REVIEW

published: 19 May 2022

doi: 10.3389/feart.2022.868701

Dispersion of Benthic Plumes in

Deep-Sea Mining: What Lessons Can
Be Learned From Dredging?
Rudy Helmons 1,2*, Lynyrd de Wit 3, Henko de Stigter 4 and Jeremy Spearman 5
1
Technische Universiteit Delft, Offshore and Dredging Engineering, Delft, Netherlands, 2Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Mineral Production and HSE, Trondheim, Norway, 3Stichting Deltares, Ecosystems and Sediment Dynamics, Delft,
Netherlands, 4Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel, Netherlands, 5HR Wallingford, Dredging and Coasts &
Oceans, Wallingford, United Kingdom

Over the past decade, deep-sea mining (DSM) has received renewed interest due to
scarcity of raw materials. Deep-sea mining has been spurred by the need for critical
resources to support growing populations, urbanization, high-tech applications and the
development of a green energy economy. Nevertheless, an improved understanding of
how mining activities will affect the deep-sea environment is required to obtain more
accurate assessment of the potential environmental impact. In that regard, the sediment
plumes that are generated by the mining activity have received the highest concern, as
these plumes might travel for several kilometers distance from the mining activity. Various
plume sources are identified, of which the most profound are those generated by the
Edited by:
Daniel R. Parsons, excavation and collection process of the seafloor mining tool and the discharge flow to be
University of Hull, United Kingdom released from the surface operation vessel after initial dewatering of the ore. In this review,
Reviewed by: we explore the physical processes that govern plume dispersion phenomena (focusing in
Anabela Oliveira,
Instituto Hidrográfico, Portugal
the main on benthic plumes), discuss the state of the art in plume dispersion analysis and
Vera Van Lancker, highlight what lessons can be learned from shallow water applications, such as dredging,
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural to better predict and reduce the spread and impact of deep-sea mining plumes.
Sciences, Belgium
*Correspondence: Keywords: sediment transport, negatively-buoyant plumes, flocculation, aggregation, sediment spill
Rudy Helmons
[Link]@[Link]
1 INTRODUCTION
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to The demand for critical raw materials, such as cobalt and rare earth elements is growing worldwide.
Marine Geoscience, This growth in demand is driven by the increasing world population and its increasing welfare,
a section of the journal urbanization and development of technology (Hein et al., 2020). One of the main drivers nowadays is
Frontiers in Earth Science the electrification of the energy supply, e.g., cars, batteries, PV cells and wind-turbines. There is an
Received: 03 February 2022 increased global attention to the potential of deep-sea mineral deposits as an unexploited resource for
Accepted: 25 April 2022 various (critical) raw materials, and they is considered as a potential alternative to terrestrial deposits,
Published: 19 May 2022
hence they are of high economic interest (Wedding et al., 2015).
Citation: In general, three types of deposits, each with their own characteristics, are considered,
Helmons R, de Wit L, de Stigter H and i.e., polymetallic nodules, seafloor massive sulfides and cobalt-rich crusts. Polymetallic nodules
Spearman J (2022) Dispersion of
are found on the surface of abyssal plains of the oceans, typically at water depths of 4–6 km.
Benthic Plumes in Deep-Sea Mining:
What Lessons Can Be Learned From
Polymetallic nodules are rich in metals and rare earth elements. The most extensive known nodule
Dredging? deposits are found in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ) in the Pacific Ocean and the
Front. Earth Sci. 10:868701. Indian Ocean Nodule Field (Hein et al., 2020). Seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits are areas of
doi: 10.3389/feart.2022.868701 hard substratum with high base metal and sulphide content that form through hydrothermal

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

circulation and are commonly found at hydrothermal vents. Such fines might result in a turbidity flow. To date there has been no
vents are typically found at tectonic plate boundaries and deep-sea mining of SMS although the Solwara project, which
undersea volcanoes, e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Indian Ocean concerned the mining of SMS in Papua New Guinea in
and Bismarck Sea (Boschen et al., 2013). Cobalt-rich crusts 1,450–1,700 m water depth, progressed as far as a full
(CRC) are rock-like metalliferous mineral layers that form on Environmental Impact Assessment (Nautilus Minerals, 2008)
the flanks of seamounts. Depending upon the concentration of and production of a full-scale mining plant. The project
metal compounds in the sea water, crusts with different collapsed in 2019 when the developer, Nautilus, went into
thicknesses have formed in different ocean regions, ranging administration. There has been no full-scale mining of cobalt-
from 2 to 26 cm thickness. Most crusts have been found in the rich crust to date although in July 2020 Japan Oil, Gas & Metals
Prime Crust Zone (north-west Pacific), north-east of the Pacific National Corporation (JOGMEC, 2020), successfully undertook
Island states and Indian Ocean (Hein and Petersen, 2013). test mining of cobalt-rich crust from the Takuyo No. 5 Seamount
While being of economic interest, these deposits are also approximately 400 km east of Tokyo (JOGMEC, 2020).
essential habitats for benthic communities (Kaiser et al., 2017). The seafloor mining tool will feed the ore to a vertical
Concerns exist on the recovery rate of the area affected by the transport system to transport the ore to surface. Once the
mining activity (Gollner et al., 2017). stream of ore, water and remaining sediments arrives at the
The structure of this paper is as follows. First, we provide an production support vessel, the ore needs to be dewatered and the
overview of a typical mining system and discuss the main excess water and sediment will be returned back to the deep sea,
comparisons and differences for the three main marine creating a discharge plume of fine particulate material (Oebius
mineral deposit types. In the next chapter, we introduce the et al., 2001). Scenarios considered for the return water plume
turbidity plume theory and apply it to plume sources originating foresee that it will be released 1) in the water column below the
from a seafloor mining tool, based on publicly available thermocline, or 2) near the seabed (Washburn et al., 2019).
equipment properties. We will discuss relevant sediment In the exploitation phase of nodule mining, a typical seafloor
properties and we will elaborate on to what extent particle mining tool would have a width of 10–20 m and would move
aggregation might be of influence on the behavior of turbidity forward at a speed of approximately 0.3–0.5 m/s (Global Sea
plumes. Next will be an analysis of how specific conditions at Mineral Resources NV, 2018). Estimations of seabed disturbance
marine mineral deposits might be of influence on the generated (or erosion depth) are in the region of 7 cm (Lang et al., 2019), but
turbidity plumes. Finally, we will take a closer look about what others state a range of potentially 5–15 cm (Global Sea Mineral
knowledge is currently lacking for deep-sea mining, but where we Resources NV, 2018), or 10–15 cm (Nauru Ocean Resources Inc,
might benefit from experiences in shallow waters, e.g., in the field 2021). Little information is publicly available regarding the
of dredging. This will be done mainly through analysis of near- estimated amount of excess water discharged by the collector
bed turbidity discharges occurring from trailing suction hopper system, these vary in the range of 125—375 L/s per meter width of
dredges. In addition, we will indicate what experiences from a collector (Lang et al., 2019). Based on the estimated erosion
dredging might bring to the new field of deep-sea mining, aiming depth and the discharge flow rate, a volumetric sediment
at improved prediction of plume dispersion and what might be concentration of approximately 1–3% is expected, which is
done to minimize environmental impact caused by the equivalent to 25–80 g/L (initial bed porosities have been
equipment. reported to be in the range of 0.8–0.9 (Jones, et al., 2021)). In
the mining concepts published so far, independent of the choice
1.1 Mining Process of the collection method, the excess water and sediment will be
For each of the deposits, the lay-out of the entire mining discharged behind the mining vehicle, creating a plume of fine
system will be comparable. The ore is to be excavated and particulate material.
collected by one or more seafloor mining tools. For nodules, In the case of the near-bed generated plumes, i.e., nodule
this pick-up process can be either hydraulic, mechanical or a collector, SMS/CRC excavator or return water, sediment
combination of both. Typically, such collectors not only collect redeposition and bottom blanketing within the vicinity of
nodules, but also sediments and an excess of water. In the the mining site could potentially bury benthic organisms,
collector, nodules are to be separated from the entrained water. clog the respiratory surfaces of filter feeders and pollute the
The excess of water and sediments will then be discharged as a food supply for most benthic organisms. Both processes would
plume behind the collector, which is often referred to as a affect the deep-sea ecosystem structure and functioning to a
collector plume. certain, although presently unknown, extent (Ramirez-Llodra,
In the case of SMS and CRC, the hard substrate needs to be et al., 2011; Jones, et al., 2017). Currently, it is not yet known
excavated by rock cutting machines. So far, little is known about how large the affected area will turn out to be, and thus it is
what particle size distribution is to be expected, especially to what uncertain how severe the resulting environmental impact will
extent fines (also referred to as fine sediment, here defined as be. From a technical point of view, it is of utmost importance to
having a grain size diameter <63 µm) will be generated, which will 1) be able to accurately predict where these plumes will travel
depend on rock properties, water depth and the excavation tool and what deposition layer will be generated and 2) minimize
(Alvarez Grima et al., 2015; Helmons et al., 2016). As a result, the area affected by said near-bed plumes. Experience gained
little is known about the amount of fines that will be generated in turbidity management and analysis by the dredging industry
and spilled (not collected) by the seafloor mining tool. The spilled can be of help to achieve aforementioned objectives.

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2 TURBIDITY PLUME THEORY TABLE 1 | Range of dimensionless numbers for the discharge conditions. Values
are based on design specifications,–indicates lower bound, + indicates upper
bound for concentration c (0.01–0.03) (mol/L), vehicle velocity v (0.25–0.5) [m/s]
The mixture of water, sediment and fine-grained nodule debris and discharged volume Q (0.125–0.375) [m3/s per meter width]. Values are taken
that is discharged behind the mining vehicle can be characterized from (Lang et al., 2019).
as a negatively buoyant jet or plume. Due to its higher density, the ls lm
Re Fr Ri
plume will sink quickly to the seabed, from where it will H H

propagate as a turbidity current. The following analysis is c−, v−, Q- 13255 0.96 1.08 11885 1.14
valid for any type of mining plume, but here special emphasis c−, v+, Q- 6627 1.36 0.54 37733 3.85
will be put on the sediment plume generated by a nodule collector c−, v−, Q+ 39765 0.56 3.24 8241 0.50
c− v+, Q+ 19883 0.79 1.62 26162 1.69
(as this is the source of a turbidity plume that is best described in c+, v−, Q− 27230 1.11 0.81 12099 0.66
literature in terms of flow rate, concentration and the sediment c+, v+, Q- 13615 1.57 0.41 38413 2.22
properties). A similar approach can be used for other plume c+, v−, Q+ 81690 0.64 2.40 8389 0.29
sources as well. c+, v+, Q+ 40845 0.91 1.22 26634 0.97
The source term exiting from the mining vehicle is
characterized by its volume, momentum and buoyancy flux, in
the frame of reference of the moving vehicle, defined as: For Ri < 1, the flow is dominated by momentum, for Ri > 1 the
flow is dominated by buoyancy. Based on the numbers provided
Qj0
Auj0
by (Lang et al., 2019), the range of the dimensionless numbers is
Mj0
ρj0 Qj0 uj0 provided in Table 1. The current velocities close to the seabed in
ρj0 − ρcf the abyssal plains are generally rather low, with typical mean
g′j0
g
ρj0 current velocities in the range of 5–15 cm/s (Gillard et al., 2019).
During the mining operation, it must be assumed that the current
Bj0
Qj0 gj0 ′ can come from any direction, cross or parallel.
With the volume flux exiting from the discharge Qj0 , cross- It remains to be seen how the mining systems will perform
sectional area A, initial discharge velocity uj0 , initial momentum operationally. However, based on the analysis of the Froude and
flux Mj0 , discharge density ρjo , ambient density ρcf , reduced Richardson number, some regime changes, e.g., sub- or
gravity g’j0 , gravity g, and initial buoyancy flux Bj0 . It is worth supercritical flow being discharged from the mining collector.
mentioning, that in the case of an operational mining vehicle, the In the case where the outflow is subcritical (Fr < 1), the mixture
source is moving, discharging at an approximate neutral velocity. will automatically redistribute to arrive at Fr
1 with a discharge
This is envisaged by adjusting the discharge opening to at higher concentration and velocity in the lower half of its height
accommodate a similar discharge velocity of the mixture compared to the upper part of the discharge. In severe cases,
opposing the forward velocity of the mining tool, aiming for a water from the environment can even flow into the discharge. As
minimum net momentum. The conditions of the flow exiting a result, the assumed neutral exit velocity does not hold and thus
from the vehicle diffusers can be described with Reynolds Re, the outflow maintains more energy than anticipated. To
densimetric Froude Fr , Richardson Ri numbers, and the ratio of minimize the chance of heterogeneous outflow, various
net vehicle-discharge velocity relative to the current velocity ratio options are available, e.g., guided vanes and/or vortex generators.
(square root of the momentum ratio) γ, respectively given by
2.1 Length Scales
ρj0 uj0 H Initially the horizontal momentum is important, but eventually
Re
(negative) buoyancy will force the flow towards the seabed. After
μ
uj0 impinging on the bed, it will continue as a turbidity current.
Fr




Various regimes can be distinguished for a (negatively) buoyant
g′0H jet in crossflow (Fischer et al., 1979). An x-z reference frame is
g0 ′H used, i.e., x is in horizontal direction and z is in vertical
Ri
[Link] a distance of z < lm from the source a
u2j0












buoyant jet acts as a jet and when z > lm a buoyant jet acts as

ρj0 uj0 − uv 
2 a plume. A length scale zM is defined for the influence of the
γ
initial momentum compared to the ambient current. Length scale
ρcf u2cf
zB is defined for the influence of the initial buoyancy, when z < zB
initial buoyancy is dominant over the ambient current. These
With height of the discharge opening H, vehicle velocity uv and length scales are given by
dynamic viscosity μ.
3/4
For Re > 104, the outflowing mixture will be turbulent. As long Qj0 uj0 
as the jet starts fully turbulent, mixing of the jet is not strongly lm




Bj0
affected by the jet Reynolds number (Jirka, 2007) but it is 






primarily governed by Ri (equal to 1/Fr2 ) and γ. For Fr < 1 Qj0 uj0
zM

the outflow is subcritical, for Fr > 1 the outflow is supercritical. ucf

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

Bj0 vehicle on the discharged sediment plume. This work is based on

zB

u3cf a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model based on
Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) turbulence
See Figure 1 for a sketch of the different flow regimes in modelling. In this work, various vehicle scenarios are
relation to the different length scales. As the discharged flow is considered, mainly for different vehicle velocities and
sediment laden, an additional length scale can be defined, based discharge conditions. It also considers the effect of the wake of
on the jet momentum flux and the particle settling velocity the vehicle in the initial mixing phase. So far, no validation
through experiments has been provided.
Mj0
2/3
ls
Recently, (Ouillon et al., 2021) presented research on gravity
ws currents originating from moving sources. In their research, they
This length scale plays an important role in the analysis of the conducted experiments in a towing tank where a model collector
sedimentation spatial variation. The horizontal distance when particle discharges a dense dyed fluid in its wake. These experiments have
fallout first occurs can be linearly correlated to ls . A larger value been used to validate CFD results based on Direct Numerical
suggests that the particles mainly follow the plume trajectory, while Simulations (DNS). It is identified that the ratio of the speed of
low values of ls result in settling velocity dominating the flow response. the source (mining vehicle) to buoyancy velocity can be used to
According to experiments performed by (Lee et al., 2013), define sub- and supercritical gravity current formation. In the
the particle concentration contours may be divided into three case of supercritical flow (where the mining vehicle is able to stay
regions. For x < 0.5ls , the sediment jets behave like a pure jet in front of its own generated turbidity current), a wedge-shaped
with concentric contours. For 0.5ls < x < ls , the sediment cloud gravity current occurs behind the collector. In this supercritical
starts to depart from the water jet and for x > ls , the particle jet regime, the turbidity current goes through a second transition in
is separated significantly from the water jet. They also found a which the head of the turbidity current moves approximately
longitudinal deposition rate Fs based on ls . According to their normal to the vehicle’s direction, and the time evolution of the
experiments, sediment starts to fall out of the jet at front in lateral direction tends to be comparable to a constant
approximately x l ≈ 0.2 − 0.3, the peak deposition rate at volume lock-release gravity current. Their research provides
s valuable insights on the near-field behavior of the mining
approximately x
0.93 ls and at x
2.4ls over 90% of the
sediment input has settled. It has to be noted, that these vehicle plumes. For obvious reasons, their experiments have
experiments have been conducted for various narrow particle not considered the presence of actual sediments in the
size distributions consisting of sand or glass spheres. discharged flow. The effects of sediments will be discussed in
Laboratory experiments for horizontal sediment-laden the next section.
plumes have been conducted by (Bleninger, 2000) and
(Neves et al., 2002) who conducted experiments where the 2.2 Deep-Sea Sediments
sediment deposition was found to be log-normal distributed. Where coastal and shelf sediments usually are predominantly
These experiments were coupled with dimensional analysis to composed of lithogenic clay, silt and sand produced by
determine the deposition rate of small particles based on a weathering and erosion of the adjacent land mass (except on
momentum-settling length scale. subtropical and tropical carbonate shelves), deep-sea sediments
(Cuthbertson et al., 2008) and (Liu and Lam, 2013) demonstrated encountered at sites of potential DSM are usually a mixture of
experimentally and numerically that for initial sediment clay and silt transported from distant land masses by ocean
concentrations below 0.1% of volume, no significant changes to currents or wind, or produced by weathering of oceanic rock,
the properties of the jet flow are noticeable. For jets with higher and silt to sand-sized skeletal remains of mostly pelagic
initial sediment concentrations, the settling of particles is observed to organisms composed of carbonate (mostly coccolithophores
drag the jet with a downward bending trajectory. and planktonic foraminifera) or silica (mostly diatoms and
It is worth noting that hardly any publications so far have radiolarians). Volcanic debris and authigenic minerals
taken into consideration that in the case of a mining vehicle for precipitated from seawater or local pore water contribute a
the collection of polymetallic nodules, the vehicle will be relatively minor fraction, with areas rich in polymetallic
moving. The research conducted in laboratory seems to be sulphide or oxide precipitates as a notable exception. On the
entirely based on stationary jets. crests of mid-ocean ridges and seamounts, enhanced bottom
The work of (Decrop and De Wachter, 2019) is only one of the currents associated with internal waves often winnow out the
very few public articles that address the effect of the moving finest sediment fractions, producing a relatively coarse-grained

FIGURE 1 | Length scales and flow regimes of a buoyant jet in cross flow in case zB > zM (left) or in case zM > zB (right) with zC
zM (zzMB )1/3 , (de Wit, 2015).

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TABLE 2 | Fraction distribution of sediments. GSR and NTNU data from (Lang et al., 2019), IOM data from (Zawadzki et al., 2020). Averaged data is provided by Global Sea
Resources, based on the Belgium license area in the CCFZ, NTNU data is data of specific box-cores of the GSR data average. IOM data is based on data of the Inter
Ocean Metal license area in the CCFZ.

Fraction Diameter range GSR data NTNU data NTNU data IOM data Gillard et al.
(µm) average (%) BC062 (%) BC064 (%) average (%) (2019)

Clay <2 12.0 11.3 14.5 23.24 25.3

Silt 2—63 76.2 85.7 82.5 70.36 52.11
Sand 63—2000 11.8 3 3 6.13 22.5

TABLE 3 | Percentages of mineral groups in deep-sea sediment. IOM data from (Zawadzki et al., 2020), GSR data from (Global Sea Mineral Resources NV, 2018), Sites A-C
(Bisschof et al., 1979). Note that for IOM 1, 2, 3, clay mineral % is given relative to total sediment. For Site A, B, C and GSR clay mineral % is relative to sum of clay
minerals only.

IOM 1 IOM 2 IOM 3 Site A Site B Site C GSR IOM

Smectite (%) 12.71 17.33 16.49 52 38 40 36.41 16.3

Illite (%) 13.82 12.05 14.25 31 42 50 48.34 13.2
Kaolinite (%) 0.65 0.43 0.54 17 20 10 10.33 1
Chlorite (%) 1.7 1.85 2.35 4.92 1.5
Amorphic (%) 50.47 47.09 44.42

residue. Corals, sponges and other benthic megafauna which at of the sediment. Below 30 cm, this declines to 0.1% of the mass
these sites find favourable conditions for nutrition, often produce of the sediment (Volz et al., 2018).
a significant amount of coarse-grained bioclastic sediment. In
contrast, sediment of the abyssal plains is mostly very fine
grained, reflecting the sluggish bottom current regime. 2.3 Sediment Flocculation and Cohesive
Characteristic particle size distributions in nodule-rich areas Sediment
are presented by (Lang et al., 2019; Zawadzki et al., 2020), see The discharge flow of the nodule collection vehicle is expected to
Table 2. The local clay composition varies to a larger extent. consist of sediment, water and nodule debris. It might be assumed
However, in all publicly reported cases, smectite and illite are the that the nodule debris exiting from the discharge has a
most abundant, see Table 3. significantly larger settling velocity than that of the sediment,
Since large parts of the abyssal seafloor are located well below and that this nodule debris will settle close by. The exact
the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), biogenic carbonate composition of the discharged flow will strongly depend on
settling out from the euphotic zone is mostly not preserved. The the nodule collection method and separation method that is
deep-sea clay is therefore typically poor in carbonate, and used to separate the nodules from the excess of water entering
predominantly composed of a mixture of clay minerals and the collector. Under influence of turbulence, differences in
siliceous remains of plankton like diatoms and radiolarians. settling velocity and Brownian motion, mud particles can
Only below biologically productive surface waters such as the cluster together to form flocs with typical sizes of 0.05—1 mm
equatorial upwelling zones, where the supply of biogenic (Gillard et al., 2019). The density of the flocs is less than the
carbonate exceeds the dissolution below the CCD, is carbonate density of the individual particles, but the settling velocity is
preserved in the sediment. larger. Flocculation is especially relevant when the mud
The supply of fresh organic matter to the seabed, which may concentration is large. In shallow water, Strong flocculation
play an important role in the aggregation of suspended effects have been found for mud fractions in the overflow
sediment (Fettweis and Baeye, 2015), varies greatly dredge plume of a TSHD, with floc diameters of 40–800
depending on the overall productivity regime of the surface micron and floc settling velocities of 0.1–6 mm/s (Smith and
water and the water depth. In general, organic matter flux to Friedrichs, 2011). Similar floc settling velocities have been found
the seabed decreases with increasing water depth due to for CCFZ sediment by (Gillard et al., 2019).
progressive degradation and remineralisation of organic As shown in Table 3, the clay fraction of CCFZ sediment
matter as it sinks to greater depths. Seamounts reaching to mainly consists of smectite (montmorillonite) and illite. Smectite
shallow depths below biologically productive surface waters particles are relatively small and have a large specific surface area
receive an orders of magnitude higher flux of fresh organic (SSA, which is defined as the ratio of the surface area of a material
matter than abyssal plains. As is clearly reflected by abundance to either its volume or mass (Baker et al., 2017). The SSA affects
and biomass of benthic life depending on the vertical flux of the magnitude of the interparticle forces, where larger SSA leads
organic matter. The upper few centimeters of the sediment in to larger interparticle forces (Atkinson, 2017). The SSA of
the CCFZ have a carbon content of less than 0.5% of the mass smectite is further enhanced by its ability to absorb water into

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

TABLE 4 | Typical values of thickness, planar diameter, specific surface area and cation exchange capacity for common clay minerals (Yong et al., 2012).

Edge view Typical thickness (nm) Planar diameter (nm) Specific Cation exchange capacity
surface area (m2/kg) (mEq/100 g)

Montmorillonite 2 10–1,000 700–800 80–100

Illite 20 100–2000 80–120 10–40
Chlorite 30 100–2000 70–90 10–40
Kaolinite 100 10–1,000 10–15 3–15

behave more plastic and higher cohesive and adhesive shear

strengths may be expected as well (Kooistra et al., 1998; Baker
et al., 2017).

2.4 Particle-Driven Gravity Currents

After the impinging on the seabed, the remaining plume will
continue as a particle-driven gravity current. While the current
spreads, particles fall out and the effective driving strength of the
current, compared to a homogeneous current, decays (Ungarish,
2009). Alternatively, sediment may be entrained if the current is
passing sufficiently rapid over an erodible bed, which will increase
FIGURE 2 | Results of low concentration suspended sediment lock-
exchange experiment, depicting the different phases of a particle-driven
the particle concentration and thus the driving buoyancy force.
current, (Helmons et al., 2019) The behavior of the resulting particle-driven current can be
divided into three phases, i.e., the initial or starting phase, the
transition phase and a traveling shock phase, see Figure 2. During
the initial or starting phase, the initial volume of the current
its crystal lattice structure (Yong et al., 2012), see Table 4. The collapses, which typically happens in the impingement region. In
cation exchange capacity (CEC) provides the potential chemical the transition phase, the height of the nose increases and the
activity of a clay mineral, which in turn is directly related to the particle concentration is declining faster in the tail than at the
magnitude of the cohesive forces. For higher CEC, the clay will head. In the last phase, the traveling shock phase, a bore is

FIGURE 3 | Snapshots of currents 10 m above the bed in the vicinity of the Tropic Seamount, during a spring tide at HW (black), HW+4 h (ref) and HW+8 h (blue)
(Spearman et al., 2020).

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developed within the current, which rapidly changes the height of the plume in coastal and shelf waters thus occurs mostly in
and velocity of the current (Bonneaze et al., 1993). horizontal direction by relatively strong wind- or tide-driven
(Gladstone et al., 1998) conducted non-cohesive lock currents, whilst turbulence makes the plume expand vertically
exchange experiments (where fluids of higher density, in this within the boundaries set by sea surface, seabed and density
case due to suspensions of particles, are released into fluids of stratification. Plumes generated by DSM, in contrast, are much
lower density) with bi-disperse particle size distributions. They less vertically confined.
found that the mixing of different sizes of particles has a strong Although density stratification is normally also present in
non-linear effect on both the motion of the current and the waters below the thermocline, it is less strongly present than in
sedimentation patterns. Adding small amounts of coarse particles shallower waters. Especially in their initial phase after release,
to a current composed of small particles has little effect on the sediment plumes have substantial excess density relative to the
dynamics of the current. In the opposite case, adding a fraction of water of the receiving environment, which will make the plume
fine particles to a dominantly coarse material has a significant sink vertically if released in open water or roll downslope as a
effect as the flow will travel further and will be able to maintain its turbidity current if released above a sloping seabed. Thus, DSM
velocity for a longer duration. This non-linearity arises from the plumes may spread out over a considerable vertical distance
presence of modest amounts of fines which cause the current to before mixing with ambient water slows down their descent.
maintain an excess density difference for a longer time. The decay In addition to the negative buoyancy of the plume itself, vertical
of velocity is dominated by particle settling, which is reduced by dispersion may be further enhanced by vertical water motions
the presence of fines. In conclusion, the transport of bi-disperse induced by internal waves. These are oscillations within a water
and poly-disperse mixtures depends strongly on the amount of mass produced when stratified water flows over abrupt seabed
fines present. topography, such as typically the case at the shelf break, or on
(Marr et al., 2001) conducted experiments of cohesive sand- mid-ocean ridges or isolated seamounts. Internal waves may
rich sub-aqueous gravity flows in a flume which also carried induce large vertical water mass motions of more than 100 m
bentonite or kaolinite. They found that between 0.7 and 5% by in the ocean interior, and especially where they break they
mass bentonite was sufficient to produce coherent flows, produce strong turbulence and water mass mixing (van Haren
compared with 7% for kaolinite. and Gostiaux, 2012; van Haren et al., 2017) although they may
In their definition, coherent flows are flows that resist breaking also lead to hydrodynamic conditions which hinder the wider
apart and becoming completely turbulent under the dynamic dispersion of sediment plumes, such as tidally rotating currents
stress associated with the head of the propagating gravity flow. (Spearman et al., 2020). Internal waves are thus an important
That this phenomenon occurs for lower concentrations of factor to be taken into account when considering plume
bentonite is caused by the mixtures’ higher yield strength. dispersion for DSM in topographically complex terrain, such
(Baas et al., 2016) found similar results in channel flow as mining of SMS and polymetallic crusts (both deposit types are
experiments of low concentration kaolinite and bentonite typically found at or near seamounts). But even in abyssal plain
mixtures. settings, away from major topographic features, significant
(Baker et al., 2017) conducted lock exchange experiments for turbulence and mixing has been observed, generated by
various concentrations and clay types, i.e., silica flour, kaolinite internal waves produced over abyssal hills (van Haren, 2018).
and bentonite, all in ambient seawater. Based on these
experimental results, there is no significant difference in flow
response for low concentrations of sediment. For volumetric 3.2 Return Flow of Sediments, Waste and
concentrations of 10% for bentonite, 15% for kaolinite and up Other Effluents
to 44% for silica flour, the resulting flow exhibits strong turbulent In all types of DSM, ore slurry pumped up from the seabed
mixing. The only significant differences for comparable initial through the riser system needs to be dewatered to allow safe
densities would be the result of the effective settling velocity of the storage on board of the mining vessel. Subsequent transfer of the
sediment used. In the case of volumetric concentrations >15% for ore to a bulk carrier for transport to land will require a second
kaolinite and >10% for bentonite, the flow behavior is affected by dewatering step, if the ship-to-ship ore transfer is done in a
gelling of the mixture. slurrified state. The dewatering on board of the mining vessel may
also involve further separation of valuable ore from unwanted
sediment entrained in the flow. The excess water produced in the
3 DEEP-SEA MINING dewatering process, loaded with sediment and also the fine-
grained ore fraction that cannot be retrieved by sieving and
3.1 Deep-Sea Conditions centrifugation, will have to be returned back to sea, creating a
In dredging operations in coastal waters, the dispersion of the discharge plume of fine particulate material (Oebius et al., 2001).
sediment plume in vertical direction is often confined within a In the case of nodule mining, the amount of fine-grained material
few metres to tens of metres between the sea surface and the discharged from the mining vessel may be substantial. The total
seabed. In deeper waters of the shelf, strong vertical density discharge of water and solids has been estimated previously at
gradients associated with a seasonal or permanent thermocline 50,000 m3 per day, with a solids concentration on the order of
and present below the upper few tens of metres of mixed surface 10 kg/m3 (Oebius et al., 2001). More recent estimates give an
water, may also limit the vertical dispersion of plumes. Spreading order of magnitude higher numbers for total discharge and solids

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

concentration (Lang et al., 2019). According to the latter, fine- layer including benthic life and organic material serving as
grained sediment entrained with the nodules will make up the primary food resource for the benthos, whereas the
bulk of the solid material discharged. Nodule fines, produced by resuspended sediment will be dispersed and settle out
abrasion and fragmentation of nodules during pickup, vertical downslope, aggravating the impact of the plume generated
transport and dewatering, and too small to be retrieved during by the mining vehicle. Adjustment of the discharge height
on-board processing, would constitute only a few percent of the above the seabed and the direction of the discharge jet and a
solid mass. In the case of SMS and crust mining, any sediment diffuser may help to prevent or reduce the formation of erosive
overburden will likely be removed prior to ore excavation, and the turbidity currents.
excavated material pumped up as a slurry to the mining vessel will
thus consist predominantly of valuable ore. The solids discharged
with dewatering fluid will likewise consist mostly of fine-grained 3.3 Plume Generation When Mining Seafloor
ore material. Estimates of total dewatering discharge for SMS Massive Sulphides and Cobalt-Rich Crusts
mining are between 22,000 and 38,000 m3 per day (Nautilus Sea-floor massive sulphides (SMS) are deposits of metal-bearing
Minerals, 2008; Okamoto et al., 2019). The only available estimate minerals that form on and below the seabed as a consequence of
of solids concentration is from the Nautilus Solwara EIA which the interaction of seawater with magma below the seabed. During
was estimated as around 6 kg/m3 (Nautilus Minerals, 2008). this process, cold seawater penetrates through cracks in the sea
Discharge of dewatering water and solids directly at the floor and is heated to high temperatures causing metals to be
surface is expected to have multiple and potentially harmful leached out from the surrounding rock. The resulting chemical
impacts on surface ocean pelagic life, such as shading out of reactions that take place in this process result in seawater
photosynthesizing plankton, phytoplankton blooms due to input enriched in dissolved metals and sulphur. Due to the lower
of mineral nutrients, clogging of feeding apparatus of pelagic density of this evolved seawater, it rises rapidly to the sea
suspension feeders, reduced buoyancy of plankton, reduced floor, where most of it is expelled into the overlying water
visibility interfering with predators hunting on sight, toxic column as focused flow at chimney vent sites. The dissolved
effects of trace metals released from ore particles. To avoid metals precipitate when the fluid mixes with cold seawater. Much
these impacts, ISA draft regulations for exploitation of of the metal is transported in the hydrothermal plume and is
polymetallic nodules (Lenoble, 2000) prescribe that water and deposited as fallout of particulate debris. The remainder of the
solids should be discharged below 1,000 m water depth, well metal precipitates as metal sulphides and sulphates,
below the biologically productive sunlit surface ocean layer, and producing black and white smoker chimneys (Baker and
below the steep density gradient of the permanent thermocline Beaudoin, 2013).
which will impede return of the discharged material to the Fe–Mn crusts occur on hard-rock substrates throughout the
surface. (Munoz-Royo et al., 2021) have studied such a mid- ocean basins. They form at the seabed on the flanks and summits
water plume in dynamic discharge experiments at approx. 60 m of seamounts, ridges, and plateaus where the rocks are largely
water depth with mixtures based on CCFZ sediment. They depleted of sediment (Hein and Koschinsky, 2014). The most
identified that its vertical and horizontal extent is notably metal-rich crusts occur at depths of about 800–2500 m (Hein and
influenced by 1) the amount of discharged sediment and 2) Petersen, 2013). The thickest crusts on individual seamounts
background turbulent diffusivity. Another key finding in their commonly occur on outer-rim summit terraces and broad saddles
work is that flocculation of sediment does not play a notable role on the summit of guyots (flat-topped seamounts).
due to initially high turbulent shear rates near the discharge
opening and low concentration downstream due to rapid 3.3.1 Estimating the Loss of Crust/SMS Particles Into
turbulent entrainment. the Water Column
However, (Drazen, et al., 2020) have pointed out that there is a Crust and SMS plumes are in principle similar to those arising from
wide variety of pelagic life also below 1,000 m depth, which will be dredging of weak rock (crusts; (Yamazaki et al., 1995) and
impacted likewise by discharge plumes. The authors argue that moderately strong rock (SMS; (Spagnoli et al., 2014) by cutter
the pelagic ecosystems should be an integral part of suction dredger (CSD) in shallow waters (Spearman et al., 2020).
environmental impact assessment and environmental The near-field processes which contribute to losses from CSD are
monitoring plans. To mitigate impacts on pelagic life, they complex and difficult to model numerically. However, a reasonable
suggest delivering the discharge to the seafloor where a estimate of the resulting loss of fines can be established by using
sediment plume will already exist from seafloor activities. This standard dredging industry approaches, e.g., (den Burger, 2003;
would result in additional pressure on benthic organisms but Becker, et al., 2015), based on field and laboratory measurements,
would relieve pressures on the mid-water ecosystem. to estimating cutter suction losses. (van Wijk et al., 2019) showed
Releasing the dewatering discharge at short distance above that polymetallic nodules can fragment upon impact with (in) the
the seabed brings about the risk that erosive turbidity currents mining equipment, potentially complicating preliminary subsea
are generated at the point where the plume impinges on the separation processes. It should be pointed out that for mining,
seabed, due to initial momentum of the discharge and the particles lost to the surroundings represent a loss of resource and
relatively high excess density relative to the ambient deep-sea there is an incentive for the developer to reduce these losses further,
water (van Grunsven et al., 2018). In the path of the turbidity as much as is practically possible, through design of the
current, the seabed may be stripped of the surface sediment mining plant.

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FIGURE 4 | Snapshots of predicted increases in suspended sediment concentration (averaged over bottom 10 m of water column) resulting from 5-h simulation of
mining on the Tropic Seamount with representative rates of release. Snapshots shown at +2.5 h and +5 h. Envelope of increases greater than 0.01 mg/L (equivalent to
background) over whole of simulation are indicated by magenta line (Spearman et al., 2020).

3.3.2 Effect of Topography on Hydrodynamics the TELEMAC modelling suite, [Link]) identified
Cobalt-rich crusts occur on the summits and sides of seamounts that current speeds (driven by internal tides) varied up to
(and other similar topographical features) which exhibit specific 0.3 m/s, with the highest values on the east and west “spurs”
dominating hydrodynamic features, including Taylor caps, an of the seamount, and that a weak Taylor cap exists around the
isolated region of flow situated above the seamount, and internal seamount, close to the seabed. The tidal variation was observed to
tides, where surface tides move stratified water up and down be semi-diurnal but transfer of energy via sub-harmonic
sloping topography, producing a wave in the ocean interior resonance from the semi-diurnal internal tidal harmonic can
(Lavelle and Mohn, 2010). SMS fields also commonly occur also result (as here) in significant diurnal components of current
on ridge features with steep slopes and display great variation flow, even though there is minimal external diurnal influence
in bathymetry, which can result in similar hydrodynamic (Gerkema et al., 2006; van Haren et al., 2010).
features. The nature of the resulting hydrodynamics will The rotating currents found at the seamount were identified
always be site-specific but the typical features are here in the Marine E-tech project as one of the key processes limiting
discussed using the results of the Marine E-tech project the dispersion of fine sediment from a (potential) mining
(Spearman et al., 2020) which investigated the hydrodynamics source. Figure 4 shows the results of a 5-h simulation of
(as well as the topography, geology, geochemistry, ecology and continual release of fine sediment, (Spearman et al., 2020).
potential mining plume dispersion) in the vicinity of the Tropic The figure shows snapshots of the plume (here at 2½ and
Seamount around 300 nautical miles SSW of the Canary Islands. 5 h) and the envelope of predicted increases in suspended
The seamount has a star-shaped platform with a width of sediment concentration above 0.01 mg/L (which represents
approximately 40 km at the base and about 15 km at the crest. the background sediment concentration). During the
Its summit rises 3,000 m from the abyssal floor to a depth of simulation, the current starts in a SSW direction and rotates
~1,000 m where it forms a flat plateau partially covered by mobile clockwise, finishing in a north direction by the end of the
sediment deposits of silty sand, with the remainder being covered simulation. The figure shows that the excursion of the plume
by pavement crusts see Figure 3. towards the west and south (the principal direction of the
The currents just above the surface of the Tropic Seamount currents during the simulation) is limited to around 1.4 km
were observed to be dominated by internal tide-generated due to the combination of rotating tidal currents. This result
currents that rotate in an anti-cyclonic direction about the indicates the importance of reproducing tidal processes in deep-
seamount’s centre. Validated hydrodynamic modelling (using sea mining studies, at least where they interact with bathymetry

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

FIGURE 5 | Illustration of the influence of the depth/under keel clearance on TSHD overflow dredge plume mixing (de Wit et al., 2014a, b) for three different depths
with all else similar (Ri = 1.2 and γ = 1.3). The propellers of the TSHD are included in the simulation and by entrainment pull some of the plume upward.

and density gradients to induce currents much larger than those and TSHD overflow plumes bear similarities with DSM plumes
normally associated with the deep ocean. because both are generated by moving equipment.

3.3.3 Effect of Substrate Type 4.1 Overflow Plume (Near Field)

While little research has been undertaken on the flocculation of A TSHD is a high production dredging plant, which is often used
debris particles likely to result from SMS mining, detailed video- for both maintenance dredging (e.g., recurrent dredging to
imaging tests (LabSFloc-2 high resolution video-technology, maintain or improve existing waterways) and capital dredging
(Manning and Dyer, 2007) of cobalt-rich crust debris in in situ (e.g., dredging in a new location and in material that has not been
seawater strongly indicates that crust particles flocculate more dredged before, such as land reclamation, deepening and
readily than normal sediment particles (including the clay/silt widening channels). The overflow plume is generally the most
ooze found in the CCFZ—see Section 1.2). The Marine E-tech important source of turbidity while dredging with a TSHD (Bray,
project (Spearman et al., 2020) found that, due to flocculation 2008; Laboyrie and Kolman, 2018). A TSHD overflow dredge
processes, 57% of particles less than 63 microns settled at a rate of plume is generated while loading a TSHD and letting the excess
around 10 mm/s with only 3.5% of particles settling at less than process water overboard. Typically, overflow is done via a vertical
0.1 mm/s. Like the rotational effect of internal tides, this strong pipe in the hopper which ends at the keel of the vessel, see
flocculation effect causes a significant reduction in the dispersion Figure 5 for an impression. During loading and overflowing a
of the benthic plume caused by mining. TSHD is moving. For TSHD overflow dredge plumes both initial
buoyancy and initial momentum are important. The sediment
release is downward, perpendicular to the crossflow which is
4 SHALLOW WATER APPLICATIONS formed by the combination of sailing speed and ambient current
(DREDGING) velocity. The outflow velocity is often in the same order of
magnitude as the crossflow velocity. This is illustrated by the
So far, we have discussed the most relevant aspects of deep-sea typical velocity ratios and Richardson numbers of γ
0.3 − 4
mining turbidity flows. In this section we will discuss how and Ri
0.01 − 22 (de Wit et al., 2014a, b; Decrop, 2015). Near-
turbidity flows occur in shallow water applications like field TSHD overflow plumes can behave dynamically driven by
dredging (and wet mining). While dredging sediment plumes negative buoyancy, while more diluted ones behave passively
can be generated and dispersed to surrounding areas, just like driven by ambient currents (Winterwerp, 2002). Far away from
when executing DSM. The dredging industry is well established the dredger all overflow plumes are diluted so much that they end
and dredging projects take place all over the world. The up as passively driven. Especially at the end of loading a TSHD
environmental impact of dredging, often with dredge plumes the overflow discharge density can be high, growing to more than
as important component, has been the source of research for 400 kg/m3 sediment concentration (van Rhee, 2002; Spearman
many decades, e.g. (Pagliai et al., 1985; Nichols et al., 1990; Bray, et al., 2011; Spearman, 2014).
2008; Erftemeijer et al., 2012; Laboyrie and Kolman, 2018). When dredging in deeper waters the distance from the release
Knowledge gained from dredge plumes is used in this section point at the keel of a TSHD and seabed is large, and the plume will
to learn lessons for DSM plume modelling. Specific focus is made descend under influence of its excess density and initial
here on Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger (TSHD) overflow downward momentum. But when dredging in shallower water
plumes as a TSHD is an often-used type of dredge equipment the seabed is rather close and the propellers driving a TSHD can

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FIGURE 6 | Illustration of the influence of the crossflow velocity on TSHD overflow dredge plume mixing (de Wit et al., 2014a, b) for three different ucf (0.5 m/s,
1.5 m/s and 3 m/s respectively, γ = 0.6 γ = 1.3 γ = 3.8) with all else similar (Ri = 1.2). The propellers of the TSHD are included in the simulation and by entrainment pull
some of the plume upward.

impact the plume behavior seriously by entraining the sediment for DSM applications, as the mining vehicle and current speeds
plume upwards to the water surface (de Wit et al., 2014a, b). In are lower than in dredging applications.
addition, when a TSHD is sailing fast with respect to the ambient
current direction the upward movement of the plume to the water 4.2 Overflow Plume (Far Field)
surface is helped by the upward flow at the aft of the TSHD hull. Far field considers the zone beyond the near field where the
An example of the influence of the distance from release point plume behaves passively being influenced by ambient currents,
and seabed on TSHD overflow plume mixing is shown in bathymetry, settling, deposition and resuspension. Depending on
Figure 5 and an example of the influence of the crossflow the zone of influence the far field for a TSHD plume can extend
magnitude is given in Figure 6. for tens of kilometers round a dredging project site. For DSM of
This clearly illustrates how the equipment generating a nodules, it is not known what the exact far-field plume area will
plume and interaction between plume and immediate be. In laboratory experiments in a water column simulator,
surroundings can significantly impact the resulting plume flocculation characteristics were observed (Gillard et al., 2019).
behavior. Also, for DSM this should be considered when These characteristics were then implemented in a plume
assessing plume dispersion. Although mixing up a sediment dispersion model which estimated a far-field plume extent in
plume all the way to the water surface, like for TSHD plumes, is the range of 4–9 km distance from the source Our results in
not possible for DSM plumes, also for DSM plumes some Section 2 indicate a similar range in the more favorable discharge
additional mixing up by either the equipment movement, its scenarios as do validated models of DSM of crusts on seamounts
wake, or by the local details how the plume is released can (Spearman et al., 2020).
impact the travel distance and concentrations significantly. For dredge plumes in estuary mouths variations of velocity
Details of the initial release density, release momentum, direction and magnitude in the vertical must be taken into
release direction (horizontal, vertical or at a certain angle), account for correct plume dispersion simulations. When DSM
influence of crossflow by the combination of ambient currents process water is planned to be released higher in the water
and potential moving speed of the release structures, distance column it is very important to have the vertical stratification
from the seabed, and the presence of the collector vehicle, and velocity distribution included in the plume modelling. It is
should all be assessed and taken into account when significant possible that higher in the water column the ambient currents
influence on plume mixing and travel distance is expected. have completely different magnitudes and directions than near
When local influences close to the equipment are important, the seabed and a plume can stay hanging on a gradient in ambient
different plume models are required for far-field plume density for instance induced by temperature or salinity gradients.
dispersion and for near-field details of the release. Both the
far-field and near-field will have their own appropriate level of
detail and length/timescales involved, and it may not be 4.3 Lessons Learned From Dredging for
feasible to combine both fields into one model. The near- Deep-Sea Mining
field considers the zone of typically a few hundred meters A resemblance between DSM plumes from a collector and TSHD
where the plume behaves dynamically and local influences dredge plumes is that they are generated by a moving device.
from equipment are important. This zone is likely to be smaller Especially when simulating deposition layers and potential for

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

smothering it is important to consider the details of operations

like the work sequence, moving device locations in time, pauses in
production. Because when simulations would be simplified with
stationary sediment sources especially the amount of deposition
and potential smothering near the release location can be
overestimated while at the same time plume concentrations
and deposition at locations further away could be
underestimated.
Near-bed dredge plumes can stay near the bed for a long time
because of turbulence damping at the steep density gradient at the
top of the suspended sediment layer and when the density
difference is large enough start behaving as a density current
(Kirichek et al., 2021). DSM plumes are released near the seabed
and ambient currents are weak so they can form a density current
as well. Such density current will flow down bathymetry slopes
which can be significant in the deep sea and a numerical tool used FIGURE 7 | Adaptive management cycle, adapted from (CEDA, 2015a,
for DSM plumes should be able to deal with density currents b) copyright CEDA.
when the release concentrations are high enough for a density
current. Such numerical tool should have sufficient near-bed
resolution and also include numerical measures to prevent
artificially mixing up such near-bed density layer by for establish the points at which more detailed measurements
instance appropriate turbulence damping functions (Violeau, should be taken or when dredging activities should cease, are
et al., 2002) otherwise the density current would numerically used to manage the environmental aspects of the dredging
be destroyed which leads to underestimation of travel distances, project. These limits should be based on the local situation
deposition amounts, near-bed concentrations and overestimation and ecosystem at hand or otherwise there is the risk of having
of sediment concentrations further away from the bed. not enough protection of the environmental system or having too
Sediment spill fractions will be different for different types of strict limits which unnecessarily make a project (much) more
equipment and will be dependent on sediment composition and expensive. In practice turbidity/SSC limits are sometimes simply
equipment handling and production rate. For a proper DSM copied from another project without assessing whether they make
plume assessment, the spill characteristics, spill magnitude and sense for this different situation. For the new DSM industry there
sediment composition should be determined by taking into is an opportunity to do things better in this perspective and some
account the details of the spill generating processes of the ideas for determining appropriate environmental limits can be
specific equipment being used. This has to be done for all found in (CEDA, 2020)).
process steps which can generate spill including potential
release of tailings and process water. Examples from dredging
industry can serve as an example for such methodology (Becker 4.4 The Adaptive Management Concept for
et al., 2015; Laboyrie and Kolman, 2018) and a modelling
framework for dredge plume assessment can be found in (Lisi
Managing the Environmental Effects of
et al., 2019). Plumes
DSM can also learn much from the experience of, and For some years, albeit not ubiquitously, the dredging industry has
measurement protocols which are routinely applied to, dredge utilized a concept referred to as “adaptive management” to
plume measurements (VBKO, 2003; CEDA, 2015a, b; Laboyrie overcome the difficulties associated with production targets in
and Kolman, 2018). Proper choice in measurement devices, an environment with (strict) environmental limits (CEDA, 2015a,
calibration, measurement location, moment in time (interval b; Laboyrie and Kolman, 2018).
and duration) are paramount to obtain the right insights into In (CEDA, 2015a, b) adaptive management is defined as
plume behavior. Stationary monitoring locations can be used or decision framework that facilitates flexible decision-making
moving ones, or a combination of both. It is advisable to conduct that can be refined in response to future uncertainties, as
proper baseline monitoring to know the natural sediment outcomes from current and future management actions
dynamics in the system at hand. In this way the increases in become better understood. Figure 7 illustrates the adaptive
suspended sediment concentration (SSC) arising from plumes management cycle. Adaptive management typically involves
can be put into the context of natural background variation in developing and implementing a management plan that defines
SSC. This has been highlighted as an important issue for DSM the project goals, reviewing progress towards those goals
(Spearman et al., 2020). For improving DSM plume modelling periodically, and, in response to the outcomes of
and spill term assessment it is important to make a connection (environmental) monitoring, implementing corrective actions
between the measured plumes and the spill generating operations. (and refining the plan), as needed, in future. Adaptive
For dredging projects often turbidity (or SSC) limits, management is a formal process, with specifically agreed upon
i.e., agreed thresholds in measured turbidity/SSC which steps to deal with uncertainties. Adaptive management in

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Helmons et al. Cohesive Sedimentary Systems: Dynamics and Deposits

dredging projects prescribes a process wherein management equipment and processes are paramount to reduce the
actions can be changed in response to monitored system quantity of entrained water and/or sediment, and thus the
response, so as to maximise efficiency while maintaining or source term of the sediment plume. Equal sediment fluxes are
achieving a good ecological state. Adaptive management is likely to disperse less when discharged at higher initial
suitable for those dredging projects where the outcome is less concentrations due to aggregation of particles.
certain or accompanied by a low confidence in the prediction of 3. In applications with production targets in an environment
effects. This applies to DSM as well and therefore adaptive with (strict) environmental limits, adaptive management on
management is a very useful decision framework for DSM. environmental impact can be of assistance.
4. Various researchers have shown that the deep-sea sediment
can aggregate, resulting in a net higher settling velocity.
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS There are indications that flocculation processes in
turbidity plumes can play a role in reducing its
Within this paper, we have addressed one of the environmental dispersion. However, at this stage, to what extent
pressures that cause most concern for deep-sea mining, aggregation will occur in a dynamic flow is not well
i.e., sediment plume dispersion. Before deep-sea mining can understood. It might well be that aggregation might be
take place, it is of paramount importance that environmental more profound for higher initial concentrations of a source
pressures are investigated and measures are enacted to make sure term, as an additional effect to conclusion 2.
that impacts are not too large. There is vast experience within the
field of dredging engineering on how to manage and mitigate
suspended sediment plumes. Although some of the AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
characteristics of the processes might differ, there are many
similarities in equipment and processes among dredging and RH developed DSM context and near-field sediment plume
deep-sea mining. Experience and best practices from the field of characterization, both in dredging and DSM application. HdS
dredging engineering might be used to reduce, mitigate and carried out overview and contributions of relevant deep-sea
manage suspended sediment plumes that would be generated sediment, especially at SMS and nodule deposits. LdW
by mining equipment. Our main findings are: developed guidelines and shallow water near-bed plume
interactions (dredging). JS provided dredging expertise,
1. Based on the dimensional analysis presented in Section 2, flocculation/particle aggregation and SMS/crusts modeling/
the least plume dispersion for nodule DSM would be experiments. RH coordinated and helped to draft the
expected for slower mining vehicles. In that sense, for a manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
comparable nodule production rate, it would be best to manuscript.
design the mining vehicle to be as wide as possible. That
would then enable the collector to move forward more
slowly, resulting in more favorable source conditions of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the turbidity plume.
2. The suspended sediment plume is a direct result of the RH and HS acknowledge funding from Blue Harvesting, EIT RM
equipment-seabed interaction. Optimization of the mining project 18138.

Bisschof, J., Heath, G., and Leinen, M. (1979). “Geochemistry of Deep-Sea

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