited by the glacier. They are usually
on the side of a mountain. This is made up of rock types that would not be
usually on north-facing slopes in found in that area. This suggests that erratics
the northern hemisphere. The can be carried a long way from an area of
snow doesn't melt in the summer different geology.
because it is high up, sheltered
and cold.
➔ Every winter more snow collects in Drumlins - drumlins are mounds of deposited
the hollow. This becomes Moraine. They have a steep side and a
compacted and the air is squeezed sloping side. They can be small or large.
They are sometimes described as having a
out, leaving ice.
‘basket of eggs’ topography because of the
➔ The back wall of the corrie gets unusual landscape they create.
steeper due to freeze-thaw
weathering and plucking.
➔ The base of the corrie becomes
deeper due to abrasion.
➔ As the glacier gets heavier, it
moves downhill. The glacier moves
out of the hollow in a circular
motion called rotational slip.
Features:

➔ Aretes - a narrow ridge of land that

is created when two corries erode
back towards each other.
➔ Pyramidal Peak - if 3 or more
corries erode back towards each
other, at the top of the mountain a
pointed peak is left behind.

c) The primary and secondary impacts of earthquakes on Pakistan and

responses of national and international governments, agencies and
individuals to these earthquake events.

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 Primary Impacts Secondary Impacts

➔ Destruction and collapsing of ➔ Social problems such as the

buildings spread of diseases etc.
➔ Fires ➔ Permanent destruction of
➔ Landslides infrastructure.
➔ Faults in the earth ➔ Hampers relief efforts
➔ Massive loss of life ➔ Burden on national economy
(food, medical aid, shelter etc.) =
unstable economy
➔ Broken pipes leading to
contaminated water.
➔ Bad weather = deaths due to
cold, agricultural problems etc.
➔ Groundwater pollution
➔ Wide Scale migration
➔ Halted tourism
➔ Emergency relief and rescue
measures are implemented.
➔ Rehabilitation expenditures
increase.
➔ Soil contamination
➔ Climate changes (rainfall
patterns, snowfall, dust storms)
➔ Increasing debt burden on
pakistan due to inflow of foreign
loans.

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 National Responses International Responses

Who? Who?
➔ Local people surrounding the area ➔ NGO’s
➔ NGO’s ➔ Foreign Countries (Tunisia &
➔ Army and emergency services Afghanistan etc.)
What? ➔ First help came from Turkey
➔ Provided immediate relief and rescue ➔ ERRA, UNO, Red Crescent, OXFAM
and accommodation to the homeless. What?
Basic necessities such as food and ➔ Foreign loans flowed into the country
medical aid were also provided. ➔ Moral and financial support was given
➔ Tourism halted

Short-term Responses Long-term Responses

➔ Army and emergency services joined ➔ Schools and hospitals rebuilt.

the rescue effort. ➔ Building regulations were improved to
➔ Tents were given out by charities. reduce damage and death rate in the
➔ Aid workers arrived from abroad to future.
find survivors and treat the injured. ➔ The government tried to reduce its
burden by paying the loans they took.

1.3 Relief, drainage and hydrometeorological hazards

a) The relief regions and characteristics of the drainage network of Pakistan (Indus,
Jhelum, Sutlej, Chenab and Ravi floodplains and Indus deltaic coastline).

Relief regions

Region Topography Drainage Economy and people

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Northern & Includes Karakoram, Eastern tributaries In summers when the
North-Western Himalaya, and the include Jhelum, snow peaks melt, the
Mountains Hindu Kush. Chenab, River Indus, water drains into
Ravi, Beas, and River Indus and its
Ranges run from Sutlej. tributaries which help
west to east. in the irrigation of the
Western tributaries Indus plain.
Height increases include Kabul and
from South to North Swat. Source of valuable
minerals, fruits, and
It has deep narrow timber.
valleys
Historic passesare
Snow capped peaks present
and steep slopes are
present Protect against the
cold winds.
Glaciers such as
Siachen, Baltoro, and The scenery attracts
Batura are present tourists and promotes
tourism
It has high passes
including Khunjerab, Provide the raw
Shandur, and material for
Lawarai. chemicals, furniture,
paper, etc.

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Western mountains Kirthar, Safed Koh, The drainages The water drains in
Waziristan, and include Khurram, the western rivers
Sulaiman are the Hab, Lyari, Tochi, helping in the
Zhob, and Gomal.
parallel ranges that cultivation of
run from south to sugarcane, rice, and
north. wheat.

The height increases The passes connect

from south to the Pakistan to
north respectively. Afghanistan.

Valleys and low-lying Create a defensive

basins are present wall between
Pakistan and
Safed Koh is the only Afghanistan.
peak that is covered
in snow. These mountains are
rich in boulders, clay,
There are many limestone ridges and
historic passes sandstones.
including Bolan,
Tochi, and Khurram. Prevent Pakistan
from western
There are not many depressions.
glaciers.
There are important
military centers
namely Kohat and
Bannu.

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Potwar plateau and Undulating land and The drainage It is rich in
the salt range an extensive flat includes River Soan, soapstones, marble,
area. Uchali, Khabeki, and non-metallic
KallarKahar.
minerals, limestone,
Its height varies from gypsum, dolomite,
300 m to 600 m. and clay.

It has residual hills It has oil and gas

namely Khairi Murat fields namely, Attock
and Kala Chitta Oil Refinery.
ranging up to 1000
m. On Potwar Plateau,
through rainwater
Badland topography: gram, wheat, barley,
troughs, ravines and and maize are
landscapes of ridges. cultivated.

It has parallel salt

ranges from 750 m to
900 m.

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Balochistan Plateau It has ridges and The drainages In Kharan and
eroded landscape. include Hingol, Punjgore, there are
Dasht, Hab, and gold and antimony
Paroli.
It has barren deposits.
mountain ranges There are also
including Toba Kakar temporary salt lakes There are also gas,
and Makran Coast namely Hamun-i-Lora crude oil, and coal
from 600 m to 3010 and Hamun-i- deposits.
m. Mashkel.
The economy is
There several through livestock and
irregular depressions its products and
including Lorelai and fishing at Ormara,
Zhob basins. Gwadar, and Pasni.

On the western side, There is also a

there are inland vegetable seed
drainage basins. industry.

There is a Lasbela Fishing activity is

plain that is marked common.
by sand dunes and
gravel.

It has Makran Coast

which is a narrow
coastal plain.

Drainage network

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Active flood - Narrow strip of land on both sides of the river.
plains - Flooded almost every year.
- When the season of rain concludes, alluvium can be found in its
dry and braided channels making it highly fertile

Old flood plains - Area between the terraces of alluvial and active flood plains.
- When there is heavy rainfall only then it is flooded.
- Ox-bows abandoned channels and meander scars can be found
on these plains.

Alluvial Terraces - Areas of high grounds.

- Formed by old alluvium erosion.
- Found in Bari, Rachna and Chaj Doab in the Upper Indus Plain.
- Ideal for agriculture.

Piedmont Plains - Formed in the rainy season when streams and rivers deposit
alluvium at the foot of the mountain.
- Support agriculture too.
- Found at Himalayan Mountain, Kirthar and Sulaiman.

b) The causes and characteristics of tropical cyclones, storm surges and flooding (river
and coastal).

Tropical cyclones

Causes Warm sea surfaces cause the warm air near the surfaces to rise, creating a
low pressure area followed by the transfer of vapour from the warm sea
(temperature of at least 26 degrees Celsius) causes atmospheric instability
and encouraging the formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to
convection with condensation of rising air above ocean surface.

Characteristics - Originate over the Arabian Sea

- 300-1500 km in diameter
- Destructive winds
- Spiral bands

Storm surges

Causes When the strong winds in a hurricane or tropical storm reach shallow waters
near the coast, the vertical circulation in the ocean becomes disrupted by
the ocean bottom causing the winds to blow onshore resulting in the water
going inland.

Characteristics - Occurs right along the coastlines

- Can reach upto 20 feet or more
- Strong winds that push the water into the shore

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River flooding

Causes The rapid melting of glaciers followed by heavy monsoon rainfall in summer
months, causes the river tributaries to swell and overflow their banks

Characteristics - Soil erosion

- Uprooting of crops
- Wildlife destruction

Coastal flooding

Causes Mediterranean waves, extreme sea levels, increased river discharge and
tropical cyclones, which are generated over the Arabian Sea.

Characteristics - Wind storms

- High tides
- Inundation of land areas along the coast

c) The responses of national and international governments, agencies and individuals to

flooding and tropical cyclones in Pakistan.

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National government The National Disaster Management Authority manages a
complete spectrum of disasters by adopting a disaster risk
reduction perspective in development planning at all levels, and
through enhancing institutional capacities for disaster
preparedness, response and recovery.

Armed forces contribute very effectively in search and rescue

operations and provide immediate relief through a massive air and
ground effort.

Pakistan Initial Floods Emergency Response Plan has helped

in rescuing people as well as addressed the needs of
flood-affected families for the duration of the immediate relief
period.

The Government of Pakistan’s Citizens Damage

Compensation Programme has provided land and distributed
cash grants to help the affectees

International government The International Red Cross provides approximately 97 million

volunteers, members and staff worldwide, which was founded to
protect human life and health as well as to prevent and alleviate
human suffering.

Save the Children has mobilised humanitarian aid workers and

supplies in the form of emergency tents, emergency food rations
and pumping water out of main roads to ensure access to school
buildings and basic health units.

Agencies The Edhi Foundation has provided rescue boats along with aid in
the form of rations, clothes, medicines, blankets and tents.

The UN Cluster Approach provides relief and assistance to

beneficiaries in the form of emergency shelter, health, nutrition
and water hygiene and sanitation.

The Health and Nutrition Development Society has integrated a

developmental approach and disaster management expertise
including responses to floods and natural disasters

Alkhidmat Foundation dispatched 100 ration packs and other

necessary goods for the flood affectees.

UN agencies and their partners provided emergency aid in the

aftermath of the floods and have been continuing to help families
get back on their feet.

Individuals

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 1.4 Natural resources and their exploitation

a) The distribution and exploitation of two natural resources (water, forest products,
fish/shellfish and/or minerals).

b) Energy resources – renewable and non-renewable - their distribution and exploitation:

examples of one renewable and one non-renewable resource.

c) Environmental impacts resulting from the exploitation of one natural resource (water,
forest products, fish/shellfish or minerals) and one renewable and one non-renewable
energy resource.

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