STUDY ABOUT SEMICONDUCTOR
AND ITS USES
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLED OF THE
REQUIREMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT IN PHYSICS OF CLASS 12
Submitted By:
Dilish Suwal
Kanjirowa
National School
Roll no: 10
Registration No:
Ktm,Nepal
June 2025
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project report entitled “STUDY ABOUT
SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS USES” Submitted to the Department of Physics
of Kanjirowa National School, Koteshwor, Kathmandu is an original piece of
work carried out under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Mohan Gairee,
faculty of Physics, Kanjirowa National School[,Koteshwor,Kathmandu and
is submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for physics of
grade XII. This project report has not been submitted elsewhere for the
award of any degree.
Signature
Name: Dilish Suwal
Email: [email protected]
Date: 2025/
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This project report entitled “STUDY ABOUT SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS
USES” by Mr. Dilish Suwal of Kanjirowa National School,Kathmandu, Nepal
prepared under the supervisor of Mr. Mohan Gairee submitted for the
partial fulfillment of prerequisite of Physics of grade XII has been
accepted.
Supervisor Head of Department
Mohan Gairee Biral Poudel
Department of Physics Department of
Physics
Kanjirowa National School Kanjirowa National
School
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere appreciation for everyone
suggestion,criticism and encouragement to complete this project. First
and foremost I would like to thank our supervisor Mr. Mohan Gairee, to our
Head Of Department Mr. Biral Poudel, to all teaching and non teaching
faculty members.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the support of my classmates and
friends, who offered helpful feedback and motivation during challenging
moments.
Finally, I extend my deepest gratitude to my parents and family for their
unwavering,support patience and encouragement throughout this
endeavor.
Thank you all for making this project a rewarding and enriching learning
experience.
Sincerely,
Dilish Suwal,
RECOMMENDATION LETTER
his project work entitles “ STUDY ABOUT SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS USES”
Submitted by Mr. Dilish Suwal of Kanjirowa National School,Koteshwor-32
has been prepared under my supervisor as a partial fulfillment for the
Class XII of Physics course. I, therefore recommend the project work
report for evaluation.
Signature:
Mohan Gairee
Supervisor
Faculty of Physics
Jan 2025
INTRODUCTION
A Comprehensive Explanation,
A semiconductor is a material whose
electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor (e.g., metals) and
an insulator (e.g., rubber). Its ability to conduct electricity can be precisely
controlled, making it the foundation of modern electronic devices like
transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.
Semiconductors are materials that possess electrical properties that are
intermediate between conductors and insulators. They have the unique
ability to conduct electricity under certain conditions, making them
essential components in modern electronics. Unlike conductors, which
allow electricity to flow freely, and insulators, which prevent the flow of
electricity, semiconductors can be manipulated to either conduct or resist
electrical current. This versatility is the cornerstone of semiconductor
technology, which is foundational to the functioning of devices such as
computers, smartphones, solar cells, and many other modern electronic
systems.
The Nature of Semiconductors
The defining feature of semiconductors lies in their electronic structure.
Most semiconductors, like silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and gallium
arsenide (GaAs), have a crystalline structure at the atomic level. In their
pure form, these materials have a unique arrangement of electrons in their
outer shell, which determines their ability to conduct electricity. The
outermost electrons in a semiconductor material are loosely bound to the
atoms, unlike those in conductors, where electrons are more freely mobile.
At low temperatures or without external energy, semiconductors behave
as insulators because there is not enough energy to excite electrons from
the valence band to the conduction band. The valence band holds the
electrons that are bound to atoms, while the conduction band is where
free electrons move and conduct electricity. For electrical conduction to
occur, electrons must be excited to the conduction band, and this can be
achieved by external energy sources like heat, light, or an electric field.
When sufficient energy is applied (through heat or an electric field),
electrons move from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving
behind "holes" in the valence band. These holes can also contribute to
conduction, as they behave like positive charge carriers. This behavior of
semiconductors is known as the creation of electron-hole pairs, and it is
this property that allows semiconductors to conduct electricity under
specific conditions.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be categorized into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are pure semiconductor materials
without any impurities. Silicon is the most widely used example. The
electrical properties of intrinsic semiconductors depend on the
material’s temperature and the energy band gap between the valence
and conduction bands.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: These are semiconductor materials that
have been doped with impurities to enhance their electrical properties.
Doping is the process of intentionally introducing small amounts of
specific elements (dopants) into the semiconductor to either increase
the number of free electrons (n-type) or create more holes (p-type).
This modification allows for much more controlled and efficient
conduction, which is essential for semiconductor devices like diodes
and transistors.
n-type Semiconductors: When semiconductor materials are doped
with elements that have more valence electrons than the
semiconductor itself (such as phosphorus in silicon), extra electrons
are introduced. These free electrons become the charge carriers, and
the material becomes negatively charged.
p-type Semiconductors: In contrast, when doped with elements that
have fewer valence electrons than the semiconductor (such as boron
in silicon), they create "holes" in the structure, making the material
positively charged, as holes act as positive charge carriers.
The Role of Semiconductors in Modern Technology
Semiconductors are at the heart of virtually all modern electronics. They
form the basis of devices like transistors, integrated circuits (ICs), solar
cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and many other crucial components.
The development and refinement of semiconductor technology have
enabled the miniaturization of electronic devices, increased
computational power, and contributed to innovations in communications,
energy, and transportation.
Transistors: The invention of the transistor in the late 1940s marked a
revolutionary advancement in semiconductor technology. Transistors act
as electronic switches that control the flow of current in circuits. By using
semiconductors, transistors are smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient
than previous vacuum tubes, leading to the development of modern
computers and other electronic devices.
Integrated Circuits (ICs): ICs are assemblies of many transistors and other
electronic components, all fabricated on a single piece of semiconductor
material. They form the foundation of all modern computing devices, from
microprocessors to memory chips, enabling vast amounts of
computational power in incredibly small and efficient packages.
Photovoltaics and Optoelectronics: Semiconductors are also critical to
technologies like solar cells, which convert light into electricity, and
optoelectronic devices such as LEDs and laser diodes. These devices rely
on the ability of semiconductors to interact with light in controlled ways,
converting electrical energy to light or vice versa.
Future of Semiconductors
As technology continues to advance, the demand for more powerful,
efficient, and compact semiconductor devices grows. Researchers are
exploring new materials, such as graphene and quantum dots, as potential
alternatives to traditional semiconductor materials like silicon.
Additionally, developments in quantum computing could significantly
alter the landscape of computing, relying on quantum mechanics to
process information in fundamentally different ways.
In summary, semiconductors are indispensable to modern electronics and
continue to drive innovation across a wide range of industries. Through
their unique electrical properties and the ability to be manipulated with
precision, semiconductors form the backbone of the digital age, powering
everything from everyday gadgets to cutting-edge scientific research.
Some extra facts about semiconductors
Material Composition: Semiconductors are typically made from elements
like silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge), which have electrical properties
between conductors (like copper) and insulators (like rubber).
Band Gap: Semiconductors have a small band gap between their valence
band (where electrons are normally present) and conduction band (where
electrons move freely). This band gap is usually between 0.1 eV and 3 eV,
and it allows semiconductors to conduct electricity under certain
conditions, like when energy is added (through heat or light).
Doping: Semiconductors can be "doped" with small amounts of impurities
to change their electrical properties. For example, adding phosphorus (a
group V element) to silicon creates an n-type semiconductor (extra
electrons), while adding boron (a group III element) creates a p-type
semiconductor (holes or positive charge carriers).
Transistors: Transistors, which are the building blocks of modern
electronics, are made from semiconductors. These devices act as switches
that can amplify electrical signals and are used in virtually every electronic
device, including computers, smartphones, and radios.
Moore's Law: This is the observation that the number of transistors on a
microchip doubles approximately every two years, leading to exponential
increases in computing power. It’s largely due to advancements in
semiconductor technology.
Semiconductor in Solar Panels: Semiconductors, especially silicon, are
used in photovoltaic cells in solar panels. When light strikes the
semiconductor, it excites electrons, creating an electric current.
LEDs and Lasers: Semiconductors are also used in Light Emitting Diodes
(LEDs) and semiconductor lasers. When a current passes through a
semiconductor, it emits light, a property that’s crucial for modern lighting,
displays, and communication technologies.
Silicon vs. Gallium Arsenide: While silicon is the most widely used
semiconductor material, alternatives like gallium arsenide (GaAs) are
sometimes preferred for high-speed and high-frequency applications (e.g.,
in satellite communication, microwave devices).
Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductor particles (just a few
nanometers across) that have unique optical and electronic properties due
to their small size. They are used in advanced technologies like quantum
computing, displays, and biomedical imaging.
Semiconductors in Computing: Modern microprocessors are made from
billions of semiconductor components that work together to process data,
making them an essential part of everything from laptops to
supercomputers.
Semiconductor Memory: Semiconductor materials are used in memory
devices like RAM (Random Access Memory), which is essential for the
functioning of computers and mobile devices. Unlike mechanical hard
drives, semiconductor-based memory has faster read/write speeds.
Thermoelectric Properties: Some semiconductors, like bismuth telluride
(Bi2Te3), are used in thermoelectric devices that convert heat into
electricity, or vice versa, and are used in cooling and power generation
applications.
