MAGNIFICATION

AURTHOR (S)

David Wilson: International Centre for Eyecare Education (ICEE), Sydney, Australia
ICEE Faculty: Sydney, Australia
Hasan Minto: International Centre for Eyecare Education, Pakistan
Pirindhavellie Govender: University of KwaZulu Natal (UKZN) Durban, South Africa

PEER REVIEWER (S)

Mo Jalie: Visiting Professor: University of Ulster, Varilux University in Paris

Bo Wiafe: Regional Director for Africa: Operation EyeSight Universal
Jill Keefe: Centre for Eye Research Australia (CERA), Melbourne, Australia

INTRODUCTION

This chapter includes a review of:

 What are the different types of magnification
 Different methods and formulae for calculating magnification
 How to determine resolution ability
 How to predict distance required to meet resolution goal
 How to measure lens power
 How to measure Equivalent Viewing Power
 How to measure Equivalent Viewing Distance (EVD)
 How to calculate EVD for different optical systems

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TYPES OF MAGNIFICATION

The basic design of all telescopes and magnifiers is based on the principle of magnification. The definition of
magnification is complicated and a much disputed one. One can simply say that “Magnification is the relative
increase in the size of the image of an object when it passes through a medium”.

RELATIVE SIZE
The bigger the size of the object, the bigger is the image that is formed.
MAGNIFICATION
RELATIVE DISTANCE
The closer the object is to the eye, the bigger it will seem.
MAGNIFICATION
This is an increase in the visual angle subtended by the object on the eye by optical
ANGULAR means. So we are neither moving closer nor making the object larger but rather we
MAGNIFICATION are viewing an intermediate image that is created by the optical system that we place
before the eye.
In low vision, we are mainly interested in linear magnification. Linear magnification is
the ratio of the image size to object size.
LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
Linear Magnification = Size of the Image
Size of the Object
Magnification can be understood by reverting to basic mathematical (trigonometric)
principles.
UNDERSTANDING
MAGNIFICATION The magnification is specified as the ratio of the retinal image size (when it is
magnified) to the retinal image size of the same object that is viewed under standard
viewing conditions. The retinal image size is specified in terms of the visual angle.
Using the basic laws of trigonometry (study of right angles), the visual angle can be
specified by the Greek letter alpha (α). If we want to specify the visual angle in terms
of the object height and distance from the eye, then we use the tangent of the visual
angle alpha. It is the ratio of the length of the opposite side (object height: h) divided
by the length of the adjacent side (object distance: l).
If we consider the image formation within the eye, we create a similar triangle within
the eye. The visual angle remains the same since they are opposite angles, image
distance to the retina is designated l’ and image height on the retina is designated h`.
This is represented graphically in Fig 4-1 below.

REVIEWING
MAGNIFICATION USING
THE PRINCIPLES OF
TRIGONOMETRY

Figure 4-1: Graphical representation of object and image formation

The tangent of the visual angle on the object and image sides are given by:

In other words, this means that the tangent of alpha is given by the ratio of the object
height to object distance and this is the same as the ratio of the image height to the
image distance.

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TYPES OF MAGNIFICATION (CONT.)

The visual angle (alpha) at the eye when viewing an object (h) is graphically
represented in Fig. 4-2. In order to determine the magnification using trigonometric
principles, we would need to construct right angled triangles, thereby causing the
visual angle to be halved to ½ α. This is the same on both sides of the lens. In
addition, the object and image heights are also halved in the creation of the right
angled triangles. The tangent of ½ α is still given by the ratio of object height to object
distance and that is the same as the ratio of the image height to image distance.

APPLYING THIS TO
THE EYE

Figure 4-2: Graphical representation of the visual angle at the eye

The magnification is defined as the tangent of ½ α when it is magnified to the tangent
of half angle alpha under the reference condition or standard viewing conditions
(Fig 4-2). The tangent of ½ α is equal to half the size of the object divided by ‘l’, the
distance of the object from the lens.
Linear or size magnification is simply making the object larger, therefore the original
height (h0) at an object distance of l is made larger to an object height of h. We then
see that there is an increase in the size of the visual angle from α to α0, and the
image height increases from α0 to αm, i.e. it produces a larger retinal image
(Fig. 4-3).

UNDERSTANDING
RELATIVE SIZE
MAGNIFICATION Figure 4-3: Graphical representation
changes in the image size with an increase in object size
To mathematically determine the magnification produced by increasing the object
size we can use the derivation below.
In other words, we consider the tangent of half the
magnified angle divided by the tangent of half the original
angle. Substituting the definition of tangent into the
equation, we are left with magnification being the ratio of
height of the magnified object over the height of the original
object.
This means that the ratio of the object sizes will give us the
l = lo magnification produced when an object is made larger, i.e.
linear magnification.
Similar principles and methods can be employed to
determine the magnification produced by distance
M=
magnification.

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TYPES OF MAGNIFICATION (CONT.)

Distance magnification is magnification produced by moving an object closer to an

individual or vice versa in order to view it more clearly. Considering it graphically, we
would change the object distance from a distance l to a new distance l0. The object
size remains the same and therefore h=h0. The visual angle increases from α0 to
αm (Fig. 4-4).
If we consider the definition of magnification, we arrive at the conclusion that the
magnification is given by the ratio of the original object distance to the closer object
distance.

UNDERSTANDING
RELATIVE SIZE
Figure 4-4: Graphical representation
MAGNIFICATION (CONT.) changes in the image size with a decrease in object distance
To mathematically determine the magnification produced by decreasing the object
distance we can use the derivation below:

An important aspect that must be considered when using

distance magnification is accommodation. When the object
is moved closer, a more positive dioptric power must be
added to keep the retinal image in focus. Children generally
have sufficient accommodation to focus on objects that are
very close, however, the amplitude of accommodation
decreases with age and therefore for older individuals or
individuals with poor accommodative amplitude, a near add
must be used to provide the individual with extra
focusing power.

When an object is held at the focal point of a lens, it's image is formed at infinity
(Fig. 4-5). This means that the light rays emerging out of the lens, after being
refracted, are all parallel to one another. The individual viewing the object through the
magnifier/lens will not require additional focusing effort and will only need to use their
distance prescription since this is the same as viewing an object that is far away from
the individual.

USING A HAND
MAGNIFIER

Figure 4-5: Parallel light rays exiting a lens

when an object is placed at the focal point of a lens/magnifier

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TYPES OF MAGNIFICATION (CONT.)

Example:
If we consider a +10.00D lens (Fig. 4-5) the focal point lies 10cm away and therefore
an object placed 10cm from the lens/magnifier will produce an image at optical
infinity.
When using this magnifier, the distance from the eye to the lens/magnifier does not
affect the size of the image on the retina, however, the field of view through the lens
will be altered with the viewing distance.
If the object viewed through the magnifier/lens is moved to a distance within the focal
length of the lens, the light rays leaving the lens are diverged after refraction by the
lens (Fig. 4-6). Considering the optics of this situation, one would be able to see that
if the object were 6.7cm away, that means that the vergence of the light reaching the
lens is -15.00D. The lens adds 10.00D of power to that so the emerging vergence is -
5D and a virtual upright image is produced. This image is located 20cm behind the
lens. When the individual views through the lens/magnifier at a distance of 20cm from
the device, then the individual will require 2.50D of focusing power in order to see the
image clearly. Similarly, if the individual was viewing from a distance of 10cm from
the lens, then he/she will be located 30cm from the image and therefore will require
3.00D of accommodation or lens power to obtain a clear view of the image.

USING A HAND
MAGNIFIER (CONT.)

Figure 4-6: An object placed within the focal distance of the lens/magnifier
It is therefore critical for the individual to monitor where the object is relative to the
focal point of the lens, to decide if the image is being viewed at optical infinity in which
case the patient can use their distance correction or is the patient viewing a virtual
image that’s actually within arms reach and would then require some type of near add
whilst being aware of the working distance. This involves a combination of distance
and linear magnification, i.e. increase in the size of the image and manipulating the
viewing distance.
Distance magnification must be specified relative to a standard working distance.
There are 2 different standard distances that are used:
– 40 cm (requiring +2.5D add)
– 25 cm (requiring +4D add)
Most current specifications of near magnification use the 25 cm standard distance.
So in that case, if a magnifier is labelled as 5X that means that the standard viewing
distance of 25cm would have to be divided by 5cm in order to produce a
magnification ratio of 5. A lens with a focal length of 5cm and a focal power of +20D
would produce this effect.

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TYPES OF MAGNIFICATION (CONT.)

If an object is at the focal point of the lens, distance magnification is simply the ratio
of a reference distance to the focal length of the lens. Or in terms of focal powers,
magnification is simply the dioptric power of the lens (F), and if you were using a
reference distance of 25cm, is F/4. So if you have a 20D lens, it is a lens of 5x (20/4)
magnifying power. When the object is at the focal point of the lens, magnification is
then simply F/4 and in the case of our +10.00D lens, it is a 2.5X (10/4)
magnifying lens.
USING A HAND If the object is inside the focal point of the lens, then the calculation of magnification
MAGNIFIER (CONT.) must also consider the distance of the lens to the eye and the size and location of the
virtual image. So it becomes a combination of distance and linear magnification. Most
stand magnifiers in particular have the image inside the focal point of the lens so the
emerging light is not collimated, the image is not at optical infinity and the patient has
to use a near vision correction, an add. However the manufacturer will specify the
dioptres of the lens in terms of their calculation for the magnification for a standard
viewing distance. This may be complicated when using a stand magnifier as they are
frequently not set at the focal point of the magnifier.

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DETERMINING THE MAGNIFICATION OF A TELESCOPE

The magnification of the telescopic system has proved somewhat tricky to many.
However, it can be simplified if one is able to understand the concept of the exit pupil.
The ocular lens in a Keplerian telescope forms a real image of the objective lens, in addition to forming an image at
optical infinity of the intermediate image that we are trying to magnify. To see this, we trace rays from the edge of the
objective lens through the ocular lens and you can see that we form an image of that objective lens to the right of the
ocular lens. This real image of the objective lens is called the exit pupil of that telescope. In a Keplerian telescope
the exit pupil is a real image that looks like its floating between you and the ocular lens (Fig. 4-7).
All the light that is captured by the objective lens and the telescope passes through the exit pupil.

Figure 4-7: The exit pupil in a Keplerian telescope

For a Galilean telescope, there is a virtual image formed of the objective lens, because we are using a negative
ocular lens. If we trace the rays from the edge of the objective through the ocular, we find that there is a virtual
image formed, but now the virtual image is formed between the objective and ocular lenses. This is the exit pupil in
the Galilean telescope (Fig. 4-8). All light rays coming from the object and destined to go through the ocular to form
the virtual image, has to pass through this internal exit pupil.

Figure 4-8: The exit pupil in a Galilean telescope

When using the Keplerian telescope, the most efficient use of the telescope would be when you get the exit pupil of
the telescope centered on the pupil of the eye (Fig. 4-9). That way, you will get the most light into the eye.

Figure 4-9: Coincidence of the exit pupil with the pupil of the eye

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DETERMINING THE MAGNIFICATION OF A TELESCOPE (CONT.)

In the case of the Galilean telescope, you cannot get the eye into the exit pupil, so you want to get the eye as close
as you can to the telescope. Because the exit pupil is inside the telescope, the size of the exit pupil will be expanding
as it moves away from the plane where it is in focus. So the eye’s pupil will limit the amount of light that actually gets
into the eye. That is why Galilean telescopes tend to be dimmer than Keplerian telescopes.
A much brighter image is obtained with a Keplerian telescope.
An interesting feature of telescopes is that you can use the exit pupil to calculate the magnification of the telescope.
i.e. M = diameterobjective / diameterexit pupil
A simple method to determine the magnification of a telescope is to measure the size of the objective lens and exit
pupil with a ruler. The ratio of the objective lens and exit pupil will indicate the magnification of the telescope.
The same procedure can be performed on a Galilean telescope, although measuring of the exit pupil is difficult as it
is located inside the telescope.

ACHIEVING RESOLUTION GOAL AND PRESCRIBING NEAR AIDS

The basic design of all telescopes and magnifiers is based on the principle of magnification. The definition of
magnification is complicated and a much disputed one. One can simply say that “Magnification is the relative
increase in the size of the image of an object when it passes through a medium”.

1. Have patient read chart at a distance you are sure they will be in focus. This often
DETERMINE RESOLUTION requires a reading addition be be used to provide correct focus
ABILITY FOR READING 2. Take note of the size of the smallest print read with acceptable efficiency
3. Note the working distance (from spectacle plane for presbyopes)
PREDICT DISTANCE
For example, consider two patients who wish to read print the size of that in the
REQUIRED TO MEET
telephone book. The resolution goal is 0.8M (6pt) print.
RESOLUTION GOAL

Table 4-1: Determination of the RAUF and ARIF for a patient with a goal print of 0.8M

PATIENT RAUF PATIENT ARIF

AGE 20 yrs 70 yrs

Smallest print read 2.0M (16pt) 4.0M (32pt)
Viewing distance 12cm 32cm
Addition None 2.50D (old glasses)
Accom. Demand 8.0D 0.50D
PREDICTION
For 0.8M print ratio is 2.0/0.8 = 2.5x 4.0/0.8 = 5x
So required viewing distance 12/2.5 = 5cm 32/5 = 6.3cm

So to read the telephone book print, patient RAUF requires a viewing condition with:
EQUIVALENT VIEWING DISTANCE (EVD) OF 5cm
EQUIVALENT VIEWING POWER OF 20D

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ACHIEVING RESOLUTION GOAL AND PRESCRIBING NEAR AIDS (CONT.)

Using an appropriate resolution when necessary, check that patient gets clear focus
VERIFY THAT PREDICTED
at the required distance from the spectacle plane and that the resolution goal can
EVD ALLOWS
actually be achieved. If not (very rare if proper charts are used and conditions are
RESOLUTION GOAL
controlled).
Options to consider:
 Spectacles with reading addition
 Hand held magnifier
CONSIDER OTHER
 Stand magnifier
OPTICAL SYSTEMS TO
PROVIDE THE SAME EVD  Near vision telescope
 Video magnifier or other projection system
In all these cases, you must understand what the magnifying systems are doing.
They must provide the required Equivalent Viewing Distance (EVD).
Their action is simply to allow a closer working distance.
For presbyopes the focal length of the addition sets the EVD. For example, Patient
ARIF (from the above mentioned example) requires a 16D add to read 0.8M print.
For pre-presbyopes the EVP is determined by adding the add power and the
SPECTACLES WITH accommodation. The EVD is the reciprocal of this sum. The EVD is the actual
READING ADITION working distance from the spectacle plane. Patient RAUF must work at 5cm to read
0.8M print.
This would require 20D of power. Given that he was comfortable at 12cm with 8D
accommodation. Provide a +12D addition and with 8D accommodation this allows
work at 5cm.

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MEASURING AND PRESCRIBING STRONG LENS POWERS

For plus lens magnifiers, the image size is dependent on the equivalent power - not the back vertex power or the
front vertex power. The lensmeter measures only vertex powers. For plano-convex lenses, the front vertex power is
equal to the equivalent power.
For strong single vision lenses, aberrations become important. For lenses in the range of 10-18D, use cataract
aspheric lenses. For 20D and above, special series lenses are required (bi-aspheric lenses AO, Igard or doublets
designs for vision, Keeler)

MEASURING EQUIVALENT POWER

Take a suitable distant (3 meters or more) object. Measure its height (h) and the distance (d).
For example, if a window 1 meter wide and 4 meters away, then:
h = 1.0 m
d = 4.0 m
With the lens being tested, form an image on a translucent screen, making sure that the image is in focus.
Measure the height (h) of the image. Calculate the image distance. The object-height to object-distance ratio (here
¼) will be equal to the image-height to image-distance ratio. If the height is 1.5cm and given the 1m to 4m ratio, the
image distance is 6cm. This image distance is equal to the Equivalent Focal Length.
So the Equivalent Power is 16.6D (100/6 cm).
The image distance in this relationship is measured from the nodal point, not the lens vertex.

MEASURING EQUIVALENT VIEWING DISTANCE (EVD)

 For presbyopes, the equivalent focal length of the near addition gives the EVD.
 For pre-presbyopes: accommodation should be estimated and added to the lens
power to give the equivalent viewing power. The reciprocal is the Equivalent
Viewing Distance.
SPECTACLES Example:
A young patient expected to contribute 5.00D accommodation, using a +20D lens
(measured by the above technique)
EVP = 20 + 5 = 25D
So EVD = 4cm
If held at some distance from the eye, (further than the focal length of the magnifier)
then best resolution will be determined by the focal length of the lens and that is the
EVD. Here for best resolution, presbyopes should use their distance Rx and pre-
presbyopes should not accommodate.
HAND HELD MAGNIFIERS
If the lens is held close to the spectacle frame, then there will be some additive effect
of lens power and the add or accommodation. Here for best resolution, presbyopes
should use their addition and hold the lens close-by. Pre-presbyopes should
accommodate to maximize resolution.

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MEASURING EQUIVALENT VIEWING DISTANCE (EVD) (CONT.)

 Most are fixed focus

 The object distance is fixed so the image distance is fixed
 The image will be larger but more remote than the object
 The enlargement ratio is constant
STAND MAGNIFIERS  The enlargement ratio is the transverse or lateral magnification, or the
multi-acc factor’
 The clinician must know where the image is located and how much it is enlarged

Rest a close focussing telescope against the lens of the stand magnifier (use 4x or
2.75x Walters) (Fig. 4-1a). Focus on some print seen through the magnifier. Now take
the telescope and find the distance to which it is focussed (Fig. 4-1b). Look at a wall
and move back and forth until it is seen in clear focus. Measure the distance from the
wall to the telescope objective.
When the image plane is fairly close to the lens, then the telescope might not focus to
that distance. In which case, focus the telescope to its closest distance (make
telescope as long as possible) and then move back until image through magnifier is
clear (Fig. 4-1c). Measure distance from telescope to lens. Now find the distance to
which telescope is focussed (Fig. 4-1d). Allow for telescope-to-lens separation and
determine the distance from image plane to the lens of the magnifier.

TO LOCATE THE
IMAGE POSITION FOR A
STAND MAGNIFIER

Figure 4-1 (a) Figure 4-1 (b)

Figure 4-1 (c) Figure 4-1 (d)

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MEASURING EQUIVALENT VIEWING DISTANCE (EVD) (CONT.)

From the distance from the image plane to the lens surface (l’), determine the
emerging vergence L’ = 1/ l’, where L’ is the emerging vergence in dioptres.
If l’ = 25cm
Then L’ = -4D
Measure the equivalent power (Fe) of the lens as described earlier. Neglecting signs:
TO CALCULATE THE
ENLARGEMENT RATIO Mt = (L + Fe) / L’
Example Lens power = 20D
Emerging vergence = 5D
So Mt = (5 + 20) / 5 = 5x
This magnifier gives a 5 times enlargement and the image is 20cm (5D)
below the lens.
EVD = actual viewing distance divided by enlargement ratio.
Actual viewing distance
= accommodation demand distance
= eye-lens distance + lens-image distance
= the same as the focal length of the add (for presbyopes)
For Patient ARIF
With a stand magnifier having image distance of 20 cm and enlargement ratio of 5x
wearing a 2.5D add, he should be 40cm from the image (20cm from the lens).
TO CALCULATE In this situation, EVD = 40/5 = 8cm
THE EVD Given that he could read 4.0M (32pt) at 32cm, now he should read print that is
smaller by 32/8 = 4 times, so about 1M or 8pt.
For Patient RAUF
With the same magnifier, but eye 5cm from the lens,
Actual viewing distance = 20 + 5 = 25 cm
In this situation EVD = 25/5 = 5cm
Given that he could read 2.0M (16pt) at 12cm, now he should read print that is
smaller by
12/5 = 2.4times, so about 0.8M or 6pt.
Consider a distance telescope with a lens cap on the front to give the near focus.
EVD = focal length of cap/Magnification of telescope
NEAR VISION Example: 3x telescope with 4.00D cap (25cm)
TELESCOPES EVD = 25/3 = 8.3cm
Example: 6x Walters focussed for 50cm
EVD = 50/6 = 8.3cm
To measure enlargement ratio, place ruler under camera and with a second ruler
measure the size of the enlarged image of a scale division.
VIDEO-MAGNIFIERS
OR PROJECTION EVD = Actual viewing distance divided by the enlargement ratio
SYSTEMS Example: Viewing the screen from 40cm with a 10 times enlargement
EVD = 40/10 = 4cm

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SELECTED READING/REFERENCES

 Nowakowski R. (1994) Primary Low Vision Care, Appleton and Lange

 Jose RT. (1983) Understanding low vision, American foundation for the blind
 Freeman P. Randall TJ. (c1997) The art and practice of low vision, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann
 Brilliant RL. Appel S. (1998) Essentials of Low Vision Practice, Butterworth-Heinemann

CONTRIBUTORS

 Hasan Minto (Sight Savers – Pakistan)

 Pirindhavellie Govender (UKZN)

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