Dr.

Meher Hassan
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Oct, 2023
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF HUMANS
The digestive system of the human body
comprises a group of organs working together
to convert food into energy for the body.
Anatomically, the digestive system is made up
of the gastrointestinal tract, along with
accessory organs such as the liver, pancreas
and gallbladder. The hollow organs that make
up the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) include
the mouth, stomach, oesophagus, small
intestine and large intestine that contains the
rectum and anus.
 The Human Digestive System

Human Digestive System and Nutrition involve the intake of food by an organism and its utilization for energy. This is a
vital process which helps living beings to obtain their energy from various sources. The food which we eat undergoes much
processing before the nutrients present in them are utilized to generate energy. This processing is known as digestion.
Humans and other animals have specialized organs and systems for this process.
The digestion process involves the alimentary canal along with various accessory organs and organ systems. In humans, the
process is quite simple due to our monogastric nature. This means that we have a one-chambered stomach, unlike other
animals such as cows, which have four chambers.
Some parts of nervous and circulatory systems also play a significant role in the digestion process. A combination of
nerves, bacteria, hormones, blood and other organs of the digestive system completes the task of digestion.
 A digestive system is a group of organs that work to convert food into basic nutrients for feeding energy to the whole
body. Human does not produce its food like plants and depend on other plants and animals for food, hence called
Heterotroph. Human needs various nutrients, proteins and vitamins which are derived from food through digestion. Chewing,
in which food is mixed with saliva begins the process of digestion. This produces a bolus that can be swallowed down the
oesophagus and into the stomach.
 PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system of the human body comprises a group of organs that work together in converting food into
energy and other basic nutrients to power the body. The food we take in is digested and utilized by our body, and the
unused parts of the food are defecated.

The digestive system of the human body is the sum of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT; also called alimentary canal) and
accessory organs (tongue, liver, pancreas, etc.). These two parts together help in the digestion process.

The alimentary canal is the long tube through which the food that we eat is passed. It begins at the mouth (buccal
or oral cavity), passes through the pharynx, oesophagus or food pipe, stomach, small intestines, large intestines,
rectum and finally ends at the anus. The food particles gradually get digested as they travel through various
compartments of the alimentary canal.

Accessory organs are organs which participate in the digestion process but are not actually a part of GIT. They
stimulate the digestion by releasing certain enzymes that help in breaking down the food.
Mouth
Food starts its journey from the mouth or the oral cavity. There are many
other organs that contribute to the digestion process, including teeth,
salivary glands, and tongue. Teeth are designed for grinding food particles
into small pieces and are moistened with saliva before the tongue pushes
the food into the pharynx.
Pharynx
A fibromuscular y-shaped tube attached to the terminal end of the mouth.
It is mainly involved in the passage of chewed/crushed food from the mouth
through the oesophagus. It also has a major part in the respiratory system,
as air travels through the pharynx from the nasal cavity on its way to the
lungs.
Oesophagus
This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx, which is a part of an
upper section of the gastrointestinal tract. It supplies swallowed food along
with its length.
Stomach
It serves as a muscular bag which is situated towards the left side of the abdominal
cavity, beneath the diaphragm. This vital organ acts as a storage for the food and
provides enough time to digest meals. The stomach also produces digestive enzymes
and hydrochloric acid that maintains the process of digestion.
Mucous: It is an aqueous secretion produced by the mucous membranes. It functions
by protecting the stomach lining and gastric pits from the acid, which is produced by
the glands to destroy the bacteria that entered along with the food particles.
Digestive enzymes: They are the group of enzymes which functions by breaking down
polymeric macromolecules like biopolymers into their smaller and simpler
substances.
Hydrochloric acid: It is the digestive fluid formed by the stomach during the process of
digestion. It functions by destroying harmful microorganisms present in the food
particles.
Small Intestine
The small intestine is a thin, long tube of about 10 feet long and a part of the lower
gastrointestinal tract. It is present just behind the stomach and acquires a maximum
area of the abdominal cavity. The complete small intestine is coiled and the inner
surface consists of folds and ridges.

Large Intestine
This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length. It is present just
beneath the stomach and wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the small
intestine. It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support the
breakdown of wastes to fetch small nutrients.

Rectum
Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum and
eliminated out of the body as a solid matter called stool. It is stored in the rectum as
semi-solid faeces which later exits from the body through the anal canal through the
process of defecation.
Accessory Organs

Pancreas

It is a large gland present just behind the stomach. It is short with its anterior connected to the
duodenum and posterior pointing towards the left part of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas
releases digestive enzymes to complete the process of chemical digestion.

Liver

The liver is a roughly triangular, reddish-brown accessory organ of the digestive system located to
the right of the stomach. It produces bile, which helps in the digestion of fat in the small intestine.
The bile is stored and recycled in the gallbladder. It is a small, pear-shaped organ which is located
just next to the liver.
 Digestion Process

The process of digestion begins from the mouth and ends in the small intestine – the large
intestines’ main function is to absorb the remaining water from the undigested food and
enable bacterial fermentation of materials that can no longer be digested.

The alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract is a series of hollow organs and tubes that
begins from the mouth cavity and continues into the pharynx, through the stomach, small
intestines, large intestines, and finally ending at the anus. Food particles gradually get
digested as they travel through various compartments of the gastrointestinal tract.

The digestion process takes place in the following steps.

Ingestion
The very first step involves mastication (chewing). The salivary glands, along with the tongue, helps to
moisten and lubricate food, before being pushed down into the food pipe.
Mixing and Movement
It involves the process of lubricating and manipulating food and pushing it down the food through the food
pipe (using peristalsis), and into the stomach.
Secretion
The stomach, small intestine, liver, and pancreas secrete enzymes and acids to aid the process of digestion.
It functions by breaking down food particles into simple components and easily absorbable components.
Digestion initiates right from the mouth, where the Salivary gland secrets the Saliva in the mouth in
which two types of enzymes are found, ptyalin and maltase.
• saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that begins the process of converting starches in the
food into maltose
• Around 1.5 litres of saliva is secreted in human on an average day. It is acidic (pH 6.8)
•Through food pipe or Oesophagus, food reaches into the stomach.
Digestion
The process of converting complex food particles into simpler substances in the presence of enzymes and acids secreted by
different digestive organs.
Digestion in Stomach • The Ph of the stomach is 1.5-2.5. This acidic environment helps in breaking the food particle and
absorption of necessary nutrients from food. • The highly acidic environment of the stomach contains gastric glands which
secrete gastric juice. This is a light yellow acidic acid. • Pepsin and Renin are the enzymes in gastric juice. • Parietal cells secrete
Chlorine and Hydrogen ion, which combine to form Hydrochloric acid, which helps in killing microorganisms and with the help
of enzyme pepsin helps in the hydrolysis of proteins. • Hydrochloric acid makes the food acidic by which the ptyalin reaction of
the saliva end. • Pepsin breaks down the protein into peptones, and Renin breaks down the Caseinogen into Casein.

Digestion in Duodenum • The duodenum is the first and shortest segment of the small intestine. It receives
partially digested food (known as chyme) from the stomach and plays a vital role in the chemical
digestion of chyme in preparation for absorption in the small intestine.
• The gall bladder releases bile, which has been produced by the liver, to help further break fats down
into a form that can be absorbed by the intestines.
• As the food reaches the duodenum bile juice from the liver combines with it. The main function of bile
juice is to convert acidic food into alkaline, as it is alkaline.
• Pancreatic juice from the pancreas combines with food, and it contains the following enzymes: 1. Trypsin:
It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and amino acid. 2. Amylase: It converts the starch
into soluble sugar. 3. Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Digestion in Small Intestine • Here the process of digestion completed and absorption
of digested foods start.
• In the small intestine, intestinal juices secrete and it is alkaline, and around 2 litres of
intestinal juice secretes per day.
• Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes: 1. Erepsin: It converts the remaining
protein and peptone into amino acids. 2. Maltase: It converts the maltose into glucose.
3. Sucrase: It converts the sucrose into glucose and fructose. 4. Lactase: It converts
lactose into glucose and galactose. 5. Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol
and fatty acids.
Absorption
This process begins in the small intestine where most of the nutrients and minerals are
absorbed. The excess water in the indigestible matter is absorbed by the large intestines.
Absorption • Digested food is absorbed by blood plasma is known as Absorption. • The
absorption of digested foods takes place through small intestine villi which are finger-
like structure extended into the lumen of the small intestine.
Assimilation • Use of absorbed food in the body or movement of digested particles
where they are used is called assimilation
Excretion
The process of removing indigestible substances and waste by-products from the
body through the process of defecation. Defecation • It is the final act of digestion. It is also
known as a bowel movement. Undigested food reaches from the small to the large intestine where
bacterias convert it into faeces which is excreted through the anus.

In a nutshell, the digestion process consists of the six following steps:

Ingestion ⇒Mixing and
Movement ⇒ Secretion ⇒ Digestion ⇒Absorption ⇒Excretion
 FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion and absorption are the two main functions of the digestive system.
Digestion is necessary for breaking down food particles into nutrients that are used by the body as an
energy source, cell repair and growth.
Food and drink need to be converted into smaller molecules of nutrients before it is absorbed by the
blood and carried to the cells throughout the body. The body breaks the nutrients present in the drinks
and food into carbohydrates, vitamins, fats and proteins.
The human digestive system breaks down food to release energy essential for the body to carry out its
activities.
The process of digestion takes place in 6 major steps.
The food is ingested by the alimentary canal and is propelled through the body for further processing.
The autonomous nervous system controls the peristalsis, contraction and relaxation of muscles within
the alimentary canal wall.
The food is passed to the small intestine where it is digested, and the nutrients are absorbed.
Water, electrolytes and vitamins are absorbed by the large intestine and the waste is defecated.
 Disorders of the Human Digestive System

A. Dry Mouth: People can experience issues if they don’t produce enough saliva. This condition
is called dry mouth or xerostomia . Dry mouth can be caused by a variety of factors,
including certain medications, aging, and radiation therapy for cancer . If you don’t have
enough saliva and develop dry mouth, this can lead to increased plaque, tooth decay, and
gum disease. You may also experience mouth sores, yeast infections in your mouth (thrush),
sores or split skin at the corners of your mouth, or cracked lips. In addition, poor nutrition from
having problems with chewing and swallowing is also a possibility .

B. Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth (problem in peristalsis
movements). Antiperistalsis is the reverse movement of peristalsis, which is the wave-like
contraction of muscles in the digestive tract that propels food forward. Antiperistalsis occurs
during vomiting, and it moves food backward from the small intestine back through the
stomach, esophagus, and mouth.
A. Diarrhoea: It is the abnormal watery bowel movement. Prolonged diarrhoea eventually leads to dehydration.
The exact mechanism behind diarrhea varies depending on the underlying cause. In general, however, it
occurs when the digestive system is unable to absorb enough water from the food you eat. This leads to
loose, watery stools that are difficult to control.

B. Constipation: A condition in which the faeces are clutched within the rectum due to an irregular bowel
movement. It can be due to many reasons no fiber diet, dehydration, lack of physical activity, ignoring the urge
to defecate, and certain medications.

C. Indigestion or dyspepsia: A pain or discomfort in the stomach which is caused when food is not digested
properly, resulting in the feeling of fullness. Indigestion is mainly caused due to inadequate enzyme secretion,
food poisoning, anxiety, overeating and eating spicy foods. The commonly observed symptoms include
bloating, heartburn, belching, nausea, abdominal pain, feeling uncomfortably full, loss of appetite, and
burping. The causes of dyspepsia include gastritis (inflammation of the stomach), duodenal inflammation,
peptic ulcers disease, intestinal blockage conditions like intestinal helminths, medicines like antibiotics and
NSAIDs, excess alcohol intake, lactose intolerance, mental conditions like anxiety or depression, and
stomach cancer.
What is peristalsis?

Peristalsis is a type of involuntary muscle movement that occurs in your digestive system. It begins in your
throat when you swallow, and continues to propel food and fluids throughout your gastrointestinal tract. You
can think of your GI tract as a series of hollow organs joined together to form one long passageway. That
passageway is lined with muscles and nerves. When food or fluids enter your GI tract, nerves trigger the
muscles to initiate a series of wave-like contractions. These muscle contractions automatically move food
and fluids forward until they reach their exit at your anus or urethra.
What is reverse peristalsis?
When the wave-like muscle contractions of peristalsis move backward instead of forward, it’s called
retroperistalsis, antiperistalsis or reverse peristalsis. This is what happens when your vomiting reflex is
triggered. Reverse peristalsis can move food backward all the way from your small intestine back through
your stomach, esophagus and mouth. It can also occur on a smaller scale during food’s normal journey
through the digestive tract if that journey encounters an obstruction along the way. Reverse peristalsis might
move the food backward briefly for a small distance before reattempting forward motion.
What are the symptoms of peristalsis problems?
Problems with peristalsis are also called motility disorders. Motility is the movement of food through your GI
tract. A problem with peristalsis usually results in motility that's too fast or too slow. Increased peristalsis is
called hypermotility or hyperperistalsis. It leads to diarrhea and problems with digestion when the GI tract
doesn’t have enough time to break food down properly and absorb its nutrients. Decreased peristalsis is
called hypomotility or hypoperistalsis. It leads to constipation and bacterial overgrowth when peristalsis
isn’t able to regularly clear out accumulated waste and bacteria.
 Under normal conditions, you can maintain healthy peristalsis with healthy
lifestyle habits. Get some exercise: At least 30 minutes a day is ideal to stay
regular. Drink enough water: At least 8 glasses a day helps keep things moving.
Eat some fiber: Whole grains, fruits and vegetables add important bulk to
stimulate peristalsis. Reduce processed foods: High fat content and refined
carbohydrates slow digestion.