i

Director : Prof. Harsh Gandhar

Department Co-ordinator : Dr. Rajesh Kumar Jaiswal
Course Leader : Dr. Rajesh Kumar Jaiswal

M.A. ENGLISH SEMESTER- III

PAPER: V(RESEARCH METHODS)

CONTENTS
 Introductory Letter i
 Syllabus ii

[Link]. Title Author Page No.

Unit-I

1. “Research Basics” from Nicholas William’s and [Link] 1

“Research Ethics” from Nicholas William’s:
Research Methods: The Basics
Unit-II

2. Introducing Theoretical Concepts Dr. Rajesh Kumar Jaiswal 13

Unit-III

3. “Tools and Techniques for Literary Research…”Dr. Jasmine Anand 23

Unit-IV

4. “Writing a Research Proposal” [Link] Kaur Dhaliwal 40

Unit-V

5. “Creating your Documentation”: MLA, 8th Ed. Dr. Sandeep Sarang 52

Vetter:Dr. Rajesh Kumar Jaiswal

e-mail of Department - coordeng@[Link]

Phone Number of Department - 0172-2534325
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Introductory Letter

Dear Student,

You must be aware of the increasing importance of research for post-graduate

students in the emerging contexts. This paper introduces you to the basics of research
including research tools and techniques, research ethics, research theory, online and print
sources and also their documentation. A study of these primary concepts will definitely
prepare you well for research. You are also expected to be well-versed with the theoretical
concepts of research and their application. The end-semester examination will contain five
questions, each with internal choice, from each of the five units. The paper will be of eighty
marks.

In case of any doubts, do not hesitate to visit the department.

Course Leader

UNIT-I
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RESEARCH METHODS BASICS

Lesson -1

“Research Basics” and“Research Ethics” from

The Basics by Nicholas William

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Research
1.3 Research Methods
1.4 Practice of Research
1.5 Objectives of research writing
1.6 Research designs
1.7 Types of research designs
1.8 Deciding on your type of research
1.9 Research Ethics
1.10 Organizations and Ethics Committees
1.11 Intellectual ownership and Plagiarism
1.12 Introduction of any research writing
1.13 Use of Language
1.14 Dealing with Participants
1.15 Recording Data
1.16 Dissemination
1.17 Summary
1.18 References
1.19 Further Readings
1.20 Model Questions

1.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
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● find out what research basics are

● tell what a research design is and mention its types
● compare research methods and methodology
● situate and contextualize research ethics
● examine what unethical means or plagiarism is in research writing
1.1 Introduction
This lesson is based on research basics and ethics and will initiate you into the basic
knowledge on research writing. Research writing aims to confirm, confute, extend, and
evaluate what others have done to solve problems related to research. Its objective is also to
authenticate the sources, to discover, update and verify the data or text. While doing
research, ethics in terms of honesty and originality in writing is very important. It is further
authenticated by giving credit to and listing out the sources mentioned and quoted through
the in-text citations as well as works cited list.
1.2 Research
Research means involving yourself into a systematic exploration to find things you did not
know about. It also means finding out about things that no-one else knew either. It is about
working on, working through the wide canvas of knowledge. In other words, research means
advancing the frontiers of knowledge; looking into the same knowledge but with a different or
novel perspective.
1.3 Research methods
Research methods consist of the techniques we use to do research. They are the tools
through which we collect, sort, and analyse information/data in order to come to some
conclusions. The research conducted or the new knowledge created or the research
conclusion drawn can only be validated and accepted by other people if we use the right kind
of methods.
1.4 Practice of Research
Being a researcher, you must indulge yourself practically in identifying a subject to research
on, finding and collecting information and analysing it. This exercise will present you with a
range of practical problems that need to be solved. The practice of research in literature,
especially qualitative research is closely linked with the theoretical developments that were
promoted by philosophers and key thinkers and practitioners in various fields, right back to
the ancient Greeks. Hence, it is important to find your focus or area of interest and collect
both primary and secondary material on it and be aware of the right critical theories or
theorists and their application to your work. For example, if your area of interest is Feminist
Studies, then you may study ‘text’ in the women as well as women in the text and apply any
specific theorist from feminist studies. The phrase ‘text’ in the women implies women in a
dominant role or women characters challenging the norms of patriarchy. Women in the text
refer to the role played by female characters in literary texts and their relationship with their
male counter-parts. You may for instance reinterpret partition from a feminist perspective, or
may look at female identity and language in J. M. Coetzee’s 1986 novel, Foe or could also do
a contrapuntal (related) reading of the mythological women from a myth and their
narrativization in a work of fiction. It is important to look at your interest and focus by
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choosing an author/texts/genre/time/language/style and then apply a suitable theory to the

gap or problem you are looking into.
1.5 Objectives of research writing
To create new knowledge, we can use research in the following manner:
(i) Categorise- This involves analysis of types or categories based on objects, events, or
concepts. This technique becomes useful in explaining which ‘things’ belong together and
how it helps in figuring out relationships and similarities.
(ii) Describe- Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It
attempts to critically examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e., what can
be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.
(iii) Explain- This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed to deal with complex
issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to make sense of the various
other elements involved, such as human, political, social, cultural, and contextual.
(iv) Evaluate- This involves making judgements or critically appreciating the quality of
objects or events. Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or on a comparative
basis. To validate and find its usefulness, the methods of evaluation must be relevant to the
context and intentions of the research.
(v) Compare- Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight differences and
similarities between them, leading to a better understanding of phenomena.
(vi) Correlate- The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see whether and
how they influence each other. The relationship might be just a loose link at one extreme or a
direct link when one phenomenon causes another. The levels of association are measured
through correlation.
(vii) Predict- This can sometimes be done in research areas where correlations are already
known. Predictions of possible future behaviour or events are made on the basis that if there
has been a strong relationship between two or more characteristics or events in the past,
then these should exist in similar circumstances in the future, leading to predictable
outcomes.
(viii) Control- Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find ways to
control it. For this you need to know what the cause-and-effect relationships are and what is
the potential aspect capable of exerting control over the main ingredients or variables.
Researchers can combine two or more of these objectives in a research
project/dissertation/research article/thesis, with sometimes one objective needing to be
successfully achieved before starting the next, for example you usually need to be able to
explain how something happens before you can work out how to control it.
1.6 Research Designs
Research design means a framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. It implies which tools to use and how they are used. The type of research area
and its problem/hypothesis determines the research design and not vice-versa.
There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the different types of
research projects. As mentioned earlier, the choice of which design to apply depends on the
nature of the problems posed by the research objectives. Each type of research design has a
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range of research methods that are commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data
that is generated by the investigations.
1.7 Types of research designs:
(i) Historical
This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about events that happened in the past. As primary
historical data, it uses archaeological remains, documents, as well as documentary sources
of the past. It is important to carry out tests in order to check the authenticity of these
sources as they belong to the past and hence require evidential proof or valid testing of the
sources.
Apart from informing us about what happened in previous times and re-evaluating beliefs
about the past, historical research can be used to find contemporary solutions based on the
past and to inform present and future trends. It stresses the importance of interactions at
various levels and their effects. This kind of research is also called historical, archival, and
even ex-post facto research.
(ii) Descriptive
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to examine
situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e., what can be predicted to happen again
under the same circumstances. Observation and its analytical description may take various
forms. The richness or difference in appeal depends on the type of information sought, people
interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even recorded sounds and
smells. It is very important for the researcher that the observations are written down or
recorded in some way, in order that they can be subsequently analysed. The scale or level of
the research is influenced by the level of complexity of the survey/observation and the scope
or extent of the survey/observation. It includes case study, survey, naturalistic observation
etc.
(iii) Correlation
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts. The association is
analysed between the two concepts where there is some kind of influence of one on the other;
or where one aspect causes changes in the other. It tells about direction and strength of the
variables and whether their relationship is significant or not. According to quantitative
research the correlation between two concepts can either be none (meaning no correlation);
positive (where an increase in one results in an increase of the other, or decrease results in a
decrease e.g depression and hopelessness); or negative (where the increase in one results in
the decrease in the other or vice versa e.g. depression and hope). It includes case-control
study, observational study, etc.
(iv) Comparative
This design is used to compare past and present or different parallel situations, particularly
when the researcher has no control over events. You can look at situations at different
scales, macro (international, national) or micro (community, individual). Analogy is used to
identify similarities in situations and to predict results by assuming that if two events are
similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in others too.
(v) Experimental
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Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition which
determines the events investigated and then observes the effects when the conditions are
manipulated. At its simplest, changes are made to an independent variable and the effects
are observed on a dependent variable – i.e. cause and effect. Although experiments can be
done to explore a particular event, they usually require a hypothesis (prediction) to be
formulated first in order to determine what variables are to be tested and how they can be
controlled and measured. There are several classes of experiment – pre, true, quasi, etc.
which are characterized by the amount of checking and control involved in the methods. This
kind of research is usually quantitative in appeal.
(vi) Simulation
Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model) of a
system, which can be manipulated to gauge effects. It is similar to experimental design in the
respect of this manipulation, but it provides a more artificial environment in that it does
work with original materials at the same scale. Models can be mathematical (number
crunching in a computer) or physical, working with two- or three-dimensional materials. The
performance of the model must be checked and calibrated against the real system to check
that the results are reliable. Simulation helps us in testing and analyzing the theory or
practicality of situations.
(vii) Evaluation
This descriptive type of research is specifically designed to deal with complex social issues. It
aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts,’ by trying to make sense of the myriad human,
political, social, cultural, and contextual elements involved. There are a range of different
approaches of evaluation models, for example, systems analysis – which is a holistic type of
research looking at the complex interplay of many variables; and responsive evaluation –
which entails a series of investigative steps to evaluate how responsive a programme, is to all
those taking part in it. A common purpose of evaluation research is to examine the working
of projects from the point of view of levels of awareness, costs and benefits, cost-effectiveness,
attainment of objectives and quality assurance. The results are generally used to prescribe
changes to improve and develop the situation.
(viii) Action
Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal with a specific
problem found in a particular situation. There is no attempt made to separate the problem
from its context in order to study it in isolation. What are thought to be useful changes are
made and then constant monitoring and evaluation are carried out to see the effects of the
changes. The conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further monitored
to gauge their effectiveness. Action research depends mainly on observation and behavioural
data. Because it is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to generalize the
results, i.e., to be confident that the action will be successful in another context.
(ix) Ethnological
Ethnological research focuses on people. In this approach, the researcher is interested in
how the subjects of the research interpret their own behaviour rather than imposing a theory
from outside. It takes place in the undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment.
It regards the context to be as equally important as the actions it studies, and attempts to
represent the totality of the social, cultural and economic situation. This is not easy as much
of culture is hidden and rarely made explicit and the cultural background and assumptions
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of the researcher may unduly influence the interpretations and descriptions. Moreover, there
can be confusions produced using language and the different meanings which may be given
to words by the respondents and researcher.
(x) Feminist
This is more of a perspective than a research design that involves theory and analysis that
highlights the differences between men’s and women’s lives. Researchers who ignore these
differences can come to incorrect conclusions. However, everyone is male or female, so value
neutrality is impossible as no researcher practises research outside his or her system of
values. No specific methods are seen to be particularly feminist, but the methodology used is
informed by theories of gender relations. Although feminist research is undertaken with a
political commitment to identify and transform gender relations, it is not uniquely political,
but exposes all methods of social research as being political.
(xi) Cultural
Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (e.g., postmodernism, poststructuralism etc.) are
concerned with the subjects of language and cultural interpretation. Cultural research
provides methodologies that allow a consistent analysis of cultural texts so that they can be
compared, replicated, disproved and generalized. Examples of approaches to the
interpretation of cultural texts are: content analysis, semiotics, and discourse analysis. The
meaning of the term ‘cultural texts’ has been broadened from that of purely literary works to
that of the many different forms of communication, both formal such as opera, TV news
programmes, cocktail parties etc., and informal such as how people dress or converse.
1.8 Deciding on your type of research
It is your research interest that decides the nature of your research problem, and this will
indicate the appropriate type of research to follow. Once the objectives of a research project
have been established, the issue of how these objectives can be met leads to a consideration
of which research design should be chosen. The research design provides a framework for the
collection and analysis of data and will then indicate which research methods are
appropriate for your research. You can combine two or more types of research design,
particularly when your subject combines the study of human behaviour with that of, for
example, literature, linguistics, economics, technology, legislation, or organizations.
The different types of research design may involve the use of their own specific types of
research methods, developed specifically to solve the problems inherent in that design.
However, some methods are widely used across many research types. One should remember
that there is a difference between methods and methodologies. And that research design is a
plan to answer your research question and research method is a strategy used to implement
that plan, and further methodology helps you give perspective to your research by using
critical theory and various ‘-isms.’
1.9 Research Ethics
Research, however interesting or new its appeal is, is only of value if it is carried out
honestly. Any research writing cannot be trusted if the results of a research project, its
writing and outcome lacks integrity of the researchers.
It is easy to take short cuts by cheating, cut-copy-paste, using someone’s idea or material
without acknowledgement or citation but it really is not worth it; as it may lead to
cancellation, penalty, and even humiliation to the research students and in worst cases strict
legal action can also be taken against them.
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To avoid the entire consequences, one must follow the clear guidelines in citation (MLA for
literature students) that will prevent you or the researcher being accused of passing off other
people’s work as one’s own – called plagiarism. In fact, to refer to or quote other people’s
work is seen as a virtue, and demonstrates that you have read widely about your subject and
are knowledgeable about the most important people and their ideas. But their citation is
equally important to avoid plagiarism. But copying foolishly or a large chunk, then citing the
same also leads to intentional plagiarism for which the art of paraphrasing and using your
own thought, creating an argument, is important along with its citation to avoid any
objection. If you are working with human participants, taking interviews, or asking them to
fill questionnaires then you must always treat them with respect and modesty. People should
be treated with respect, which has many implications for exactly how you deal with them
before, during and after the research.
To show the honesty in the way you collect, analyse, and interpret data you must explain
exactly how you arrived at your conclusions to avoid accusations of cover-ups or false
reasoning.
Hence, there are two aspects of ethical issues in research:
1. The individual values of the researcher relating to honesty and frankness and personal
integrity.
2. The researcher’s treatment of other people involved in the research, relating to informed
consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and courtesy.
1.10 Organizations and Ethics Committees
All organizations and universities involved in research have set up a code of practice for their
researchers. Where ever human participants are involved following this code is of utmost
importance. For instance, Panjab University ([Link]), Delhi University
([Link]/[Link]?page=academic-integrity-and-ethical-guidelines), British
Educational Research Association ([Link]/[Link]) or the British
Sociological Association statement of ethical practice ([Link]/index). All
universities have their own codes of practice and one must go through the prospectus or
university website or ask the supervisor regarding it.
The role of ethics committees is to oversee the research carried out in their organizations in
relation to ethical issues. It is they who formulate the research ethics code of conduct and
monitor its application in the research carried out by members of their organizations. One
also has to apply for ethics approval which involves filling in forms/affidavit/anti-plagiarism
undertaking.
1.11 Intellectual ownership and Plagiarism
Whatever you write will be regarded as your own original work; unless you state them as
words by someone. The worst offence against honesty in this respect is called plagiarism,
which means directly copying someone else’s work into your report, thesis, dissertation etc.
and letting it be known as your own. Using the thoughts, ideas and works of others without
acknowledging their source, even if you paraphrased into your own words, is unethical.
Equally serious is claiming sole authorship of work which is in fact the result of collaboration
or amanuensis (‘ghosting’).
While researching you cannot rely entirely on your own ideas, concepts, and theories. You
can avoid accusations of plagiarism by acknowledging the sources (intext citation and
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bibliography) within your own text. This is called citation. Although there are several well-
established citation methods, they all consist of brief annotations or numbers placed within
the text that identify the cited material, and a list of references at the end of the text that give
the full publication details of the source material. These methods of reference cater for direct
quotations or ideas etc. from the work of others gathered from a wide variety of sources (such
as books, journals, conferences, talks, interviews, TV programmes, images, audio etc.), and
should be meticulously used. For literature we use the Modern Language Association latest
edition handbook. In 2021-22 MLA8 will be used and following that MLA9 will be used as an
instruction manual for citation till the next edition is available in the market. You should
also indicate the assistance of others and any collaboration with others, usually in the form
of a written acknowledgement at the beginning or end of the article/dissertation. This is an
important part of ethics and academic courtesy which we should not forget.
Research is not only about writing but about responsibilities to fellow researchers,
respondents, the public and the academic community. Accurate descriptions are required of
what you have done, how you have done it, the information you obtained, the techniques you
used, the analysis you carried out, and the results of experiments. This gives scientific
objectivity to a qualitative work and makes the work credible.
If you are mixing qualitative and quantitative methods or just using quantitative methods
then distorting your data or results knowingly is a serious lapse of honesty. Scientific
objectivity should be maintained as much as possible. If you can see any reason for a
possibility of bias in any aspect of the research, it should be acknowledged and explained. If
the study involves personal judgements and assessments, the basis for these should be
given. Silently rejecting or ignoring evidence which happens to be contrary to one’s beliefs, or
being too selective in the data used and in presenting the results of the analysis constitutes a
breach of integrity. General statements and assumptions should also be avoided. The
sources of financial support for the research activities undertaken if any should be
mentioned, and one should not give in to the impartiality under influence of pressure and
sponsorship from those sources.
1.12 Introduction of any research writing
The introduction of any research work should clarify to the examiner the theoretical
perspective, or epistemology, of the researcher. It helps in clearing the ‘ground rules’ or
assumptions that underpin the research to the readers, and in some instances, the subjects
of the research. The theoretical approach will influence the type of data collection and
analysis used. These methods are not ethically neutral so they will raise ethical issues and
hence clarifications and details need to be given.
Social research, and other forms of research which study people and their relationships to
each other and to the world, need to be particularly sensitive about issues of ethical
behaviour. As this kind of research often impinges on the sensibilities and rights of other
people, researchers must be aware of necessary ethical standards which should be observed
to avoid any harm which might be caused by carrying out or publishing the results of the
research project.
1.13 Use of Language
One should also be careful regarding the argument and use of language and the consequent
meaning so that no one gender/race/tribe/class/caste etc. is demeaned. For this one must
use all-inclusive and gender-neutral language (refer to MLA9). How you use language has an
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important influence when doing and writing up research. You should aim to be as neutral as
possible in the way you use terminology involving people – who and what they are, and what
they do. Guard against being patronizing or disparaging, and avoid bias, stereotyping,
discrimination, prejudice, intolerance, and discrimination. You will notice that acceptable
terminology changes with time, so be aware that terms used in some older literature are not
suitable for use now. You need to be constantly aware of the real meaning of terms, and their
use within a particular context.
Student-researchers should present themselves as just that, and give the correct impression
that they are doing the research as an academic exercise which does not have the
institutional or political backing to cause immediate action. But if you spend a lot of time
with perhaps lonely, old persons delving into their personal history, the more intimate
situation might give rise to a more personal relationship that could go beyond the simple
research context. Even more expectations can be raised if you are working in a context of
deprivation or inequality – will the subjects begin to expect you to do something to improve
their situation?
1.14 Dealing with Participants
If you are conducting a survey, getting questionnaires filled, working on oral history, or are
working with humans as models/samples, you should treat participants with due ethical
consideration, in the way you choose them, deal with them personally and how you use the
information they provide. In many cases, participants choose freely whether to take part in a
survey by simply responding to the form or not. Obviously, you should avoid dishonest
means of persuasion, such as posing as an official, making unrealistic and untrue promises,
being unduly persistent and targeting people in vulnerable situations. This could occur
almost inadvertently if you are not alert to people’s situations and reactions.
Participants have the right to decide whether to take part according to the information they
receive about the research. The form that this information takes will depend on the type of
person, the nature of the research process and the context. It should be clear and easily
understood so they can make a fair assessment of the project in order to give informed
consent. Particular attention is needed when getting consent from vulnerable people such as
children, the elderly or ill, foreign language speakers and those who are illiterate or suffering
due to trauma. You must declare how confidentiality will be maintained if required. In case
one is trying to conduct a survey of any institution then be aware that there may be conflicts
of interest between the management and employees so there must be some obvious form of
protection for those making criticisms of the organization or systems of work or conditions.
Questionnaires should always provide the necessary written information as an introduction.
Participants must have the right to terminate their participation at any time. This involves
recognizing what the risks might be and choosing methods that minimize these risks, and
avoiding making any revelations that could in any way be harmful to the reputation, dignity,
or privacy of the subjects.
1.15 Recording Data
Just like focus on the language of writing, the researcher must maintain focus on the
detailing of the language when oral interviews are taken. There is a danger of simplifying
transcripts when writing up data from interviews and open questions. When you clean up
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and organize the data, you can start to impose your own interpretation, ignoring vocal
inflections, repetitions, asides, and subtleties of humour, thereby losing some of the
meanings. Further distortion can be introduced by being governed by one’s own particular
assumptions. The very gaps, inflections, repetitions, usage of specific words may guide you to
the characteristic involvement of your subject in a specific time/space/culture zone. If you
get friendly with your subjects you should not take familiarity so far as to deceive in order to
extract information that the participant might later regret giving. Neither should you raise
unrealistic expectations in order to ingratiate yourself.
Information can be thrown up that is of a sensitive nature which, if revealed, could do
damage to the participants or to other people. Every case will have to be judged individually,
but if this information is relevant to the research, it must be presented in such a way that
individuals are not damaged by assuring confidentiality and anonymity. In cases of, for
example, unfairness, victimization or bullying, it is unwise to get personally involved, but it
may be possible to give advice to the participant about who to contact for help, such as a
school tutor, trade union or ombudsman. No dishonest, deceptive, or covert method should
be used by the researcher to obtain information or progress with one’s writing of a research
project. If the data that you have collected may well contain confidential details about people
and/or organizations or is sensitive it is important to devise a storage system that is safe and
only accessible to you. If you need to transmit data, take measures that the method of
transmission is secure and not open to unauthorized access.
1.16 Dissemination
While writing your research project/dissertation/thesis dissemination of your results in the
form of conference or journal papers, a website or other types of publication inevitably
involves reducing the length of the material. It may lead to self-plagiarism at times as the
information is already available or is published in public domain before your final
submission of research work. To avoid it you may have to change the style of the writing. You
must therefore be careful that the publication remains true to the original and avoid
oversimplification, bias towards results or even denationalization. Avoid sharing chunks of
your research writing online before submission. Also do not check them again and again
through online anti-plagiarism testing soft wares as it may lead to a very high similarity
index in the final testing of your manuscript.
In case of sensitive information, a suitable time and method should be decided for disposing
of the records at the end of the research project. The basic policy is to ensure that all the
data is anonymous and non-attributable. This can be done by removing all labels and titles
that could lead to identification. Better still; data should be disposed of in such a way as to
be completely indecipherable. This might entail shredding documents, formatting discs and
erasing tapes.
Self-Assessment Questions

1) Differentiate between research methods and methodology.

2) How do you decide the focus of your research project?
3) What care should be taken if you involve human subjects in your research project?
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1.17 Summary
From this lesson, dear learners you have learnt the different kinds of research designs-
historical, descriptive, correlative, comparative, experimental, simulation, evaluative, action,
ethnological, feminist, cultural etc. You have also understood that research design is a plan
to answer your research question and research method is a strategy used to implement that
plan, and further methodology helps you give perspective to your research by using critical
theory and various ‘-isms’. You now can also enlist the objectives or research focus of any
research writing that aims to categorise, describe, explain, compare, evaluate, correlate,
predict or control. The lesson has reflected well on the idea of research ethics and plagiarism.
It guides us to follow MLA Handbook for all citation and reference issues. The lesson allows
one to relook at one’s own research writing, and the oral or written language of the research
subject. You can also comprehend how any research can be harmful or harmless for anybody
and hence sensitive issues, language and subjects should be cared for or avoided in case
they are not important for the progress of research.
1.18 References
 Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2006) How to Research (third edition).
Buckingham: Open University Press.
The first chapter gives an entertaining review of what research is about.
 Rudestam, K. E. and Newton, R. (2007) Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive
Guide to Content and Process (third edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
 David, M. and Sutton, C. (2004) Social Research: The Basics. London: Sage.
A good chapter on getting started.
1.19 Further Readings:
 Swetnam, D. (2000) Writing Your Dissertation: How to Plan, Prepare and Present
Successful Work (third edition). Oxford.
 Biggam, J. (2008) Succeeding with Your Master’s Dissertation: A Step-by-Step
Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
A useful, simple, and easy to read book for a person that has not done adissertation
before.
 Oliver, P. (2003) The Student’s Guide to Research Ethics. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.
This is an excellent review of the subject, going into detail on all aspects of ethics in
research, and providing useful examples of situations where ethical questions are
raised. It demonstrates that there are not always simple answers to these questions,
but suggests precautions that can be taken toavoid transgressions.
 Laine, M. de. (2000) Fieldwork, Participation and Practice: Ethics and Dilemmas in
Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications.
The main purposes of this book are to promote an understanding of the harmful
possibilities of fieldwork; and to provide ways of dealing with ethical problems and
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dilemmas. Examples of actual fieldwork are provided that address ethical problems
and dilemmas, and show ways of dealingwith them.
 Mauthner, M. (ed.) (2002) Ethics in Qualitative Research. London: Sage.
This book explores ethical issues in research from a range of angles, including: access
and informed consent, negotiating participation, rapport, the intentions of feminist
research, epistemology and data analysis, tensions between being a professional
researcher and a ‘caring’ professional.
The book includes practical guidelines to aid ethical decision-making rooted in
feminist ethics of care.
 Lee-Treweek, G. and Linkogle, S. eds. (2000) Danger in the Field: Ethics and Risk in
Social Research. London: Routledge.
Read this if you are going into situations that might be ethically hazardous.
1.19 Model Questions
Q1. What do you understand about research design? Discuss major types of research
design.
Q2. Why does one conduct research?
Q3. What constitutes the domain of research ethics? Discuss with examples.
Q4. What is plagiarism and how to avoid it?
Q5. How is language an important thing in terms of following research ethics?

UNIT II
Lesson -2

Introducing Theoretical Concepts

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Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Abduction
2.3 Deduction
2.4 Induction
2.5 Empiricism
2.6 Essentialism
2.7 Hermeneutics
2.8 Idealism
2.9 Realism
2.10 Positivism
2.11 Pragmatism
2.12 Relativism
2.13 Constructivism
2.14 Summary
2.15 Further Readings
2.16 Model Questions
2.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 acquaint yourself with different schools of thought
 develop an alternative outlook and perspective to engage with a given text
 equip yourself with various theoretical concepts/ tools required for the research
 think critically about the world/society
2.1 Introduction
Theory is the foundation of all learning. It is a perspective, or the lens through which we look
into a specific study. Theoretical concepts are developed in order to explain, predict, and
comprehend phenomena, as well as to question and extend the existing knowledge. This
theoretical framework is the skeletal system, upon which the body is built, that can hold or
support a research study. These concepts render meanings to what we perceive. These are
the underlying principles, one might say the tools, by which we attempt to understand
literature or any other piece of work. Without theoretical conceptions, there can be no
understanding. And if there is no understanding, we would live in a gloomy world, stumbling
around, wallowing in poverty, superstition, sickness, and [Link] concepts are
thus mandatory for comprehension and varied interpretations.
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2.2 Abduction
Abduction is one of the three major types of inference, the other two being Deduction and
Induction. It is the least familiar mode of reasoning which was systematized during the late
19th century by the American philosopher and logician Charles Peirce. Abductive inferences
are merely plausible in nature. It is a form of syllogism (logical argument) in which the major
premise is evident but the minor premise, and therefore the conclusion is only probable.
For example: Tim and Harry have recently had a terrible row that ended their friendship. Now
someone tells you that she just saw Tim and Harry jogging together. The best explanation for
this that you can think of is that they made up. You conclude that they are friends again.
But then there is a chance that they have not reconciled, rather they are also business
partners who have met to discuss their finances over jogging. In another example, one
morning you enter the kitchen to find a plate with bread crumbs on it, a jar of jam next to it,
and an empty carton of milk. You conclude that one of your house-mates got up at night to
make her or him a midnight snack and was too tired to clear the table. This, you think, best
explains the scene you are facing. Or, there is a chance that someone burgled the house and
took the time to have a bite while on the job. The latter hypotheses of both the examples
strike you as providing much more contrived explanations of the data than the one you infer
to. What leads you to the conclusion, is precisely the fact that Tim and Harry’s being friends
again would, if true, best explain the fact that they have just been seen jogging together. And
one of your house-mates got up at night to eat, best explains the other example. Gilbert
Harman characterized this mode of abduction as “reasoning to the best explanation.”
Even though abductive inferences are weaker, they can be extremely useful. When we reason
to meaning, we are expanding the realm of plausible explanations. We are giving ourselves a
chance to see things that we might otherwise miss by staying with tried-and-true
explanations. This is what Russell Hanson called the “logic of discovery.” Abduction offers
great promise as a potential primary mode of reasoning for qualitative research.
Furthermore, the notion of abduction has been incorporated into both expert systems
research and artificial intelligence research. In addition, it has played an important role in
semiotics. Other work in abductive theory and practice has likened abductive researchers to
detectives. In particular, Sherlock Holmes has been identified as an abductive thinker par
excellence. That is, his so-called deductions are, in fact, abductions. In a famous case,
Holmes infers, from the surprising fact that the watchdog did not bark, the abductive
conclusion that the dog knew the kidnapper. Umberto Eco has looked at this aspect of
abduction in both his theoretical work and his novels.
2.3 Deduction
Of the three modes, Deduction is the oldest and most venerable. It is a process of reasoning
that starts with a general truth, applies that truth to a specific case (resulting in a second
piece of evidence), and from those two pieces of evidence (premises), draws a specific
conclusion about the specific case. Using the notation of Charles Peirce, and taking an
illustration from a famous example by Aristotle, deduction in syllogistic form has the
following structure: Rule (also known as the major premise): All men are mortal, Case (also
known as the minor premise): Socrates is a man, and Result: Socrates is mortal.
As Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific, sometimes this is
informally called a “top-down” approach that involves using general assumptions and logical
premises to come to a logical conclusion. For example, “If all men living in Hongkong are
rich, Adam lives in Hong Kong. Therefore, Adam is rich”. We might begin with thinking up a
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theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses
that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the
hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a
confirmation (or not) of our original theories.
Deductive inference conclusions are certain, provided the premises are true. It is possible to
come to a logical conclusion even if the generalization is not true. If the generalization is
wrong, the conclusion may be logical, but it may also be untrue. For example, the argument,
"All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore, Harold is a grandfather," is valid
logically but it is untrue because the original statement is false.
Needless to say, the role of deduction as a means for determining whether or not arguments
are valid is important for all forms of research writing, qualitative and quantitative alike. The
other side of deduction deals with the issue of argumentation.
2.4 Induction
Inductive reasoning is often confused with deductive reasoning. While the two are not
mutually exclusive, the inductive method is the opposite of the deductive method. Research
approaches that generalize from a particularity (typically a set of observations of some sort)
to a broad statement, such as a theory or general proposition concerning a topic, apply
inductive reasoning. For example, if at a coffee shop 4 out of 6 of your colleagues are ordering
the same type of coffee, you conclude that this particular coffee of that particular shop is
probably tasty and you want to try it too. Based on the observations of a small group, you
make generalizations at large. Deduction moves from theory to observation, while Induction
moves from observations to theory. Deduction is an idea-first, followed by observations and a
conclusion. Induction is an observation first, followed by an idea that could explain what’s
been seen, which is why Induction is called the “Bottom up” approach. Using a small sample,
you make a generalization about the whole population. For example: The left-handed people I
know use left-handed scissors; therefore, all left-handed people use left-handed scissors.
Because induction involves inference, the outcome of inductive reasoning is never binding
given that a contradictory case may always overturn the generalization. For instance, if it is
argued inductively that all birds fly (based on a series of observations), this reasoning can be
overturned when a single flightless bird is observed. Philosophers have identified this as the
problem of induction, arguing that all theory must be regarded as tentative and prone to
being overturned if a contradictory observation is made. If the premises are true in
deduction, the conclusion is definitely true. If the premises are true in induction, the
conclusion is only probably true, depending on how good the evidence is. For example, every
time you eat peanuts, your throat swells up and you can’t breathe. This is a symptom of
people who are allergic to peanuts. So, you are allergic to peanuts. But this inductive
statement can be overturned when we see people who have the same symptoms of allergy,
but are not allergic to peanuts.
Most real problems and questions are dealt with more in the realm of induction, where you
might have some observations and those observations might be able to take you to some sort
of generalization or theory, but you can’t necessarily say for sure that you’re right at the
same time. It’s about working as best you can within a world where knowledge is usually
incomplete. But Deduction is hard to use in everyday life because it requires a sequential set
of facts that are known to be true, while Induction is used all the time in everyday life
because most of the world is based on partial knowledge, probabilities, and the usefulness of
a theory as opposed to its absolute validity.
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2.5 Empiricism
Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine which regards experience as the only source of
knowledge. The empiricist draws his rules of practice not from theory but from close
observation and experiment, emphasizing inductive rather than deductive processes of
thought. Thus, it is a philosophy that knowledge is based solely on what can be confirmed by
the senses. This view is aligned to the scientific method and the requirement that a
hypothesis be tested with observation and measurement. Empiricism is often presented as
being in opposition to Rationalism. Rationalism is the philosophy that knowledge is based on
valid reasoning without any requirement which needs to be confirmed with the senses. For
example: Empiricists argue that we can only understand 1+1=2 because we have seen it in
action throughout our lives. As children, empiricists say, we learn by observing adults, and
that’s how we gain abstract knowledge about things like maths and logic. But Rationalists
hold that you don’t have to make any observations to know that 1+1=2; any person who
understands the concepts of “one” and “addition” can work it out for themselves.
In seventeenth- and eighteenth- century medicine, however, empiricism was synonymous
with quackery, and in literary criticism the term is also generally employed to characterize a
uninformed judgment. Francis Bacon compared empiricists to ants, “merely collecting and
using,” and contrasted them with dogmatists or “spiders” that “spin webs out of themselves.”
Next is a claim that differentiated the 17th- and 18th-century British empiricists from the
continental rationalists. Locke, for example, argued that the mind is originally a tabula rasa
and that all ideas are the result of experience literally imprinting itself on this blank sheet. In
his enormously influential Essay concerning Human Understanding, he refuted the concept of
"innate ideas" and insisted that all human knowledge was of empiric origin. Another aspect
in Locke’s doctrine is Nominalism. According to which he rejected the view that it is possible
to know the “real essences” of things and argued that the objects of knowledge are “nominal
essences”—the various combinations of experience to which we give names. The view that all
observation is theory laden complicates matters and has encouraged many writers to reject
empiricism. For instance, scientific theories, especially in physics, seem to refer to entities
that do not occur in experience (e.g., subatomic particles). So, if the empiricist believes that
all knowledge is derivable from experience, she or he must explain how this is possible.
2.6 Essentialism
Essentialism is the philosophical doctrine that certain properties of an object or a concept
are necessary or essential rather than contingent or accidental. For example, we might say of
a person that being good is accidental because it is possible not to be good and yet still be a
person, whereas occupying space is essential because it is impossible to be a person and yet
not occupy a physical space in the world. Essentialists maintain, first, that all objects and
concepts can be defined by reference to certain core properties that make them what they are
and, second, that it is instructive and useful to inquire into the nature of these essential
features. The view that there are certain properties essential to humans, such as a “core self”
that defines us as people, is often referred to as “humanism.” Thus, Essentialism is the view
that some properties of objects are essential to them. The “essence” of a thing is conceived as
the totality of its essential properties.
For example, in Gender Studies, gender essentialism is the attribution of fixed essences to
men and women. Women's essence is assumed to be universal and is generally identified
with those characteristics viewed as being specifically feminine. These ideas of femininity are
usually biologized and are often preoccupied with psychological characteristics, such as
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nurturance, empathy, support, and non-competitiveness, etc. Feminist theorist Elizabeth

Grosz states in her 1995 publication Space, time and perversion: essays on the politics of
bodies that essentialism "entails the belief that those characteristics defined as women's
essence are shared in common by all women at all times. It implies a limit of the variations
and possibilities of change—it is not possible for a subject to act in a manner contrary to her
essence”. Essentialism thus refers to the existence of fixed characteristics, given attributes,
and ahistorical functions that limit the possibilities of change and thus of social
reorganization.
2.7 Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is the art of understanding and of making oneself understood. It goes beyond
mere logical analysis and general interpretive principles. In a sense, every book review or film
review is an example of hermeneutics or interpreting plays, novels, and also in day-to-day
life, when we interpret actions of our friends or try to figure out what a job termination, for
example, means in the context of our life story. From the Greek ‘to interpret’ or ‘to make
clear’, hermeneutics is the study of the theory and the practice of understanding and
interpretation. It is built on the assumption that interpretation is not a straightforward
activity even though people do it all the time when they interact with others and the world.
The concept is based on Hermes, the Greek mythological god of boundaries and of those who
cross them, who is said to have translated the gods’ messages for humans. To do so
successfully, he had to understand both the language and the mind-set of the gods (so as to
communicate the intended message) and those of humans (so as to communicate it in a way
they could understand). It is this space of encounter, this boundary between person and text,
person and person, or person and world where meaning is open to interpretation that is of
interest to researchers who draw from hermeneutics. However, it is also used to designate
attempts to theorize the conditions under which such interpretation is possible. From
Herder, via Schleiermacher and Hegel, through Nietzsche, Dilthey, Heidegger, Gadamer, and
Rorty, hermeneutically oriented philosophers have been engaged at both of these levels.
Hermeneutic thinkers argue that understanding is the interpretive act of integrating
particular things such as words, signs, and events into a meaningful whole. We only really
understand an object, word, or fact when it makes sense within our own life context and
thus speaks to us meaningfully. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BCE), used
the word hermeneutics in dealing with poets as ‘hermeneutics of the divine’, and his student
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) wrote the first extant treatise on hermeneutics, in which he showed
how spoken and written words were expressions of inner thoughts. Modern hermeneutics
also has to ask how the digital revolution changes the conditions for understanding texts. For
example, text encodings are already an interpretation and different search parameters
represent texts through a particular, pre-selected focus. Philosophical hermeneutics refers to
the detailed and systematic examination of human understanding that began with the
German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-2002). He argued that our perception of the
world is not primarily theoretical but practical. We don’t assess objects neutrally from a
distance, but they disclose themselves to us as we move around in an already existing
totality of meaningful relations.
2.8 Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical doctrine which holds the view that ideas are the only reality. For
the idealists there is no external reality, and that the world consists of ideas. For this reason,
the idealists argue that material things do not really exist. For the idealists the material
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things are not real because they are mutable and destructible. And whatever that is mutable
and destructible, keeps on changing, and whatever that keeps on changing cannot be
considered as real. Only ideas are immutable and indestructible. Take for example a Tree,
according to idealism the tree we experience in the world of matter is not real because it is
mutable, destructible and changeable. The real tree is the one which exist in the world of
form, the tree that exists on the level of idea. Idealism typically means a form of thought that
studiously ignored reality. It is often contrasted with Realism, a philosophical doctrine which
holds the view that material objects are independent of the human mind; thus, they exist on
their own. For the realists, the material objects are real. Idealists associate reality with the
mind, rather than the material things. Hence, the mind for the idealists is the essence of
reality and that ideas are the only permanent reality.
The ancient Greek philosopher Plato was a well-known figure in idealism. He believed that
the physical world is not real. As the physical world keeps on changing, one cannot really tell
what the reality is. In his seminal work The Republic he introduced the two kinds of world,
namely, The world of forms and ideas and the world of matter. For him, any material object
that exists in the world of matter is just a copy of the object that exists in the world of forms.
For example, a tree that exists in the world of matter is not real, but the tree that exists in
the world of forms or at the level of idea is real. Our conception or idea of any material object
is its ‘form’, and for Plato it is the reality. In contemporary scholarship, traditional idealist
views are generally divided into two groups. Subjective idealism takes as its starting point
that objects only exist to the extent that they are perceived by someone. Objective idealism
posits the existence of an objective consciousness which exists before and, in some sense,
independently of human consciousness, thereby bringing about the existence of objects
independently of human minds. George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur
Schopenhauer are a few pioneers of modern idealist thought.
2.9 Realism
Realism as an overarching philosophical doctrine is the position that we should strive to
understand the world from an objective point of view. Realism holds the view that material
objects are independent of the human mind; thus, they exist on their own. For the realists,
the material objects are real unlike the idealists. Realism, thus, brought optimism that the
world is knowable. For example, the Maple tree I see with my naked eyes existing outside is
concrete reality and is not just an abstract concept produced by the mind as the idealists
would have us believe. Hence, the Maple tree exists in the external world and has properties
of its own such as hardness and thickness that Maple tree is independent of anyone’s
perception – it is therefore real.
There are two general aspects to realism, illustrated by looking at realism about the everyday
world of macroscopic objects and their properties. First, there is a claim about existence.
Tables, rocks, the moon, and so on, all exist, as do the following facts: the table’s being
square, the rock’s being made of granite, and the moon’s being spherical and yellow. The
second aspect of realism about the everyday world of macroscopic objects and their
properties concerns independence. The fact that the moon exists and is spherical is
independent of anything anyone happens to say or think about the matter.
2.10 Positivism
Positivism is a hugely influential philosophy of science associated with a 19th-century model
of the physical sciences. It is empiricist in asserting that the world exists of observables that
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are knowable through sensory experience, aspires to the discovery of universal causal laws
through the identification of statistical regularities, and commits to value neutrality. It is a
way of looking at the world from the vantage point of scientific method. For example, if
someone is showing symptoms of having a cardiac arrest, all the tests that are conducted
afterwards when we take her/him to the hospital also confirm the complete heart blockage
which leads to a heart attack. Only those objects or events that can be experienced directly
should be the objects of scientific inquiry. Therefore, according to the positivists, there are
facts about the human world that are objectively true and they can be discovered and
understood through the scientific method. This is why positivists consciously avoid
metaphysical speculations, such as questions regarding the nature of God, freedom, and the
immortality of the soul. In everyday life, it is the state of being certain or being very confident
of something. For example, a Christian being absolutely certain that there is a God.
Auguste Comte is considered the father of positivism. He believes that observation and
experiment are the principle means in the search for truth. He based his philosophy on the
idea that intellectual disciplines progress only to the degree that it is grounded in experience
and observable facts. As AnatolRapoport gives an example, if a positivist sees a black sheep
in the meadow, she will not say that there is a black sheep in the meadow; rather she will say
“I see a sheep in the meadow one side of which is black”. The only things that one can be
certain of are those which are publicly observable, namely, sense experiences that can be
shared with other people. Scientific Laws for instance, the law of Buoyancy for that matter.
When applying this to the study of Society, Comte’s positivism relies purely on the study of
scientific evidence, such as experiment and statistics to reveal the true nature of how the
society works. As he would have us believe that a scientific analysis of society would show us
the way to address the pathologies of that society.
2.11 Pragmatism
Pragmatism is the pursuit of practical knowledge that is immediately useful. A Pragmatist
easily accepts a theory as mostly true if it appears to be useful in explaining or predicting the
world. The central notion of pragmatism focuses on the nature of truth. In its simplest
explanation, pragmatism holds that truth is found in “what works,” and that truth is relative
to the current situation. A pragmatist can consider something to be true without needing to
confirm that it is universally true. For example, if humans commonly perceive the ocean as
beautiful then the ocean is beautiful. However simple these statements may be, they created
some of the most heated and widespread debate concerning the value and “truth” of
pragmatism as a philosophy. This can be contrasted with Scepticism, whereby an individual
is hesitant to accept anything as true without any extensive evidence. They are interested in
the immediate and tangible results of knowledge.
Pragmatism is based on the principle that the usefulness, workability, and practicality of
ideas, policies, and proposals are the criteria of their merit. It stresses the priority of action
over doctrine, of experience over fixed principles, and it holds that ideas borrow their
meanings from their consequences and their truths from their verification. Thus, ideas are
essentially instruments and plans of action. In philosophy, pragmatism is a school of thought
that starts from the insight that words are tools. Words don’t have inherent meanings
attached to them from birth — rather; they gain their meanings through repeated use. For
example, nobody ever decided that “bear” would mean a furry creature with teeth; over time,
people found this syllable was useful for pointing out the dangerous creatures, and this
helped them survive and thrive. The same is true for important theoretical concepts like
power, freedom, or truth. For pragmatists, there’s no essential meaning to any of these terms
 xxii

— the terms are just tools those human beings use to go about their lives and accomplish
their goals. It is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and
instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the
function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality. Pragmatists contend that most
philosophical topics—such as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief,
and science—are all best viewed in terms of their practical uses and successes. Pragmatism
began in the United States in the 1870s. Its origins are often attributed to the philosophers
Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey.
2.12 Relativism
There are two deeply interrelated points central to all discussions of relativism - the first is
the claim that our experiences, moral judgments, claims to knowledge, and so on can be
understood only relative to something else such as particular languages and particular social
and cultural practices. The second is the denial that there can be any universal or apodictic
truths. Relativism is the belief that something might be right for you but wrong for me.
Basically, it means that each person becomes his or her own god, deciding what is right and
good. For example, someone believes stealing is ok if you are hungry, adultery is acceptable
as long as you really love the other person, or it’s fine to lie as long as you are helping
someone.
Cultural relativism describes the simple fact that there are different cultures and each has
different ways of behaving, thinking and feeling as its members learn such from the previous
generation. It is well known by just about every human on the planet that people do things
differently around the globe. People dress differently, eat differently, speak different
languages, sing different songs, have different music and dances and have many different
customs. Descriptive ethical relativism describes the fact that in different cultures one of the
variants is the sense of morality: the mores, customs and ethical principles may all vary from
one culture to another. What is thought to be moral in one country may be thought to be
immoral and even made illegal in another country. Normative ethical relativism is a theory,
which claims that there are no universally valid moral principles. Normative ethical
relativism theory says that the moral rightness and wrongness of actions varies from society
to society and that there are no absolute universal moral standards binding on all men at all
times. The theory claims that all thinking about the basic principles of morality (Ethics) is
always relative. Each culture establishes the basic values and principles that serve as the
foundation for morality. The theory claims that this is the case now, has always been the
case and will always be the case. People develop their thinking concerning morality over time.
They do so as a result of interactions with individuals and social institutions. In different
societies each with their own cultures there are different ideas concerning how humans are
to behave. Different societies and cultures have different rules, different mores, laws and
moral ideas. Like the famous saying goes, “you have your truth; I will have mine”.
2.13 Constructivism
Constructivism disallows the existence of an external objective reality independent of an
individual from which knowledge may be collected or gained. Instead, each individual
constructs knowledge and his or her experience through social interaction. Therefore,
according to constructivists, the world is independent of human minds, but knowledge of the
world is always a human and social construction. For example, in sociology and
anthropology, constructivism is the view that social reality is constructed by human beings
— structures such as race, class, and nationality are all social constructions rather than
 xxiii

objective realities.
Cultural constructivism asserts that knowledge and reality are products of their cultural
context, meaning that two independent cultures will likely form different observational
methodologies. Social constructivism addresses the ontological– epistemological questions of
constructivism in describing the bodies of knowledge developed over human history as social
constructs that do not reflect an objective external world. Everything we know has been
determined by the intersection of politics, values, ideologies, religious beliefs, language, and
so on. Psychological constructivism addresses the epistemological questions of
constructivism and is especially relevant to education as it deals with how people learn and,
thereby, how instruction should be carried out. Essentially, knowledge is not acquired but
rather is constructed. The learner is an active participant in building knowledge, not a
passive recipient of information. Radical constructivism is an extreme form of psychological
constructivism. It asserts that any external world is entirely a construction of an individual
and exists in that person’s consciousness as his or her subjective experience. For example,
from a radical constructivism epistemological view, a teacher’s perception of the learning
environment he or she has created (physical and psychological) is experienced and known
differently by each student in that environment. Therefore, there is no absolute external
learning environment; there is only the perceived learning environment built in each
individual student’s mind.
Self-Assessment Questions

1. Who is the founding figure of positivism?

2. Who gave the concept of “innate ideas”?

3. Which Greek philosopher introduced the term “hermeneutics of the divine”?

2.14 Summary
In this lesson you were introduced to various theoretical concepts that are fundamentally
needed for conducting any particular study. We find that we owe most of these theoretical
concepts to the ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and others. The
philosophers of ancient Greece had built a sophisticated, intellectual and scientific culture.
The role of reason and inquiry was one of the most important aspects of Greek philosophy. It
emphasised logic and promoted the concept of objective, scientific observation of nature.
Modern philosophers pondering upon these concepts further have rightfully overturned the
understandings, so as to challenge and extend the prospects of classical knowledge. The
understanding of these concepts immensely influences the way we perceive the world around
us; spheres of language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts.
Therefore, this lesson in its strict sense provides you with underlying explanations of how
something works.
2.15 Further Readings
 Lisa M. Given, The Sage Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Singapore:
Sage Publications, Inc. 2008.
 J. Saldana, Thinking Qualitatively: Methods of Mind, Los Angeles: Sage Publications,
 xxiv

2015.

2.16 Model Questions

1. Discuss the central arguments of constructivist and essentialist paradigms.
2. Give comparative accounts of rationalist and empiricist schools of thought.
3. Write short notes on any three of the following:
[Link] b. Positivism c. Hermeneutics d. Idealism e. Realism

Answers to SAQs

1. AugusteCompte
2. John Locke
3. Plato

UNIT III

Lesson No. 3
 xxv

Tools and Techniques for Literary Research: Using

Online and Printed Sources

STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Preparation before starting your research
3.3 Online Tutorials
3.4 Google Search
3.5 Usage of Wildcard Filtering/Google Search Operator with Illustrations
3.6 Wikipedia and evaluating data
3.7 Bookmarking and managing references
3.8 Citing Sources
3.9 Types of Materials
3.10 Finding your way around a library
3.11 Archives and Preparation for Future Research
3.12 Participating in a Research Community
3.13 Summary
3.14 Further Readings
3.15 Model Questions
3.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will have achieved the following objectives:
● being prepared before beginning with research: the first stage of research design
● understanding the difference between various sources: primary, secondary, data
sources
● having an overview of the main online and printed sources relevant to research
● becoming aware of the range of available online resources and their comparative
evaluation
● knowledge of how to retrieve relevant primary and secondary material for research
topics
● participation in online information networks and becoming a part of the research
community
3.1 Introduction:
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The first stage of any research is the identification of a researchable phenomenon/topic and
includes reading relevant literature, listening to present ideas about the phenomena/topic,
and even more important, reflecting on one’s interest as aresearcher. Before beginning the
formal search process, examining background information on the topic can provide valuable
information in developing the focus of the study.
The first stage will also interweave with the third stage of research design when the data is
explored and collected to a greater and efficient extent because of precision and clarity after
the first stage is crossed by the researcher.
Data sources can be primary sources in the form of documents, paintings, music or media,
or they can be secondary resources, such as stories, literature of the era, and other accounts
of the event or phenomena. All the data should be evaluated with a critical eye, using a
variety of primary and secondary sources.
3.1.1 First step to research design and knowledge about sources:
Primary Sources:
Primary sources refer to first-person accounts of events in original documents, letters,
artwork, literature, music, observational notes, journals, and photographs. Primary sources
enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during a
historical event or time period or what was originally written by the author in the line of topic
under consideration.
The sources that are primary are either created during the time period being studied or were
created at a later date by a participant in the events being studied (as in the case of
memoirs), and they reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer.
These sources may be available in their original format or may have been reproduced later in
a different format, such as in the form of a translated document, book, microfilm collection,
or video or on the internet. These original sources of data hold the greatest value in terms of
their validity and reliability.
Handwritten documents, for example, are sometimes published in printed collections by
academic presses in an effort to make them easier for researchers to access and to read,
such as those that have been translated from the original language. An example of a primary
source is the trial transcripts of the official trials of Joan of Arc. Although originally written in
Latin, they are now available in English translations on the internet and have been verified
by French historical experts.
One must validate the sources before beginning with one’s research. Many documents are
influenced by the perception, biases, and selective survival of the document and are limited
to specific groups of people in society whose accounts have survived, such as the educated
and literate. Significantly, as a researcher, one can find that people who had little power in a
culture- such as women, members of the lower classes, and minorities; have produced few
primary resources. This result is primarily because of illiteracy, because of their use of oral
rather than written historical records, or because their work has not been considered
valuable.
For example, the trials of witches during the medieval period in Europe reflect only the
officials who conducted the trials and interrogations. There are few first-person accounts
from the perspective of the women themselves, other than forced confessions. The women
 xxvii

who were accused, convicted, and eventually burned at the stake as punishment were
usually illiterate, and their stories as primary sources are unavailable to researchers.
Further, data should include at least two or more sources of the same type of information.
These sources can be two primary sources, which concur without conflict or disagreement, or
one primary source and one independent secondary source, which corroborates with the
primary source and does not contain any substantial contradictory information.
3.1.2 Secondary Sources:
Secondary sources are data from letters, diaries, and account descriptions of persons who
were not eyewitnesses of the event or who did not personally know the person who is the
focus of the study. Hence, it is a source that was created after the events it describes or is
related to or is created by someone who was not directly involved in or was an eyewitness to
the events.
The sources that are secondary also include summaries, personal interpretations, and views
and include simple descriptions of primary sources (reviews in books, magazines, journals or
newspapers; paraphrase or summaries on websites and blogs).
Types of secondary sources also include biographies and accounts written years after the
event, even if written by a witness to the event (a first-person account of a child written as an
adult). Other examples are scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books,
biographies, and textbooks.
For instance, the Diary of Anne Frank is a primary source, written by a young teen girl who
experienced the Holocaust by hiding with her family in Amsterdam. Anne Frank’s diary gave
historians a valuable perspective of the Holocaust, a persecution that did not exist in official
documents. Artwork created by those in concentration camps of World War II and
propaganda films made by the Third Reich are other examples of primary data that add
validity and reliability to research. Secondary sources in the example of the German
Holocaust would include diaries, journals, and interviews with children and relatives of those
who died during World War II.
At times a researcher may find unfamiliar documents or information that is unrelated to the
research focus and can be a distraction, as well as, wastage of one’s precious time. However,
this discovery phase can assist the researcher in refining the study and/or research
question.
3.1.3 Data Sources:
Diaries, photographs, art, literature, minutes of meetings, eyewitness accounts in
newspapers or other official documents, court records, letters, maps, and other relevant
sources can often be found in university and specialty collections. Government websites and
collections are also excellent beginning points for locating data sources, as are special
collections from museums and art galleries. Many of these can now be located on the
internet.
Intertextual, as well as, inter/multidisciplinary research will include data in the way of a
variety of art and media forms, such as paintings, sculpture, poetry, music, film, television,
and literature. These resources can depict the shifts and changes in the social, cultural, and
political context of history.
A researcher should always label and date the data. Even the authorship should be identified
including all critical details of the data source.
 xxviii

3.2 Preparation before starting your research

After thinking about your topic broadly as a researcher, you must record and route your
research from the very day of thinking of becoming a research scholar or writing your
postgraduate dissertation. Make your notebook as a research journal which has all the
details and dates like topic, visit to guide, discussion pointers, various people or institutions
you visited for research, names of books from online sources related to your topic,
articles/newspaper reports and websites, bibliography or reference works available online,
and books available at various libraries in physical form. To start with online research on
your laptop/tab/PC a basic level of computing expertise, such as operating Microsoft Word,
the ability to use a web browser to access, browse and bookmark websites, and an awareness
of how to mark, download and export database search results, is also required.
Hence, the key to an effective and systematic research is pre-preparation after deciding your
area/author/topic. As already mentioned, this pre-preparation will involve browsing,
surveying, bookmarking, or making a note of whatever is available online before you
physically visit any library. For online resources, first always begin with public-access or
common access sites that you can readily access from anywhere without any password.
Second, visit any online resource that you have access to through your institution like
institutional library account, Libby, Inflibnet, Delnet, Pubmed, Academia, Paperity, World
Digital Library, ResearchGate, Shodhganga, and Shodhgangotri, to name a few. Thirdly, visit
your college/university library in person and check the resources available. Fourthly, identify
the nearest libraries or remote major libraries where you can visit; for instance you may visit
local college libraries in Chandigarh and surrounding areas (Himachal, Punjab, Haryana,
Delhi) if you are a student of Panjab University. Also identify other major libraries around
like Punjabi University, GNDU, Central Universities, Advanced Studies Shimla, Ashoka
University, IIT Ropar or Delhi, SahityaAkademi Delhi, British Council Library, Nehru
Memorial Library Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India, National Gallery of Modern Art, and
various public and state libraries. Your research journal should have a classification of both
online and offline resources and a detailed classification of various specific sources (books,
journal articles, YouTube, personal interview, newspapers, magazines, etc.). Also organise a
trip to find a specific source you need that you were unable to find online or at a library near
you.
3.3 Online Tutorials
The internet is a booming world of information flow without a dam consisting of texts,
images, video clips, audio material and so on. Before beginning, the learners should make
sure that they are aware of basic search skills, can manage their web browser, and
understand the basic terminology commonly used before they start research.
The searching skills can be further enhanced by going through certain online tutorials;
various international universities websites, as well as, Google search finding certain specific
keywords: Planning a Research, Searching for Information while writing Thesis, and
Evaluating Information while doing Research may help you in going about your research at a
preliminary stage.
You can also develop your Internet and searching skills competence by utilising the Skills in
Accessing,Finding and Reviewing Information available on (SAFARI) ([Link]/safari).
This open-access resource offers an online information skills tutorial with seven sections (14
hours in total).
 xxix

Another tutorial that can help you plan your research is Intute’s Virtual Training Suite on
the Internet for English website ([Link]/he/tutorial/english).The online
tutorials are designed to help students, lecturers and researchers improve their Internet
information skills. The tutorials offer self-directed learning, take around an hour each to
complete, and include quizzes and interactive exercises to lighten the learning experience.
The above given websites will help you in collating information, writing your thesis, managing
your bibliography, looking for funding opportunities, and handling plagiarism and copyright
issues.
3.4 Google Search
Google search is one frequent and humble thing that every researcher, as well as, a lay
person refers to, and also gets baffled with the amount of hits that are returned while
conducting any search. There are a number of ways in which a learner can delimit the search
fields and maximise the retrieval of relevant information. You can restrict your search by
language, domain, national territory, data-range, type of material and file format.
Using the advanced search function and entering a specific phrase or combination of words
by placing it in double quotation marks (“. . .”) will greatly improve the accuracy of your
search, as it will search for only that particular combination. If in your search you put .pdf at
the end of the topic or keywords to be searched for; the results will usually give you official
documents, e-books, and thesis/articles. You can also undertake a synonym search by
placing a tilde (~) mark before your search term, specifically exclude something by placing a
minus (−) before it, or conversely include it by placing a plus (+) mark before it. The usage of
special characters is known as wildcard filtering. These are special characters; any such
characters may not also work as the filters are website specific. All of these tips can be used
together to refine your search on Every Persons’ Google!!!
Literary researchers must search on Google Scholar specifically rather than simply Google for
accessing many publications and pre-prints available for free that at times can be accessed
only through paid websites or specific institutional websites. Thus, Google Scholar
([Link] will allow you to search for scholarly publications (books,
articles, reviews, etc.) across a range of disciplines.
Google Book Search ([Link] is another remarkable and constantly growing
virtual library; where copyright material is available in limited preview or ‘snippet’ mode (a
page range or excerpt only), while non-copyright books can sometimes be read, downloaded
and printed in their entire form. It is an excellent source to locate your primary sources but
one must never treat it as a one-stop panacea for all the research needs. If you refer to a
book on Google Book Search you must always note the exact bibliographical details of the
book (including edition details) that is accessed through this search. The work cited or
bibliography list at the end of research needs to be systematic and consistent; making a note
in detail or bookmarking can only help you in filing the correct information when required.
Another important thing that should be noted while accessing any online resource is to
always record the precise URL for the digitised source. This helps not only in citation of
bibliographic works but also will help you to find it again without having to repeat the
original search.
3.5 Usage of Wildcard Filtering/Google Search Operator with Illustrations
For instance, if you are researching Steve Jobs of Apple, consider the following: note Steve
Jobs can be replaced by your item of research.
 xxx

1. “search term”

Use this to refine results for ambiguous searches, or to exclude synonyms when searching
for single words.
Example:“steve jobs”
2. OR
Search for X or Y. This will return results related to X or Y, or both.
Note: The pipe (|) operator can also be used in place of “OR.”
Examples:jobs OR gates
jobs | gates
3. AND
Search for X and Y. This will return only results related to both X and Y.
Note: It doesn’t really make much difference for regular searches, as Google defaults to
“AND” anyway. But it’s very useful when paired with other operators.
Example: jobs AND gates
4.-
Exclude a term or phrase. In our example, any pages returned will be related to jobs but not
Apple (the company).
Example: jobs -apple
5. *
Acts as a wildcard and will match any word or phrase.
Example:steve * apple
6.( )
Group multiple terms or search operators to control how the search is executed.
Example: (ipad OR iphone) apple
7. $
Search for prices. Also works for Euro (€), but not GBP (£) ?
Example: ipad $329
[Link]:
A dictionary built into Google, basically. This will display the meaning of a word in a card-like
result in the SERPs (Search Engine Results Pages).
Example: define:entrepreneur
[Link]:
Returns the most recent cached version of a web page (providing the page is indexed, of
course).
Example: cache:[Link]
[Link]:
 xxxi

Restrict results to those of a certain filetype. E.g. PDF, DOCX, TXT, PPT, etc.
Example: apple filetype:pdf
11. site:
Limit results to those from a specific website.
Example: site:[Link]
12. related:
Find sites related to a given domain.
Example: related:[Link]
13. intitle:
Find pages with a certain word (or words) in the title. In our example, any results containing
the word “apple” in the title tag will be returned.
Example: intitle:apple
[Link]:
Similar to “intitle,” but only results containing all of the specified words in the title tag will be
returned.
Example: allintitle:appleiphone
[Link]:
Find pages with a certain word (or words) in the URL. For this example, any results
containing the word “apple” in the URL will be returned.
Example: inurl:apple
[Link]:
Similar to “inurl,” but only results containing all of the specified words in the URL will be
returned.
Example: allinurl:appleiphone
17. intext:

Find pages containing a certain word (or words) somewhere in the content. For this example,
any results containing the word “apple” in the page content will be returned.
Example: intext:apple
18. allintext:
Similar to “intext,” but only results containing all of the specified words somewhere on the
page will be returned.
Example: allintext:appleiphone
[Link]:
Force Google to show map results for a locational search.
 xxxii

Example: map:silicon valley

[Link]:
Find information about a specific movie. Also finds movie show times if the movie is currently
showing near you.
Example: movie: Steve Jobs

3.6 Wikipedia and evaluating data

Wikipedia ([Link]) is the world’s largest open-access encyclopaedia, founded on
the collaborative social knowledge construction. It is majorly used for all kinds of searches
the world over. Wikipedia content provides author biographies, history and transition of a
topic, indicative bibliographies, links to relevant external sites, and discussion forums.
It will often reflect recent events or developments before other sources unlike printed or some
online sources. The frequency of editing and updating of information on wikipedia is
extremely high. A researcher can contribute to the social construction of knowledge by
joining relevant discussion forums, suggest useful external links for specific pages and check
content accuracy and even suggest changes by creating a username and password to access
Wikipedia.
You should make sure that you maintain a consistent system of citation by using a specific
bibliographic style (MHRA, MLA, APA, Harvard, Chicago, etc.). Though one should cross
check and be careful about the information shared on this source as there can be chances
that a small proportion of the material on Wikipedia can be inaccurate, out of date, poorly
referenced or incorrect. After validation if you wish to quote or refer to any entry from its
page then it must be cited accurately. You can click on the ‘cite this page’ link in the toolbox
on the left-hand margin of each page which will automatically generate the correct citation.
As best practice, where possible use websites and databases that clearly show a named
editor or editorial team, and evidence of quality assurance. Also try to corroborate
information that you find online, either with reference to another independent website, or
else against a printed source.
3.7 Bookmarking and managing references
You can bookmark your pages through various tools. For instance, Delicious
([Link] digg ([Link] reddit ([Link] Facebook
([Link]) and Stumble Upon ([Link]) will store web pages and
also allow you to share these pages with others.
Online bibliographic management tools such as RefWorks ([Link]) can help you
to produce and keep updated bibliographies, thereby keeping a real time record of your
research (you have to register on RefWorks before you can use it). You can also use
commercial bibliographic management software, such as EndNote ([Link])
through your institution or via registration.
3.8 Citing Sources
The researchers must remember that all sources, whether online, printed or unpublished,
need to be cited as fully and as accurately as possible. The students should not assume that
a quotation from an electronic source does not need to be cited as fully as one from a printed
 xxxiii

book; each needs to be cited in full. For the citation of both online and offline resources you
should look at your prescribed style guide. Panjab University, Department of English and
Cultural Studies uses MLA 8 for research articles, thesis, and dissertation. The various
stylesheets tell us about the various elements in a source and how they should be presented
or located in a research work along with punctuation. For different subjects and different
universities, different stylesheets are used. The various style sheets are: APA (American
Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), Chicago Style, Harvard,
CGOS (Columbia Guide to Online Style), CBE (Council of Biology Editors) and others. The
students can also refer to online citation makers like [Link] [Link], [Link],
[Link], Mendeley. But, they should also learn to do it manually first.
3.9 Types of Materials
3.9.1 General Guides and Reference Works:
There are a number of extremely useful biographical dictionaries available online. The Oxford
Dictionary of National Biography ([Link] [Link]) is the single most useful online
biographical source for the literary researcher. A student can print or download entries, or
export them to his/her own email account.
For American subjects, you should consult the American National Biography online
([Link]). General encyclopaedias and reference works available online that can be
useful include: Encyclopaedia Britannica ([Link]), the complete Oxford
Reference Online suite ([Link]), and the second edition (1989) of the
Oxford English Dictionary ([Link] These sources will give you a general
flavour of the scope of literary research and might provide you with basic understanding and
keywords.
3.9.2 Indexes and Abstracts:
A researcher while beginning research must know how to use available online indexes and
find abstracts of books and journal articles, thereby mapping out the scope of existing
scholarship in a given field. In order to do this, you will need to become familiar with the
following six online databases:
• The Modern Language Association International Bibliography of books and articles on the
modern languages and literatures (MLA, available through the OCLC First Search website,
[Link] – simply select ‘MLA’ from the list of databases);
• The Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature (ABELL, available via LION at
[Link]
• The Routledge Annotated Bibliography of English Studies (ABES,
[Link]
• The British Humanities Index (BHI, available through [Link]).
● Through INFLIBNET the indexing and abstracting databases that can be accessed are
Journal Content Customize Consortium (JCCC) ([Link] and ISID
([Link]
All six of these key databases can be searched in order to find the extent of existing
scholarship on a given subject, and all four will allow you to tag, email, export bibliographic
software, or print your search results.
3.9.3 Library catalogues:
 xxxiv

You should get in touch with your college/university library to use the digital resources as
well as learn how to use the library catalogue online through remote access.
3.9.4 Primary sources and eBooks:
There are a large number of primary literary texts online, as well as considerable numbers of
scholarly titles available as eBooks. Bartleby ([Link] offers a range of verse and
fiction, as well as a considerable reference suite, all of which can be read online, or
downloaded (Bartleby supports Amazon’s eBook reader system, Kindle). Project Gutenberg
([Link]/catalog) offers more than 27,000 titles (largely fiction published before
c.1935); you can browse the alphabetical author list, or search for a specific title. Literature
Online (LION; [Link] offers the most comprehensive single source
available (LION has incorporated earlier full-text databases, such as the English Poetry
database). You can search as well as browse, and every entry will link to an author page
(giving you brief biographical details), a full list of the holdings of that particular author, as
well as criticism written about them. Though there are copyright restrictions, but accessing
rarer primary sources online can be a time-effective way of researching and reading in your
subject, and may save you the effort and expense of a trip to a research library.
3.9.5 Newspapers: electronic and printed sources:
Whether your research is historical or contemporary, newspapers provide an important
source of book and performance reviews, publishers’ advertising, serialisations, editorial
comments and author interviews. Increasingly, some of the most important newspaper
collections are present as archives online or can be visited through inflibnet. The largest
newspaper collection is likely to be housed in theNational library and even the State library
near you.
3.9.6 Full-text journal articles Online:
After a preliminary search for abstracts on a given author, title, topic or search keyword
should enable you to sketch out the extant scholarship in any given field. It is good research
practice to save a copy of your abstract search for reference for the next stage of your
research. You must explore your field that you have sketched out by accessing full-text
journals, so that you can read and evaluate current scholarship, and refer to it in your own
work.
One of the best sources for full-text journals is Literature Online (LION;
[Link] Articles can be downloaded, printed or exported to your email
address; search results can also be marked up and saved for future reference. Another major
resource that you will use is JSTOR ([Link]). Unlike LION, JSTOR is both
interdisciplinary (only a small percentage of the journalsare literary) and entirely full-text.
JSTOR is inherently better for finding older scholarship, while LION is much better for
locating, identifying and reading the newest scholarly articles. Finally, Project Muse
([Link] although a smaller and newer database, manages to combine some of
the best features of both JSTOR and LION. Project Muse is good for current research, but
poor at filling in the gaps of earlier scholarship.
The other e-resources that can be accessed through INFLIBNET are: Annual Reviews
(Archives) ([Link] Cambridge University Press (Digital
Archives) ([Link] Springer Link ([Link]
Through the NLIST subscription of your institution the following full text e-journals can be
accessed: Annual Reviews (Current and Archive), Cambridge University Press, Oxford
 xxxv

University Press ([Link] Economic and Political Weekly (EPW)

([Link] Indian Journals ([Link] The websites like
[Link], researchgate, and google scholar etc. will also give you access to online
articles for free.
You should always see if you can locate and read full-text journal articles remotely, but there
will be some journals which are not available in electronic form. In order to consult these,
you will need to access the print periodicals holdings of one of the major libraries.
3.9.7 Relevant multimedia material available online:
There are a number of multimedia sources, offering a range of audio-visual material, to
support your research in literary studies. Poets on Screen, which is available through
Literature Online (LION; [Link] offers video clips of contemporary
poets reading their own work, or reading the work of other poets, playable in either Real
Player TM or Windows Media Player TM. As the performances themselves are copyright
material (even if some of the verse is not), you cannot download or reproduce these audio-
visual clips. Poetry Archive ([Link]) offers freely accessible poetry readings by
poets themselves, ranging from Alfred Tennyson reading ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’ to
Stevie Smith reading ‘Not Waving but Drowning’.
The British Film Institute’s open-access website offers the excellent BFI Film and TV
database ([Link]/filmtvinfo/ftvdb). You might also want to utilise resources in the
visual arts, such as the excellent Bridgeman Education database
([Link]) A photographic equivalent is the Education Image Gallery
([Link] there is a great deal of material here relevant to research in literary
studies (book covers, photographs of book launches, etc.). Its sister database, Film and
Sound Online ([Link]) offers hundreds of hours of film and television
documentary footage for you to use.
Finally, the video-sharing site YouTube ([Link]) offers a remarkably rich resource
for the literary researcher. You can find video clips of interviews with authors, film directors
and artists, recent dramatic productions and eyewitness news footage which may be
unavailable elsewhere.
For the visual references to the movies and documentaries we also have access to many OTT
(Over the Top) media streaming through internet: Netflix, Amazon Prime, Mubi, Zee etc. A
membership of film festival groups and FTII (Film and Television Institute of India) NFAI
(National Film Archives of India), Pune will be of an added advantage.
3.10 Finding your way around a library
Now that you have used your electronic resources to find your specific library, and have
identified what you want to consult, you will need to find your way around it. The majority of
libraries classify their open-access reference books according to the Dewey decimal
classification system (invented by Melvil Dewey in America in 1876). DDC divides knowledge
into ten classes with three digit headings, from 000 for general works (bibliographies,
encyclopaedias, etc.) to 900 for general geography and history (including biography and
genealogy); the section for literature was given the 800 class mark. Within each class, ten
divisions were determined in equal decimal divisions; thus American literature is under 810,
English and Anglo-Saxon under 820, and the literature of the Germanic languages under
830. Within the 820 division, there are another ten sections, with English poetry classified as
821, drama as 822, and fiction as 823 etc. The 821–3 section range is therefore likely to be of
 xxxvi

most use to you, with occasional forays into the 000 class (reference works), 900 (biography
and genealogy), and 600 (history of the book, printing and publishing).
A full listing of Dewey class marks is available on the OCLC website
([Link]/dewey/resources/summaries/[Link]); for an overview of how the Dewey
Decimal Classification system works, have a look at the animated tour and self-assessment
([Link]/dewey/resources/tour). Dewey funnels information from a broad division to
increasingly specialised categories; for this reason it is an excellent browsing tool. A working
knowledge of the Dewey system (and its logical idiosyncrasies) can be of great use in finding
books onlibrary shelves.
Identifying archives, using electronic tools:
The National Archives website ([Link]) offers a comprehensive survey of
the Indian government’s archival resources that are available in the public domain through a
series of searchable databases.
If your particular research topic has an international dimension, there are a number of
national archives that you might want to consult. In Australia, the National Archives of
Australia ([Link]); in France, the Archives Nationales ([Link]
[Link]); in Germany, the Bundesarchiv ([Link]); in Italy,
the AmministrazioneArchivisticaItaliana ([Link]) which collects the
various Italian Archivi di Stato (state archives); and in the USA, the National Archives and
Records Administration ([Link]) are among the most important.
A highly useful list of foreign archival repositories is available through the ARCHON
directory, accessible through the National Archives website
([Link]/archon/searches/[Link]).
3.11 Archives and Preparation for Future Research
Archives (both material and electronic) can contain rare printed books, unpublished material
(handwritten drafts, manuscripts, correspondence, etc.), personal library collections,
ephemera and unpublished scholarship (such as MA dissertations and PhD theses). The
official national archives, public records offices, national, regional and university library
special collections, and various private institutions and corporations (such as publishers) will
have archival material that you might want to access and consult as part of your
postgraduate research.
Contact the library archivist as soon as convenient, to establish the date(s) of your visit, find
out about the terms of access (such as opening hours, whether you can take in a laptop,
etc.), and whether there are any restrictions on the material that you want to consult. Some
archives have specific, timed restrictions on access, i.e. you may be able to view the material,
but not reproduce it, or quote directly from it. Most special collections will require that post-
graduate students supply a letter of recommendation from their supervisor/college principal
(either sent in advance, or brought on the day) in order to be admitted, so make sure that
you ask your supervisor to do this before your visit.
An archival visit may entail transcribing or reproducing a large amount of holograph
(handwritten) material. Consider the logistics of how you might approach this. A laptop will of
course be essential for rapid and accurate transcription. If it is allowed, you might also want
to consider either having the material reproduced for you (photocopy, digital scanning of
microfilm) by the archivist, or else you might want to use a digital camera to photograph the
 xxxvii

material, and then transcribe it at your leisure. This has the benefit of being a more efficient
use of time in the archive; the disadvantage is that you will need to spend much longer
transcribing the material once you return home. Always remember a digital capture should
always be without a flash as otherwise there is a chance of damage to the books and
manuscripts. If you are planning to reproduce any material in any form, make sure that you
have the permission of the archivist first. Carefully consider the copyright implications of any
work that you undertake in the archive.
It is to be acknowledged that new material is still being unearthed, and despite the legions of
scholars working on the various special collections, the cumulative archival material of the
world’s leading libraries is still far from being exhausted. Recovering underused archival
material is an essential part of ensuring that your research topic has genuine intellectual
credibility; for the very best research work, there is simply no substitute for time productively
spent in the archive.
3.12 Participating in a Research Community
Your own institution will have a research community relevant to you, usually supported by
the research school and centred on the academic staff in your department, and the
postgraduate students working towards higher degrees in English Literature. There will be
specific seminars (often with invited speakers) to attend, and events to encourage the
exchange of ideas. However, being part of a wider research community involves more than
attending the requisite sessions on research skills offered by your university as part of its
system of skills training, or participating in the research seminars organised for postgraduate
students, although these will be invaluable as part of your training. It will involve actively
identifying the wider community (or communities) of researchers outside your institution,
city or even country.
In a literal sense, the wider research community will include scholars at all levels, from
young graduate students to emeritus professors, who are actively engaged in primary
research and scholarship that contributes to knowledge in the field. Invariably, the research
community will also include librarians and archivists, bibliographers, members of author
societies, managers of specialist websites and online discussion forums, and highly
knowledgeable non-professionals (such as members of author societies) who are interested in
the topic.
Usually, a specific research community is organised by historical period (i.e., eighteenth
century, Renaissance, Victorian, etc.), perspective (theory, postcolonial studies, book history,
etc.), or topic (popular fiction, women’s reading, underground drama, etc.). Often, research
communities are defined by their membership of particular scholarly bodies. The largest ones
for English Literature are the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA,
[Link]) in the UK, and the Modern Language Association (MLA, [Link]) in
the USA. You should be familiar with both these names already, as they are the official
bodies in their respective countries defining the system of scholarly citation and presentation
(they produce style guides that academics are required to follow). Such communities can also
be found on social networking sites that you are already a member of.
For example, if someone is interested in the American expatriate novelist Edith Wharton’s
relationship with her publishers on both sides of the Atlantic (she lived mainly in Europe, but
her novels were usually published first in America). As this is a broadly speaking book
historical approach to a specific author, the person needs to actively participate in, two
 xxxviii

different research communities: a scholarly book historical research community, exemplified

by the Society of the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (SHARP;
[Link]), and an author society, in this case, the Edith Wharton Society
([Link]/~campbell/wharton/[Link]), which is the leading organisation for
scholarship on Edith Wharton. In addition, as Edith Wharton’s dates (1862–1937) straddle
the division between two generally agreed historical periods for literary scholarship (the
Victorian and the Modern, or the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) the scholar needs to
stay informed more generally about new scholarship in both those fields. And finally, as she
was an American expatriate writer based in Europe, the researcher needed to be aware of
scholarship on both sides of the Atlantic.
3.12.1 Membership of research communities:
It can be complementary, supporting your research in a number of different ways. The
memberships are paid and you may be entitled to conferences, research groups/networks
and a copy of their published journal with that. Certain examples of membership bodies are:
● Modern Language Association: Founded in 1883 by teachers and scholars, the MLA
promotes the study and teaching of language and literature.
● American Literature Association: The American Literature Association is committed to
exploring the richness and diversity of American writing and welcomes all forms of
scholarship.
● African American Literature and Culture Society: The African American Literature and
Culture Society (AALCS) initiates and encourages critical dialogue, scholarly
publications, conferences, programs, and projects devoted to the study of the African
American Literature and Culture.
● Association for the Study of American Indian Literatures: ASAIL is a professional
academic organization created to promote the study, criticism, and research of
American Indian written and oral literary traditions.
● Association for the Study of Literature and the Environment: (ASLE) offers access to
emerging conversations and debates, innovative classroom work, as well as some of
the finest environmental writing you will find anywhere.
● Jewish American and Holocaust Literature Association: JAHLIT is a subsidiary of the
American Literature Association.
● MELUS: The Society for the Study of Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States
endeavours to expand the definition of new, more broadly conceived US literature
through the study and teaching of Latino, Native American, African American, Asian
and Pacific American, and ethnically specific Euro-American literary works, their
authors, and their cultural contexts.
● Modern Humanities Research Association: It encourages and promotes advanced
study and research in the field of the modern humanities, especially modern European
languages and literature, including English, and also cinema.
● Popular Culture Association
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● Science Fiction Research Association

● Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing: SHARP was founded to
create a global network for book historians working in a broad range of scholarly
disciplines. Research addresses the composition, mediation, reception, survival, and
transformation of written communication in material forms from marks on stone to
new media.
● Comparative Literature Association of India: It is the national association for scholars
and students of Comparative Literature in India.
● South Asian Literary Association: SALA aims to generate and foster scholarly interest
in South Asian languages and literatures of India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, and other countries of the South Asian region and in literatures of South
Asians in diaspora.
When you join a scholarly body, be sure to sign up to their email list so that you can be
notified in advance of forthcoming events that might be of interest to you. If you have access
to a discussion forum attached to a specific scholarly body (such as SHARP-List), monitor
any threads that are relevant to your work, and save these in a specific email folder (this will
provide an excellent archive for posterity, and a great source for recommendations or leads
that might not crop up elsewhere).
3.12.2 Presentations, workshops, networking:
As you develop your expertise as a researcher and scholar, you will find that there will be a
requirement, both on a personal and an institutional basis, to discuss your work beyond the
immediate orbit of your tutors or your supervision team. Part of good practice in academic
research is to test your ideas in front of your peers, informally through the circulation of
draft essays and chapters, more formally in the form of presentations at conferences or
seminars, and eventually through publication.
Attending conferences and seminar series is also an excellent way to network with fellow
postgraduate students and introduce yourself to the wider scholarly community. There may
be other researchers or academics who are interested in your work – but the only way that
you will know this is by engaging in the academic circuit, and through effective networking.
3.12.3 Keeping abreast of developments: best practice

Subscribe to a good ‘call for papers’ site, such as the American-based, but fairly globally
representative University of Pennsylvania’s English Call for Papers site
([Link] or an active British listserv, such as the -Lit-Lang-Culture-
Events List housed at JISC ([Link]/cgi-bin/webadmin?A0=LIT-LANG-
CULTURE-EVENTS). This is administered by the Higher Education Academy English Subject
Centre, and therefore offers a pretty comprehensive survey of recent calls for papers at
conferences, as well as details of other events taking place in the UK. Easychair is another
website that lets you know about conferences and CFP all over the world.
Finally, for those of you working on contemporary literature, it is certainly appropriate to
look at authors’ own websites, which often have regularly updated information about their
 xl

work, as well as biographical and bibliographical information, and sometimes personal

weblogs as well. Literary prize websites such as the Man Booker Prize
([Link]) or the Nobel Prize for Literature
([Link] often commission interviews with shortlisted or
prize-winning authors, as well as offer accurate bibliographies of their work.
Self-Assessment Questions:
1) What is an archive? How are archives important for research?

2) What all should be taken under consideration before beginning your research
work?

3) Enlist and explain different types of research material.

3.13 Summary:
In this lesson, you will be reading about the various stages through which a researcher
[Link] first stage of any research is the identification of a researchable
phenomenon/topic and includes reading relevant literature, listening to present ideas about
the phenomena/topic, and even more important, reflecting on one’s interest as a researcher.
Before beginning the formal search process, examining background information on the topic
can provide valuable information in developing the focus of the study. One has to study both
the primary and the secondary sources. Every researcher must have a basic level of
computing expertise to browse and bookmark websites. Visiting online sites freely available
through one’s library is another important step in one’s research. A visit to nearby libraries is
also useful. The searching skills can be further enhanced by going through certain online
tutorials; various international universities websites, as well as, Google search finding certain
specific keywords: Planning a Research, Searching for Information while writing Thesis, and
Evaluating Information while doing Research may help you in going about your research at a
preliminary stage. The researchers must remember that all sources, whether online, printed
or unpublished, need to be cited as fully and as accurately as possible. The various style
sheets are: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association),
Chicago Style, Harvard, CGOS (Columbia Guide to Online Style), CBE (Council of Biology
Editors) and others. For languages, we use the MLA style-sheet.

3.14 FurtherReadings :
 Phoebe Ayres, Charles Matthews and Ben Yates, How Wikipedia Works, and How You
Can Be a Part of It (San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2008), also available as an open-
access resource at [Link]
 Tara Brabazon, The University of Google: Education in the (Post) Information Age
(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007).
 Pat Cryer, The Research Student’s Guide to Success, third ed. (Maidenhead: The Open
University Press, 2006).
 Stephen Potter, Doing Postgraduate Research, second ed. (London: Sage Publications,
2006).
 xli

 Gordon Rugg and Marian Petre, A Gentle Guide to Research Methods (Maidenhead:
The Open University Press, 2006).
3.15 Model Questions
1. Take the online tour of the Dewey Decimal Classification System on the OCLC website
([Link]/dewey/resources/tour), and complete the ‘test your knowledge of DDC’
section.
2. Conduct a location search of university and further education college libraries within
20 kms of your town/city, evaluate the results and identify the three potentially most
useful university or further education college libraries for your research.
3. Visit the Archives Research Techniques & Skills website ([Link]
and complete the online tutorial offered.
4. Utilise the search facilities available on the INFLIBNET/NLIST website and find articles
related to your topic of research.
5. Write a detailed note on the online sources of research.
6. Enlist and explain different types of research material.
7. Elucidate why research communities are important and also give examples of some
literary bodies.

Lesson No. 4
 xlii

“Writing a Research Proposal”

Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Quantitative or Qualitative Research Proposal?
4.3 What is a Research Proposal?
4.4 Contents of a Research Proposal
4.5 Preamble/Introduction
4.6 The Problem
4.7 Objectives of the Study
4.8 Hypotheses to be Tested
4.9 Study Design
4.10 The Setting
4.11 Measurement Procedures
4.12 Ethical Issues
4.13 Sampling
4.14 Analysis of Data
4.15 Structure of the Report
4.16 Problems and Limitations
4.17 Appendix
4.18 Work Schedule
4.19 Summary
4.20 References
4.21 Further Readings
4.22 Model Questions
4.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to learn:
 the purpose of a research proposal
 how to structure a research proposal
 how to write a research proposal
 about the difference between quantitative and qualitative research proposal
4.1 Introduction
 xliii

A research proposal is a primary document that determines whether the research that you
wish to conduct is valid or appropriate. Whether you want to enroll for M. Phil, Ph.D. or wish
to apply for any research fellowship, a research proposal is a preliminary exercise that you
have to undergo and submit in a proper format. It provides an overview of the project to the
examiner or the committee to evaluate the significance of the proposed study. Therefore, it is
essential to write your research proposal in a given format. This lesson will provide you with
all the crucial details about writing a research proposal, the points that you need to keep in
mind while preparing a proposal and will also acquaint you with all the essential contents of
a research proposal.
4.2 Quantitative or Qualitative Research Proposal?
In both qualitative and quantitative research, all research endeavours in every academic and
professional field are preceded by a research proposal. It informs your academic supervisor
or potential research contract provider about your conceptualization of the entire research
process that you propose to undertake so that they can examine its validity and
appropriateness.
You need to write a research proposal whether your research study is quantitative or
qualitative, and in both cases, you use a similar structure. The main difference is in the
proposed procedures and methodologies for undertaking the research endeavour. When for
different parts of the research proposal, for quantitative studies, you will detail quantitative
methods, procedures and models and, for qualitative studies, your proposed process will be
based upon methods and procedures that form the qualitative research methodology.
4.3 What is a research proposal?
A research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure and strategy designed to answer
the research questions or problems that constitute your research project. A research
proposal should outline the various tasks you plan to undertake to fulfil your research
objectives, test hypotheses (if any) or obtain answers to your research questions. It should
also state your reasons for undertaking the study. Broadly, a research proposal's primary
function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research questions.
Doing so ensures and reassures the reader of the validity of the methodology for obtaining
answers to your research questions accurately and objectively. In order to achieve this
function, a research proposal must tell your research supervisor and reviewers the following
information about your study:
• what you are proposing to do;
• how you plan to find answers to what you are proposing;
• why have you selected the proposed strategies of investigation.
4.4 Contents of a research proposal
A research proposal should contain the following information about your study:
• an introduction, including a brief literature review;
• theoretical framework that underpins your study;
• conceptual framework which constitutes the basis of your study;
• objectives or research questions of your study;
• hypotheses to be tested, if applicable;
 xliv

• study design that you are proposing to adopt;

• setting for your study;
• research instrument(s) you are planning to use;
• sampling design and sample size;
• ethical issues involved and how you propose to deal with them;
• data processing procedures;
• proposed chapters of the report;
• problems and limitations of the study;
• proposed time frame for the project.
Your proposal should follow the suggested guidelines and be written in an academic style. It
must contain appropriate references in the body of the text and a bibliography at the end.
Your survey of the relevant literature should cover significant publications on the topic. The
theoretical framework for your study must emerge from this literature review and should
have its grounding in empirical evidence. As a rule, the literature review includes:
• a conceptual framework, and theoretical and empirical information about the main issues
under study;
• some of the significant research findings relating to your topic, research questions raised in
the literature and gaps identified by previous researchers
4.5 Preamble/introduction:
The proposal should start with an introduction, including some of the information listed
below. Remember that some of the contents suggested in this section may not be relevant to
certain studies, so use your discretion in selecting what is pertinent to your study. In writing
this section, the literature review is of central importance as it serves two main functions:
1. It acquaints you with the available literature in the area of your study, thereby
broadening your knowledge base.
2. It provides information on the methods and procedures other people have used in
similar situations and tells you what works and what does not.
Start with a broad perspective of the main subject area before gradually narrowing the focus
to the central problem under investigation. In doing so, cover the following aspects of your
study area:
• an overview of the central area under study;
• a historical perspective/development/ growth pertinent to the study area;
• philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic;
• trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate;
• major theories, if any;
• the main issues, problems and advances in the subject area under study;
• important theoretical and practical issues relating to the central problem under study;
• the main findings relating to the core issue(s).
 xlv

Example:
Suppose you are undertaking a qualitative study to determine what it means to have a
child with ADHD in the family. The preamble/introduction should include your
thoughts and arguments and the literature on the following aspects of ADHD.
• Definitions and symptoms of ADHD.
• Causes of ADHD.
• Medical perspective on ADHD.
• Effects of ADHD on family life.
• Treatment for ADHD.
• Implications for a child if untreated.
• Management of ADHD.

4.6 The problem:

After providing a broad introduction to the area under study, the focus should be on its
central themes, issues and identifying some gaps in the existing body of knowledge. Here
some of the leading research questions that you would like to answer through your study
should also be raised, and a rationale and relevance for each should be provided. Knowledge
gained from other studies and the literature about the issues you are proposing to investigate
should be an integral part of this section. Specifically, this section should:
• identify the issues that are the basis of your study;
• specify the various aspects of/perspectives on these issues;
• identify the main gaps in the existing body of knowledge;
• raise some of the main research questions that you want to answer through your study;
• identify what knowledge is available concerning your questions, specifying the differences of
opinion in the literature regarding these questions if differences exist;
• develop a rationale for your study with particular reference to how your study will fill the
identified gaps.
Example:
• What are the effects of having a child with ADHD in the family as identified in the
literature?
• According to the literature, are there any differences between these effects and the type
of family?
• What strategies have been used for the management of ADHD by a family?
• What effects, according to the literature, does ADHD have on sibling relationships?
• What are the perceptions of family members about the effects and management of
ADHD?
 xlvi

• How do families cope when they have a child with ADHD in the family?

4.7 Objectives of the study

Your main objective indicates the central thrust of your study, whereas the sub-objectives
identify the specific issues you propose to examine. The objectives of the study should be
clearly stated and should be specific. Each sub-objective should delineate only one issue. Use
action-oriented verbs such as 'to determine', 'to find out' and 'to ascertain' in formulating
sub-objectives, which should be numerically listed. If the objective is to test a hypothesis,
you must follow the convention of hypothesis formulation in wording the specific objectives.
In qualitative studies, the statement of objectives is not as precise as in quantitative studies.
In qualitative studies, you should simply mention an overall objective of the study as your
aim is to explore as much as possible. As you know, the strength of qualitative research is in
the flexibility of approach and the ability to incorporate new ideas while collecting data.
Having structured statements that bind you to a predetermined framework of exploration is
not a preferred convention in qualitative research. Statements like to explore 'what does it
mean to have a child with ADHD in the family?', 'How does it feel to be a victim of domestic
violence?', 'how do people cope with racial discrimination?', 'the relationship between
resilience and yoga' or 'reconstructing life after bushfire', is sufficient to communicate your
intent of objectives in qualitative research. More detailed objectives, if need be, can be
developed after a study is complete.
Main objective: To explore what it means to have a child with ADHD in the family.

4.8 Hypotheses to be tested

A hypothesis is a statement of your assumptions about the prevalence of a phenomenon or
about a relationship between two variables that you plan to test within the framework of the
study. When formulating a hypothesis, you have an obligation to draw conclusions about it
in the text of the report. Hypotheses have a particular style of formulation. You must be
acquainted with the correct way of wording them. In a study, you may have as many
hypotheses as you want to test. However, it is not essential to have a hypothesis to
undertake a study – you can conduct a perfectly satisfactory study without formulating a
hypothesis.
Example
Hypotheses are not constructed in qualitative research.

4.9 Study Design

Describe the study design you plan to use to answer your research questions. For example,
say whether it is a case study, descriptive, cross-sectional, before-and after, experimental or
non-experimental design. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of your study design.
Include details about the various logistical procedures you intend to follow while executing
the study design. One characteristic of a good study design is that it explains the details with
such clarity that, if someone else wants to follow the proposed procedure, s/he will be able to
 xlvii

do exactly as you would have done. Your study design should include information about the
following:
• Who makes up the study population?
• Can each element of the study population be identified? If yes, how?
• Will a sample or the total population be studied?
• How will you get in touch with the selected sample?
• How will the sample’s consent to participate in the study be sought?
• How will the data be collected (e.g. by interview, questionnaire or observation)?
• In the case of a mailed questionnaire, to what address should the questionnaire be
returned?
• Are you planning to send a reminder regarding the return of questionnaires?
• How will confidentiality be preserved?
• How and where can respondents contact you if they have queries?
Example
The researcher is known to a family that has a child with ADHD and that belongs to an
ADHD support group which meets every month. The researcher proposes to make initial
contact with the group through the known family. The researcher will attend one of the
monthly meetings and brief the group on the purpose and relevance of the study,
criteria for inclusion in the study, what it entails to be involved in the study, and other
aspects of the study. The respondents will also be assured of the anonymity of their
information and its ethical use. The members of the group will be encouraged to ask
questions about any aspect of the study. Having sought their consent, the researcher
will seek the opinions of some group members to decide who should participate in the
study in light of the inclusion criteria. It is proposed to select six families, there where
both parents are involved in the treatment and management of an ADHD child and
three from families where the mother is the sole-carer. This is primarily to see if there
are differences in looking after a child with ADHD among different types of families. The
potential respondents will be individually contacted by the researcher to seek their
consent for participation in the study. Once consent has been obtained, the place and
timings for interviews will be fixed with each family. Depending upon the type of family,
the issues will be discussed either collectively with the father and mother or with the
mother only. Before starting an interview, their permission to record the interview on a
tape recorder will be sought. Having completed the interviews, the researcher will
transcribe the responses, and a copy will be given to the respondents for confirmation
and validation.
4.10 The Setting
Briefly describe the organisation, agency or community in which you will conduct your study.
If the study is about a group of people, highlight some of the salient characteristics of the
group (e.g. its history, size, composition and structure) and draw attention to any available
relevant information. If your research concerns an agency, office or organisation, include the
following in your description:
• the main services provided by the agency, office or organisation;
 xlviii

• its administrative structure;

• the type of clients served;
• information about the issues that are central to your research.
If you are studying a community, briefly describe some of the main characteristics, such as:
• the size of the community;
• a brief social profile of the community (i.e. the composition of the various groups within it);
• issues of relevance to the central theme of your study.
4.11 Measurement procedures:
This section should contain a discussion of your instrument and the details of how you plan
to operationalize your major variables.
To start with, justify your choice of research tool, highlighting its strengths and pointing out
its weaknesses. Then outline the major segments of your research tool and their relevance to
the study's main objectives. If you are using a standard instrument, briefly discuss the
availability of evidence on its reliability and validity. If you adapt or modify it in any way,
describe and explain the changes you have made. You should also discuss how you are going
to operationalise the significant concepts. For example, if measuring effectiveness, specify
how it will be measured. If you plan to measure the self-esteem of a group of people, mention
the leading indicators of self-esteem and the procedures for its measurement (e.g. the Likert
or Thurstone scale, or any other procedure). Ideally, for quantitative studies, you should
attach a copy of the research instrument to your proposal. Note that, due to the nature of the
content, it would be difficult to provide examples for this section.
4.12 Ethical Issues:
All academic institutions are particular about any ethical issues that research may have. To
deal with them, all institutions have some form of policy on ethics. You need to be
acquainted with your institution's policy. In your proposal, it is imperative that you identify
any ethical issues and describe how you propose to deal with them. You need to look at the
ethical issues, particularly from the viewpoint of your respondents and, in case of any
potential ‘harm’, psychological or otherwise, you need to detail the mechanism in place to
deal with it.
4.13 Sampling
Under this section of the proposal include the following:
• the size of the sampling population (if known) and from where and how this information will
be obtained;
• the size of the sample you are planning to select and your reasons for choosing this size;
• an explanation of the sampling design you are planning to use in the selection of the
sample (simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, quota sampling, etc.).
Example:
It is proposed to use the judgemental/purposive sampling technique to select six
families from the group, three where both parents look after an ADHD child and three
where only the mother has the primary responsibility (single parent families). Based on
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informal discussions with the group members, those families who are expected to be
information rich in treating and managing a child with ADHD will be selected for
interview.

4.14 Analysis of Data:

In general terms, describe the strategy you intend to use for data analysis (Chapter 15).
Specify whether the data will be analysed manually or by computer. For computer analysis,
identify the program and, where appropriate the statistical procedures you plan to perform
on the data. For quantitative studies also identify the main variables for cross-tabulation. For
qualitative studies, describe how you plan to analyse your interviews or observation notes to
draw meanings from what your respondents have said about issues discussed or observation
notes made. One of the standard techniques is to identify main themes, through analysing
the contents of the information gathered by you in the field. You first need to decide whether
you want to analyse this information manually or use a computer program for the purpose.
There are three ways to proceed with content analysis:
1. From your field notes, develop a framework of your write-up and as you go through
your notes, directly integrate that information within the structure developed. If you
adopt this method, you need to be reasonably clear about the structure. It does not
mean that you cannot develop the structure as you go on analysing; still, a clear vision
will be of immense help in slotting information gathered in the field into the write-up.
2. The second method is that you transcribe your field notes to be read by you over and
over again to identify the main themes. These themes become the basis of your write-
up.
3. Computer programs such as NUD*IST, Ethnograph, NVivo are specifically designed to
handle descriptive data. You may prefer to use one of these programs. These programs
are also based upon the principle of content analysis. The only difference is that
instead of manually searching, they identify where a particular text identifying the
theme appears.
You need to specify which particular strategy you are proposing for data analysis for your
study.
Example:
The in-depth interviews carried out with the families will be transcribed using Microsoft
Word. These transcribed interviews will be closely studied to identify the main themes
they communicate. These themes will be sorted by issues relating to the management
and treatment of a child with ADHD. The themes will then become part of the write-up
4.15 Structure of the Report:
As clearly as possible, state how you intend to organise the final report. In organising your
material for the report, the specific objectives of your study are of immense help. Plan to
develop your chapters around the main themes of your study. The title of each chapter
should clearly communicate the main thrust of its contents. The first chapter, possibly
entitled 'Introduction', should be an overall introduction to your study, covering most of your
project proposal and pointing out deviations, if any, from the original plan. The second
chapter should provide some information about the study population itself – that is, some of
its socioeconomic–demographic characteristics. The main aim of this chapter is to give
 l

readers some background on the population from which you collected the information.
Therefore, the second chapter may be entitled, 'Socioeconomic–demographic characteristics
of the study population' or 'The study population' or any other title that communicates this
theme to readers. Titles for the rest of the chapters will vary from study to study but, as
mentioned, each chapter should be written around a main theme. Although the wording of
chapter titles is an individual choice, each must communicate the main theme of the
chapter. In developing these themes, the study's specific objectives should be kept in the
front of your mind. If your study is qualitative, the main issues identified during data
collection and analysis stages should become the basis of developing chapters. The next step
is to organise the main themes under each issue and develop a structure that you will follow
to communicate your findings to your readers.
Example:
It is proposed that the report will have the following chapters:
Chapter 1: ADHD: A theoretical perspective
Chapter 2: Issues and difficulties faced by family members in bringing up a child with
ADHD
Chapter 3: ADHD and its perceived effects on the child
Chapter 4: ADHD and its perceived impact on sibling relationships
Chapter 5: Managing treatment
Chapter 6: Perceived effects of ADHD on the schooling of the child
Chapter 7: Perceived effects of ADHD on relationships with other children
Chapter 8: A case history
Chapter 9: Summary and conclusions

4.16 Problems and Limitations

This section should list any problems you think you might encounter concerning, for
example, the availability of data, securing permission from the agency/organisation to carry
out the study, obtaining the sample, or any other aspect of the study. You will not have
unlimited resources and as this may be primarily an academic exercise, you might have to do
less than an ideal job. However, it is essential to be aware of – and communicate – any
limitations that could affect the validity of your conclusions and generalisations.
Here, problems refer to logistical details, whereas limitations designate structural problems
relating to methodological aspects of the study. In your opinion, the study design you chose
may not be the best but you might have had to adapt it for several reasons. This is classified
as a limitation of the study and it should be communicated to readers.
4.17 Appendix
As an appendix, in the case of quantitative studies, attach your research instrument. Also,
attach a list of references in the appendix of the proposal.
4.18 Work Schedule
 li

You must set yourself dates as you need to complete the research within a specific time-
frame. List the various operational steps you need to undertake and indicate against each the
date by which you aim to complete that task. Remember to keep some time towards the end
as a 'cushion' if the research process does not go as smoothly as planned.
4.19 Summary
A research proposal details the operational plan for obtaining answers to research questions.
It must tell your supervisor and others what you propose to do, how you plan to proceed and
why the chosen strategy has been selected. It thus assures readers of the validity of the
methodology used to obtain answers accurately and objectively
The guidelines set out in this chapter provide only a framework within which a research
proposal for quantitative and qualitative studies should be written and assume that you are
reasonably well acquainted with research methodology and an academic writing style. The
contents of your proposal are arranged under the following headings: preamble/introduction,
the problem, objectives of the study, hypotheses to be tested, study design, setting,
measurement procedures, sampling, analysis of data, structure of the report, and problems
and limitations. The specifics under each heading will vary with the type of study you are
proposing to undertake. The write-up for qualitative studies will be based upon qualitative
methodology and quantitative methodology will determine the contents of quantitative
studies.
The 'preamble' or 'introduction' introduces the central area of the study. First, the literature
review is broad and gradually narrows to the specific problem you are investigating. The
theoretical framework should be a part of this section. The following section, 'the problem',
details the specific problem under study. The research questions for which you are planning
to find answers are raised in this section. 'Objectives of the study' contains your main
objectives and your sub-objectives. Hypotheses, if any, should be listed in the section
'hypotheses to be tested'. The logistical procedures you intend to follow are detailed under
'study design'. 'The setting' consists of a description of the organisation or community in
which you plan to conduct your study. The procedure for obtaining information and
measuring major variables is explained in the 'measurement procedures' section. You need to
write about ethical issues that your study might have and how you propose to deal with
them. How you will select your sample is described under 'sampling'. The procedure for data
analysis is discussed under 'analysis of data'. The way you plan to structure your report is
outlined under 'structure of the report'. Anticipated problems in conducting the study and
limitations with its design are described under 'problems and limitations'. As an appendix to
your proposal, attach a copy of the research instrument and a list of the references.
A work schedule provides a time-frame for your study.

For You to Think About

Re-familiarize yourself with the keywords listed at the beginning of this chapter and if
you are uncertain about the meaning or application of any of them revisit these in the
chapter before moving on.

Compare the research proposal contents suggested in this chapter with those
recommended by your university or department. If they are different, what are the
differences?
 lii

Find out the process that a research proposal goes through in your university before
approval is granted.

Self-Assessment Questions

Q.1 What is research design?

Q.2 What is a research proposal?
Q.3 What is the rationale behind writing problems and the limitations of your
research?
Q.4 What are the various methods of sampling data?

4.20 References
“Writing a Research Proposal”, from Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for
Beginners by Ranjit Kumar, (Sage, 2014, 4th edition), 255-278.
4.21 Further Readings:
 Nicholas Walliman, Social Research Methods (SAGE Course Companions, 2006).
 Nicholas Walliman, Your Research Project: A Step-by-Step Guide for the First-Time
Researcher (Sage Publications Ltd, 2000).
 John Biggam, Succeeding with Your Master's Dissertation: A Step-By-Step Handbook
(McGraw-Hill, 2011).
 Gabriele Griffin, ed. Research Methods for English Studies (Rawat Publications, 2007).
 Angela Thody, Writing and Presenting Research (Sage Study Skills Series, 2006).
 David Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice (Sage 2004).
 Lisa M. Given, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods (Sage
Publications, 2008).
 Victor Jupp, The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods (SAGE Publications,
2006).

4.22 Model Questions

Q.1 What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

Q.2 What is the significance of writing a research proposal?

Q.3 Do you research proposal is a significant preliminary step towards conducting

research?
 liii

UNIT-5

Lesson No. 5
 liv

Documentation

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Plagiarism
5.3 An Overview of the Text
5.4 Summary
5.5 Further Reading
5.4 Model Questions
5.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will have achieved the following objectives:
● realise the importance of documentation in Research
● understand why to document Sources?
● comprehend Plagiarism and Academic dishonesty
● explain the difference between Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
● know how to Organise and Create Your Documentation According to MLA-8
● be able to provide the Information Required in Parenthetical Documentation or In-Text
Citations
5.1 Introduction
Documentation is the evidence provided for information and ideas borrowed from other
sources. That evidence includes both primary sources and secondary sources.
Documentation is the means through which scholarly conversations are recorded, and the
specifics of these conversations matter. Whenever you write a research paper, you enter into
a community of writers and scholars. Using sources in your research is an important part of
building your argument. An essential part of the writing process involves acknowledging the
ideas of others as it provides readers the books and articles you have used in support of your
arguments. As a result the readers may be encouraged to go to the sources for additional
information. Scholars write for their peers, communicating the results of their research
through books, articles and other forms of publication. They use sources to incorporate,
modify, respond to and refute previous publications. Thus we need to learn good
documentation practices and it is a key component of academic integrity .The writer should
know the importance of giving credit where it is due.
There are numerous documentation styles and formats used in research work in various
disciplines, e.g. MLA style, APA style, Chicago style and ACS style etc.
MLA style (Modern Language Association) holds a great importance in documenting research
work. It represents a consensus among scholars and researchers in the field of language and
literature on the conventions of documenting research. By using MLA handbook, a
 lv

researcher will direct his/her readers to the sources that have been consulted in arriving at
his/her findings.
5.1.1 Why Document Sources?
Documenting sources is an important aspect of writing common to all academic fields.
Academic scholarship is a system in which authors publish their opinions so that they can
be read by a community of scholars. These scholars evaluate an author’s arguments and
write new works to support or refute what they have read. Your work is also a part of this
system: your research and writings will become available to the community, which will read
them, criticize them, and perhaps someday build upon them. This is why it is important for
your readers to be able to check your sources and fully evaluate the strength of your
arguments.
The ideas and words of an author are his/her intellectual property, so taking someone’s
ideas and words as your own is a form of theft. Using someone else’s work without
attribution is not only unethical but it has legal implications too. If you are not cautious you
may unwittingly plagiarise someone else’s ideas. That is why it is crucial that you cite the
sources and acknowledge the ides that have influenced your work.
Research involves the use of material written by others. You need to give credit to the
authors of the ideas and observations you cite. It is giving due recognition to their work. It
also strengthens your argument by making clear the basis on which you make it. Moreover
thorough and correct documentation makes your work appear more thoughtful and well-
researched.
5.2 Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty
Merriam- Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines plagiarising as committing “literary thefts”.
(MLA8,p 6) Plagiarism is passing someone else’s work or ideas as your own. It means to steal
and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own, to use someone else’s work without
crediting the source, i.e. to commit literary theft .There are many types of plagiarism. While
complete plagiarism represents the most serious offence, paraphrasing is the one that is the
most common.
Types of Plagiarism
5.2.1 Complete Plagiarism
It is the most severe form of plagiarism where a researcher takes a manuscript or study that
someone else created, and submits it under his /her name. It is tantamount to intellectual
theft or stealing.
5.2.2 Source Based Plagiarism
Source based plagiarism occurs when a researcher references a source that is incorrect or
does not exist. It is misleading citation. Plagiarism also occurs when a researcher uses a
secondary source of data or information, but only cites the primary source of information.
Fabrication and falsification of data are also forms of plagiarism. Data fabrication is the
making up of data and research findings and falsification involves changing or omitting data
to give false impression. The consequences of this type of plagiarism can be grave,
particularly when it comes to medical research, because it can adversely affect clinical
decisions.
5.2.3 Direct or Verbatim Plagiarism
 lvi

It occurs when an author copies the text of another author, word for word, without the use of
quotation marks or attribution, thus passing it as his /her own. In that way it is like
complete plagiarism, but it refers to sections (rather than all) of another paper. This type of
plagiarism is considered dishonest and it calls for academic disciplinary actions. It is serious
infraction of academic rules and ethics.
5.2.4 Self or Auto Plagiarism
Auto-plagiarism is also known as self- plagiarism. It happens when an author re-uses
significant portions of his/her previously published/submitted work without attribution.
Many academic journals have strict criteria on the percentage of author’s work that is
reusable. Many journals run manuscripts through a plagiarism-detection software before
considering them for review.
5.2.5 Paraphrasing Plagiarism
This is most common form of plagiarism. It involves the use of someone else’s writing with
some minor changes in sentences and using it as one’s own. Even if the words differ, the
original idea remains the same and plagiarism occurs.
5.2.6 Inaccurate Authorship
Inaccurate authorship or misleading attribution can happen in two ways:
(i) One, when an individual contributes to a manuscript but does not get credit for it.
(ii) The second form is the opposite : when an individual gets credit without
contributing to the work. This type of plagiarism, whichever way it occurs, is a
violation of the code of conduct in research.
It is also possible to commit this type of plagiarism when someone else edits a manuscript,
leading to substantive changes. In this case the recommendation is to acknowledge the
contributors at the time of publication, even if they are not listed as authors.
5.2.7 Mosaic Plagiarism
Mosaic plagiarism may be more difficult to detect because it interlays someone else’s phrases
or text within its own research. It is also known as patchwork plagiarism and is intentional
and dishonest.
5.2.8 Accidental Plagiarism
Whether intended or unintended, there is no excuse for plagiarism and the consequences are
often the same. However, plagiarism may be accidental if it has occurred because of neglect,
mistake, or unintentional paraphrasing. Thus plagiarism should be avoided so that you can
produce original and highest quality of work. It will lend both credibility and authority to
your work and demonstrate your commitment to the principle of intellectual honesty and
integrity.

5.2.9 Primary Sources and Secondary Sources

Every research is based on the combination of primary sources and secondary sources.
Primary research is the study of a subject through first hand investigation, such as analysing
a literary or historical text, a film, or a performance; critically analysing an artefact,
conducting a survey or an interview; or carrying out a laboratory experiment. Primary
 lvii

sources include statistical data, historical documents, and works of literature or art.
Secondary research is the examination of studies that other researchers have made of a
subject and secondary sources are articles and books about political issues, historical
events, scientific debates or literary works. Most academic activity partly depends on
secondary sources (MLA7,p 3).
5.3 An Overview of the Text
5.3.1 Creating Your Documentation
MLA is a style of documentation applied to different types of writings. The handbook
describes how to cite sources. Once you are familiar with the method, you can use it to
document any type of source. When deciding how to cite your source, start by the list of core
elements. These are the pieces of information that MLA-8 suggests, should be included in
each Works Cited entry.
The core elements of any entry in the works-cited list are given below in the order in which
they should appear. An element should be omitted from the entry if it’s not relevant to the
work being documented. Each element is followed by the punctuation mark shown unless it
is the final element, which should end with a period.
Author.
Title of source.
Title of container,
Other contributors,
Version,
Number,
Publisher,
Publication date,
Location.
The purpose of Works Cited list is to display the sources used for a project. It allows the
readers to locate the original sources. Works Cited are found at the end of the project.
Citations are listed in alphabetical order by the first word in the citation, which is generally
the last name of the author.
Author
Begin the entry with the author’s last name followed by a comma and the rest of the name,
as presented in the work. End this element with a period. The name of the book should be in
italics. For example, a book written by Alan Jacobs titled The Pleasures of Reading in an Age
of Distraction was published by Oxford University Press in the year [Link] will be
documented as follows:
Jacobs, Alan. The Pleasures of Reading in an Age of [Link] UP, 2011.
 lviii

If there are two or more books by the same author, only include the author’s name in the
first citation. In the second and subsequent citations, use three hyphens in place of the
author’s name. Place the citations in alphabetical order by the title of the work when there
are multiple works by one author.
Jacobs, Alan. The Pleasures of Reading in an Age of [Link] UP, 2011.
- - -.How to Think: A Survival Guide for a World at [Link], 2017.

If the individual is someone other than an author, such as a director or an editor, follow the
three hyphens with a comma. Then cite the role of the individual after the comma.

Allen, Woody. Getting [Link], 1978.

- - -, [Link] Pictures Classics, 2011.

An author’s name is cited more than once only when the author is a co-author with another
individual.

Patterson, James, and Chris [Link] of [Link], Brown and Co., 2014.

Patterson, James, and Chris [Link] School: Get Me Out of [Link], Brown and c
Co., 2012

A book by Homi K. Bhabha titled The Location of Culture published in 1994 by Routledge,
will be documented as:

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of [Link], 1994.

When a source has two authors, include them in the order in which they are presented in the
work. The first of the names is reversed as just described, followed by a comma and ‘‘and”
and the second name is in normal order. For example, The Crown of Columbus written by
Michael Dorris and Louise Erdrich, published by Harper Collins in the year 1999, will be
documented as follows:

Dorris, Michael,andLousieErdrich. The Crown of [Link] Publishers, 1999.

When a source has three or more authors, reverse the name of the first author as just
described and follow it with a comma and et al. (the abbreviation [Link] means “and others”)

*Note- Examples are taken from MLA Handbook Eighth Edition.

 lix

Johnson, Norine G., et al. Beyond Appearance: A New Look at Adolescent Girls.
American Psychological Association, 2009.

Title of Source
The next element after the name of the author is the title of the source. The title should be
written as it appears in the source. A title is italicized if the source is self-contained and
independent.

Lahiri, Jhumpa. The [Link] Collins Publishers, 2008.

A subtitle (if there is any) is included after the main title with standardized capitalization and
punctuation between the main title and sub title.

Joyce, Michael. Othermindedness :The Emergence of Network Culture. U of Michigan P, 2000.

The title of a periodical ( journal, magazine, newspaper) is written in italics and the title of
the article in the periodical goes in quotation marks. For Example, an article written by
Naomi S. Baroun titled Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media, was
published in PMLA, vol . 128 no.1 in Jan .2013 and it appeared on pages 193 to [Link] will
be documented as :

Baroun, Naomi S. “Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media.”PMLA,

vol. 128,no.1, Jan.2013, pp. 193-200.

An individual webpage should be in quotation marks. The name of the parent website, which
according to MLA eighth edition- is a “container” should follow in italics:

Lundman, Susan. “How to Make Vegetarian Chilli.”eHow,

[Link]/how_10727_make-[Link].

(The MLA eighth edition handbook recommends including URLs when citing sources.)
A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks. The name of the album
be in italics:

Beyonce.“Pretty Hurts.”Beyonce, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016,

[Link]/album/lemonade-visual-album/.
 lx

The title of an essay, a story, or a poem in a collection, as a part of a larger whole, is placed
in quotation marks:

Browning, Robert. “ The Last Ride Together.” The Poems of Browning: Volume Three,
edited by John Woolford et al., Routledge, 2007.

When a work that is normally independent (such as a novel or play) and appears in a
collection, the work’s title remains in italics:

Shakespeare, William. King Lear. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare,

edited by Peter Alexander, Collins ,2013,pp 452-583.

Title of Container
MLA eighth edition refers to “containers”, which are the larger wholes in which the source is
located. For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in collection of poems, the
individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of the
container is normally italicized and is followed by a comma. The container may be a book
that is a collection of essays, stories, poems or other kinds of works.

Kincaid, Jamaica. “Girl.”The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories,

edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-08.

It may be a periodical, (journal, magazine, newspaper), which holds the article:

Williams, Joy. “Rogue Territory.”The New York Times Book Review,

vol. 9, Nov.2014, pp.125-43.

The container may also be a television series, which is made up of episodes.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle
Gellar, season 4, episode 10, Mutant Enemy,1999.`
The container may also be a website, which contains articles, postings, etc.

Hollmichel, Stefanie. “The Reading Brain: Differences Between Digital and Print.” So Many
Books, 25 Apr.2013, [Link]/2013/04/25/the-reading-brain-differences-
between-digital-and-print/.
 lxi

While documenting an e-mail message, use its subject as the title. The subject is enclosed in
quotation marks.

Boyle Anthony T. “Re:Utopia.” Received by Daniel J. Cahill, 21 June 1997.

In some cases the container may be within a larger container. For example an article by Anne
Goldman appeared in a journal, The Georgia Review in 2010. Back issues of The
GeorgiaReview are contained in JSTOR, an online database of journals and books.

1 Author. Goldman, Anne

2 Title of Source. “Questions of Transport: Reading Primo Levi

Reading Dante”

CONTAINER 1

3 Title of container, The Georgia Review

4 Other contributors,

5 Version,

6 Number, Vol.64,no.1,

7 Publisher,

8 Publication date, 2010

9 Location. pp.69-88
*Irrelevant elements 4, 5, and 7 are omitted.
** Elements 6, 8, and 9 refer to the smaller container of the article, The Georgia Review.
CONTAINER 2
 lxii

3 Title of container, JSTOR,***

4 Other contributors,
5 Version,
6 Number,
7 Publisher,
8 Publication date,
9 Location. [Link]/stable/41403188

***JSTOR contains the journal The Georgia Review and is the larger container.

It will be documented in works cited as follows:

Goldman, Anne. “Questions of Transport: Reading Primo Levi Dante.” The Georgia Review,
vol.64, no.1, 2010, pp. [Link],[Link]/stable/41403188.

Similarly an episode in a television series may be watched on a network like Netflix. For
example an episode “Under the Guns,” in the television series Pretty Little Liars was
broadcast in 2013. The series was watched online on Netflix. It will be documented as:

“Under the Guns.”Pretty Little Liars, season 4, episode 6,ABC Family,16 July
[Link], [Link]/ watch/511318.

Other Contributors
In addition to the author, there may be other contributors whose contribution should be
credited if their participation is important to your research or to the identification of the
work, include their name/names in documentation. Precede each name (or names, if more
than one person performed the same function) with a descriptive label. Some of the common
descriptions are :
adapted by
directed by
edited by
translated by
performance by
introduction by
The editors of scholarly editions and translators of works originally published in another
language are usually recorded in documentation because they play key roles.
 lxiii

Puig,Manuel. Kiss of the Spider [Link] by Thomas Colchie,Vintage Books,1991.

Brown, Douglas,et al. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Tess Of The D’Urbervilles : A

Collection of CriticalEssays. Edited by Albert J. LaValley, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1969.

Woolf [Link]’[Link] and with an introduction byVaraNeverow,

Harcourt, Inc.,2008

If a source such as a film, television episode, or performance has many contributors, include
the ones most important to your project. For example if you are writing about a television
episode and your focus is on a key character, you might mention the series creator and the
actor who portrays the character.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle
Gellar, season 4, episode 10, Mutant Enemy, 1999.

Version,
Books are generally issued in versions called editions. A revised version of a book may be
labelled as revised edition or second edition. If a source is listed as an edition or version of a
work, include it in your citation.

The [Link] King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

Miller, Casey, and Kate [Link] and [Link] ed., Harper Collins
Publishers, 1991.

Crowley, Sharon and Debra [Link] for Contemporary Students.3rd ed.,

Pearson, 2004.

Number,
If the source you are documenting is a part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume
book or journal with both volume and issue numbers, those must be listed in your citation.
Comic books, journal issues, magazines are often given volume number and an issue
number. Television episodes are often numbered.

Wellek, Rene. A History of Modern Criticism, 1750-1950. Vol.5, Yale UP,1986.

 lxiv

Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. 2nd ed., Vol.2, Oxford UP,2002.

Journal issues are usually numbered. Some use both volume numbers and issue numbers.
Some journals do not use volume numbers but instead number all the issues in sequence.

Baron, Naomi S. “Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media.”

PMLA, vol.128, no.1, Jan.2013, pp.193-200.

Kafka, Ben. “ The Demon of Writing : Paperwork, Public Safety, and the Reign of
Terror.” Representations, no.98, 2007, pp. 1-24.

The seasons of a television series are mostly numbered in sequence, as are the episodes in a
season. Both numbers should be added while documenting it.

“Hush.” Buffy The Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah
Michelle Gellar, season 4, episode 10, Mutant Enemy,1999.

Publisher
The publisher is the one who produces the work or makes it available to the public. The
name of the publisher can be located on the title page. If no publisher’s name appears there,
then look for it on copyright page that is on the reverse of the title page.

Jacobs, Alan. The Pleasures of Reading in an Age of [Link] UP, 2011.

Films and television series are often produced and distributed by several companies
performing different tasks. When documenting a work in film or television, cite the
organisation that had the primary overall responsibility for it.

Kuzui, Fran Rubel, director. Buffy the Vampire [Link] Century Fox, 1992.

Web sites are published by various kinds of organisations, including museums, libraries, and
universities and their departments. The publisher’s name can be found in a copyright notice
at the bottom of the home page or on a page that gives information about site.

Harris, Charles. “Teenie.”Woman in Paisley Shirt behind Counter in Record [Link]

Harris Archive, Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh,
[Link]/interactive/[Link]#date08
 lxv

The publishers name may be omitted in the following sources:

● A periodical ( journal, magazine, newspaper)
● A website whose title is the same name as the name of the publisher.
● Websites that make work available but do not actually publish them.
(YouTube,WordPress, JSTOR)

Chan, Magdalene. “Volunteering with NYC Department for the Aging.”New York Public
Library,
29 June 2016, [Link]/blog/2016/06/29/volunteering-nyc-dfta.

In the above example the New York Library is the name of the site as well as the name of the
organisation responsible for publishing the content. Therefore, New York Public Library was
used in citation once only.

Publication date,
The publication date, which is the date that the source was released , is a necessary
component of citation. The print version would have only one date of publication in the
source and that should be documented.

Deresiewicz, William. “The Death of the Artist-and the Birth of the Creative
Entrepreneur.”
The Atlantic, Jan.-Feb. 2015, pp. 92-97.

Sometimes the day or month might not be mentioned on the source. Include the information
that is available.

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird [Link], 1999.

When a source carries more than one date, cite the date that is most relevant. For example, if
you consult an article on the website of a news organization that also publishes its articles in
print. Since you consulted the online version of the article, ignore the date of print
publication.

Deresiewicz, William. “The Death of the Artist-and the Birth of the Creative
Entrepreneur.”
 lxvi

The Atlantic, 28Dec.2014, [Link] [Link]/magazine/archive/2015/01/the-

death-of-the-artist and-the-birth-of-the-creative-entrepreneur/383497/.

A television series might have aired on a broadcast network on one date, but released on
Netflix on a different date. It is sufficient to use the date that is most relevant to your writing.
If you are unsure about which date to use, go with the date of the source’s original
publication. In the following example, Mutant Enemy is the primary production company,
and “Hush” was released in 1999. Below is the general citation of this television episode:

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle
Gellar,
season 4, episode 10,Mutant Enemy, 1999.

However, if you are discussing, for example the historical context in which the episode
originally aired, you should then cite the full date. Because you are specifying the date of
airing, you would use WB Television Network (rather than Mutant Enemy), because it was
the network (rather than the production company) that aired the episode on the date you are
citing.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle
Gellar,
season 4, episode 10,WB Television Network,14 Dec.1999.

An entry for a video on a website includes the date when the video was posted there.

“Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Unaired Pilot 1996.” YouTube, uploaded by Brian Stowe,
28Jan.2012,www,[Link]/watch/v=WR3j-v7QXXw.

An issue of a periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper) usually carries date on its cover or
title page. Periodicals vary in their publication schedules: issues may appear every year,
season, month, week or day.

Baron, Naomi S. “Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media.” PMLA,
vol.128, no.1, Jan.2013, pp.193-200.

Belton, John. “Painting by the Numbers: The Digital Intermediate.” Film Quarterly,
vol.61. no.3, spring 2008, pp.58-65.
 lxvii

Kafka, Ben. “ The Demon of Writing : Paperwork, Public Safety, and the Reign of
Terror” Representations, no.98, 2007, pp. 1-24.

When documenting a book, look for the date of publication on the title page. If the title page
doesn’t contain it then check the book’s copyright page. The second and later editions of a
book may contain the dates of all the editions. Cite the date of the edition you used.

Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. Vintage Books, 1995.

Location
You should be specific in identifying a work’s location. An essay in a book or an article in a
journal should include page numbers. In print sources a page number (preceded by p.) or a
range of page numbers (preceded by pp.) specifies the location of a text in a container such
as a book, anthology or a periodical.

Adiche, ChimamandaNgozi. “On Monday of Last Week.” The Thing around Your Neck,
Alfred A. Knopf, 2009,pp. 74-94.
The location of an online work is commonly indicated by its URL, or Web Address.

Deresiewicz, William. “The Death of the Artist-and the Birth of the Creative Entrepreneur.”
The Atlantic, 28 Dec.2014, [Link] [Link]/magazine/archive/2015/01/the-
death-of-the-artist -and-the-birth-of-the-creative-entrepreneur/383497/.

Hollmichel, Stefanie. “The Reading Brain: Differences Between Digital and Print.” So
Many Books, 25 Apr.2013, [Link]/2013/04/25/the-reading-brain-
differences-between-digital-and-print/.

Some publishers assign DOIs or digital object identifier to their online publications. A DOI
remains attached to a source even if URL changes. Citing a DOI is preferable to citing a URL.

Chan, Evans. “Postmodernism and Hong Kong Cinema.”Postmodern Culture, vol. 10,
no.3, May 2000. Project Muse, doi :10.1353/pmc.2000 0021.

When citing a physical object that you experienced firsthand, such as a work of art in a
museum or an artefact in an archive, identify the place of location.

Matisse, Henri. The Swimming Pool.1952, Museum of Modern Art, New York.
 lxviii

Optional Elements
The core elements of the entry should generally be included in documentation. There are
certain optional elements which can be added if it helps readers identify the source easily.
The decision to include optional elements depends on their importance to your use of source.
The following is a list of optional elements that can be included in documentation at the
writer’s discretion.

● Date of Original Publication

If a source has been republished, consider giving the date of original publicationif it will
provide the reader with insight into the work’s creation or relation to other works.

Erdrich, Lousie. Love Medicine. 1984. Perennial- Harper,1993.

● City of Publication
The eighth edition of MLA handbook states that city of publication is only required in
instances, such as in a work published before 1900. In an entry of a pre - 1900 work, you
may give the name of the city of publication in place of the publisher’s name. But usually
it serves little purpose. The seventh edition of the handbook required the city in which the
publisher is located.

Thoreau, Henry David. [Link], 1863.

● Other Facts About the Source

There may be other information that will help your reader track down the original source.
For example, the title page or a preceding page indicates that the book you are
documenting is part of a series, you might include the series name, neither italicized nor
in quotation marks and the number of the book if any, in series.

Neruda, Pablo. Canto General. Translated by Jack Schmitt, U of California P, 1991.

Latin American Literature and Culture 7.

A lecture or other address heard in person may be documented as:

Atwood, Margaret. “Silencing the Scream.”Boundaries of the Imagination Forum.

MLA Annual Convention, 29 Dec. 1993, Royal York Hotel, [Link].
● Date of Access
The MLA handbook recommends including the date of access on which you accessed the
online material, since an online work may change or move anytime. It is an important
indicator of the version you consulted.
 lxix

“Under the Guns” Pretty Little Liars, season 4, episode 6, ABC Family,16 July 2013.
Hulu, [Link]/watch/[Link] 23 July 2013

In-Text Citation
The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you
consulted. For the most part an in-text citation includes the author’s last name and page
number or just page number. The page number goes in parenthesis at the end of the
quotation where there is natural pause. The other item i.e. author’s name may appear in the
text itself or abbreviated, before the page number in the parenthesis. The aim of in-text
citation is to provide information to your reader to locate the source directly.

According to Naomi Baron, reading is “just half of literacy, the other half is writing” (194).
or
Reading is “just half of literacy, the other half is writing” (Baron 194).

Work Cited
Baron, Naomi S. “Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media.”
PMLA, vol.128, no.1, Jan.2013, pp.193-200.

An in-text citation should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to
your source, and should direct readers to the entry in the Works Cited List.
When a quotation extends to more than four lines when run into your text, set it off the text
as a block indented half an inch from the left margin. Do not indent the first line an extra
amount or add quotation marks not present in the original. A colon introduces a quotation
displayed in this way except when the grammatical connection requires a different mark of
punctuation or none.

The forms of writing that accompany reading

can fill various roles. The simplest is to make parts of a text prominent
(by underlining, highlighting, or adding asterisks, lines or squiggles).
More-reflective responses are notes written in the margins or in an external
location- a note book or a computer file. (Baron 194).
When creating in-text citation for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast,
audio and video recordings, cite the relevant time or range of times. Include the range of
hours, minutes and seconds displayed on your media player, separating the numbers with
colons.
 lxx

Buffy’s promise that “there’s not going to be any incidents like at my old school”
is obviously not one on which she can follow through (“Buffy”[Link]-17).

Square brackets ([ ]) are used for altering or explaining a quotation. For example:
As Dober suggests, “Many [minorities] share stories of prejudice.” ‘Many’
has been explained in the brackets.

Similarly if you want to omit a word, a phrase, a sentence, or more from a quoted passage,
use of ellipsis(…..) is recommended. Ellipsis can be used in the beginning, middle or end of
the quotation, wherever it is required.
In surveying various responses to plagues in the Middle Ages, Barbara W. Tuchman writes,
“Medical thinking
. . .stressed air as the communicator of disease, ignoring sanitation or visible
carriers”(pp.101-02).

Work Cited
Tuchman, Barbara W. A Distant Mirror : The Calamitous 14 th Century. Random House
Trade Paperbacks, 1987.

The MLA eighth edition provides ample guidelines/ examples for documenting research. Once
you become familiar with the core elements and have understanding of the basic principles,
you can document any work, in any publication.
Self-Assessment Questions

1) When does one use three hyphens in Works Cited? Should these be
followed by a punctuation mark? Which one/s and why? Give examples.

2) When does one use square brackets? Illustrate.

5.4 Summary
Using sources in your research is an important part of building your [Link] essential
part of the writing process involves acknowledging the ideas of others as it provides readers
the books and articles you have used in support of your arguments. As a result the readers
may be encouraged to go to the sources for additional information. Scholars write for their
peers, communicating the results of their research through books, articles and other forms of
publication. They use sources to incorporate, modify, respond to and refute previous
publications. Thus we need to learn good documentation practices and it is a key component
of academic integrity. In this lesson, numerous examples have been given to show how to
document various sources correctly. Please study them carefully before undertaking any
research work.
5.5 References
 lxxi

 “MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers: Seventh Edition”. East-West Press,
2009.
 “MLA Handbook: Eighth Edition”. The Modern Language Association of America, 2016.
5.6 Further Readings
 [Link]. Research Methods for English Studies. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2019
 Chitragand, Sunita. Research Methodology in English, New Delhi: Omega, 2020.
5.7 Model Questions
Based on the data given below, make a List of Works Cited as per MLA eighth edition:
i. You have accessed an article Questions of Canon by Meena S. Raman from jstor on
[Link]/stable/41403188. It is from The Georgia Review of 2010 volume 64
number1 and appears on pages 81 to 88.
ii. An anthology is edited by Russell Baker titled The Norton Book of Black Prose. It
was published by W. W. Norton of New York in the year 2006.
iii. You are quoting from The Trojan Women by Euripides. It is part of Ten Plays
translated by Paul Roche, and published by New American Library in New York in
1998. Trojan Women is located on pages 457 to 512 of the collection.
iv. Pray you catch me, is a song by Beyonce from the album Lemonade produced by
Parkwood entertainment in the year 2016. Web source-www.
[Link]/album/lemonade-visual-album/.
v. 1993 Translated version of Dostoevsky’s crime and punishment, translated by
Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. It is part of Vintage e Books. Your focus
is more on translation than on the original work.
vi. An article appeared in The Times of India city edition of September 2020. It is titled
Pandemic and Economy, and is written by Prabhleen Singh. It appears on page 1
and is continued on page 12.
vii. Joyce Carol Oates and Robert Atwan are the editors of a collection the best
American essays of the century, which was published in 2000 by Houghton Mifflin.
viii. In Film Quarterly Number3of volume61, pages51 to 58, there is an article by John
Belton. The article published in spring 2008 of the journal is titled the digital
intermediate.

Last Update 12.07.2024