Chapter 31: Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a system of organs, ducts, and vessels that work to
maintain fluid balance in the internal environment; it has an essential role in
immunity.
To shift your thinking from the circulatory system to the lymphatic system, watch
"The Lymphatic System" [3:32]. Remember: the two systems function together to
help maintain fluid balance and work in immune function.
Download a Video Transcript in Microsoft Word format.
Video Source: FuseSchool - Global Education. (2019, February 26). The Lymphatic
System | Health | Biology | FuseSchool [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0-
1OknbO3M&ab_channel=FuseSchool-GlobalEducation (link opens in a new window)
Overview of the Lymphatic System
The major role of the lymphatic system is to maintain fluid balance within the body
and immunity. Regarding fluid balance, remember that during capillary exchange,
90% of the fluid from the plasma is moved out of the capillaries at the arterial end
and reabsorbed at the venous end of the capillaries. The other 10% of this fluid
leaves the bloodstream, and the lymphatic system reabsorbs it. The lymphatic
system absorbs this excess fluid, brings it into the lymph vessels, and transports it
back to the heart to return it into the circulatory system. If the lymphatic system
didn't pick up this fluid, it would result in fluid accumulation in the interstitial
spaces, resulting in massive edema or swelling. The lymphatic system runs
throughout our body very close to the circulatory system, and as the introductory
video discussed, the fluid within the lymph system is referred to as lymph.
Structures of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system includes the vessels that carry the lymph fluids called
the lymphatic vessels. It also includes lymph
nodes containing lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that function in the
immune system to fight harmful substances in the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes
are located along the paths of the collecting lymphatic vessels. Other organs that
are important in the lymphatic system include the tonsils, the thymus, the spleen,
and the bone marrow.
Figure 31.1 provides an illustration of the anatomy of the lymphatic system.
Figure 31.1
Figure 31.1 Description
Image Source: Figure 21.1.1 – Anatomy of the Lymphatic System [Digital
Image]. https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/21-1-anatomy-of-the-
lymphatic-and-immune-systems/ (link opens in a new window)
Copyright: "Anatomy & Physiology," (link opens in a new window) by Lindsay M.
Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster,
Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed
under CC BY-SA 4.0. (link opens in a new window)
Lymph and Interstitial Fluid
Lymph is the clear, watery fluid found in the lymphatic vessels. Interstitial fluid is
the fluid that fills the spaces between the cells - that is, the fluid between the blood
vessels and the tissues and cells. Both lymph and interstitial fluid resemble plasma
in composition: mostly water and then some proteins. Interstitial fluid has a lower
concentration of proteins.
Lymphatic Capillaries
Figure 31.2 illustrates how the lymphatic system maintains internal fluid balance.
Figure 31.2
Figure 31.2 Description
Image Source: Figure 21.1.2 – Lymphatic Capillaries [Digital
Image]. https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/21-1-anatomy-of-the-
lymphatic-and-immune-systems/ (link opens in a new window)
Copyright: "Anatomy & Physiology," (link opens in a new window) by Lindsay M.
Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster,
Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed
under CC BY-SA 4.0. (link opens in a new window)
Fluid from the plasma flowing through the capillaries moves into the interstitial
space. The interstitial space is the area between the blood vessels and the cells and
tissues. This fluid exists here to bathe the cells, deliver nutrients, and pick up
wastes.
Most, or 90%, of the fluid that moves out of the capillaries at the artery end gets
reabsorbed in the venous end. But, the last little bit, that last 10%, becomes
absorbed into the lymphatic system, becomes lymph, and gets returned to the
systemic circulation at the heart.
At the arterial end of the capillary exchange, we have higher hydrostatic pressure,
or blood pressure, that pushes fluid out; then, at the venous end, we have higher
osmotic pressure that helps to pull the fluid back into the venous system. The extra
fluid that doesn’t get pulled back in eventually gets picked up by the lymphatic
system and becomes lymph.
Lymphatic Vessels: Distribution
Lymphatic vessels originate from lymphatic capillaries. The small lymphatic
capillaries have vast numbers of branching throughout the body. In general, the
lymphatic capillary networks lie side by side with the blood capillary networks, but
they are separate vessels; they run parallel to each other.
Eventually, the lymphatic capillary branches merge and join to form two larger
vessels, which are the main lymphatic trunks. The main lymphatic trunks are the
right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
Figure 31.3 illustrates the major trunks and ducts of the lymphatic system.
Figure 31.3
Figure 31.3 Description
Image Source: Figure 21.1.3 – Major Trunks and Ducts of the Lymphatic
System [Digital Image]. https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/21-1-
anatomy-of-the-lymphatic-and-immune-systems/ (link opens in a new window)
Copyright: "Anatomy & Physiology," (link opens in a new window) by Lindsay M.
Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster,
Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed
under CC BY-SA 4.0. (link opens in a new window)
Most of the body empties into the thoracic duct, draining into the circulatory
system's left subclavian vein. The right upper quadrant of the body is drained by
the right lymphatic duct, which then drains into the right subclavian vein. From the
subclavian veins, the fluid is returned back to the heart to re-enter the circulatory
system.
Structure of the Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins, except they have thinner walls, more valves,
and contain lymph nodes along their pathway. The endothelial cells of the lymphatic
capillaries are very thin and overlap, creating little gaps or clefts where the
interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic vessels. The one-way valves help to promote
the forward flow of lymph in the vessels back to the heart, just like in veins.
Figure 31.4 illustrates the structure of a typical lymphatic capillary.
Figure 31.4
Figure 31.4 Description
Image Source: FIGURE 23-4 Structure of a typical lymphatic capillary. [Digital
Image]. https://basicmedicalkey.com/lymphatic-system/ (link opens in a new
window)
Copyright (c) Basicmedical Key
In Figure 31.4, you can see a lymphatic capillary and some of those structural
components. You can see that thin, overlapping endothelial layer where fluid enters
the lymphatic vessels, the valves promoting one-way fluid. Notice that interstitial
fluid enters through clefts between overlapping endothelial cells that form the wall
of the vessel. Valves ensure one-way flow of lymph out of the tissue. Small fibres
anchor the wall of the lymphatic capillary to the surrounding ECM (extracellular
matrix) and cells, thus holding it open to allow the entry of fluids and small
particles.
The major benefit of this overlapping layer is that it is very permeable and allows
large solutes, like proteins, to pass through. This is beneficial because it is the only
way for proteins that accumulate in the tissue's spaces to be returned to the blood.
Our blood vessels have a regular, normal leaking of proteins, and we need proteins
to maintain the blood osmotic pressure.
Circulation of Lymph and Lymphatic Pump
You have a continual leak of water and solutes, like proteins, out of the capillary
system (or the blood vessels) and into the interstitial fluids. This gets picked up by
the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system returns about 3L of lymph fluid back to
the circulation per day, meaning that this system works much slower than the
circulatory system, which pumps out about 5L of blood each minute (your cardiac
output).
A few systems are in place that help to promote the flow of lymph fluid back to the
circulatory system. For one, the valves keep a one-way directional flow, just like in
the lower-pressure veins. Also, like in the venous system, the skeletal muscles and
the diaphragm work to act as pumps to return lymph back to the heart.
The respiratory pump helps move lymph fluid forward in the vessels, just like in the
venous system, where the diaphragm, during inspiration, increases abdominal
pressure and decreases thoracic pressure, thus promoting fluid movement along the
pressure gradient. The skeletal muscle contractions help squeeze the vessels and
increase the flow and movement of a fluid forward, so milking that fluid forward.
Different factors can influence the amount of lymph return; for example, exercise
increases lymph return by stimulating these muscle pumps.
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Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are little bean-like structures along the lymph vessels' pathways.
You've possibly felt a swollen lymph node before when you're sick; perhaps in your
neck, you'll get a swollen little bump – that's one of your lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes are like biological filters – lymph flows through the vessels and slowly
sits in the lymph nodes before continuing along into an exit vessel. Another
important aspect of the lymph node structure is the germinal centre: lymphocytes
are released from this area when an infection is present. Lymphocytes are a type
of white blood cell that is essential for combating infection in the body. Remember:
our lymphocytes include our T-cells, B-cells, and Natural Killer cells. They kind of live
here in the lymph node.
Figure 31.5 illustrates the structure of a lymph node.
Figure 31.5
Figure 31.5 Description
Image Source: Lymph Node [Digital
Image]. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23131-lymph-nodes (link opens
in a new window)
Copyright (c) Cleveland Clinic
Most of the lymph nodes occur in groups, or clusters, in certain areas: just in front of
the ear, on the floor of the mouth, in the neck along the sternocleidomastoid
muscle, just above the bend of the elbow, deep within the underarm and upper
chest, and in the groin.
 Preauricular nodes drain the superficial tissues and skin on the lateral side
of the head and face.
 Lymph from the nose, lips, and teeth drains through
the submental and submandibular groups.
 Superficial cervical nodes drain lymph (which has already passed through
other nodes) from the head and neck.
 Lymph from the forearm passes through the superficial cubital
nodes (located in the elbow area).
 Lymph from the arm and upper part of the thoracic wall, including the breast,
drains through the axillary nodes (axilla = armpit).
 Lymph from the pelvic organs, legs, and external genitals drains through
the Iliac and inguinal nodes (iliac = hip area; inguinal = groin).
The lymph nodes have two key functions: defence and hematopoiesis. When the
fluid is flowing through the lymphatic system, the fluid flows through the lymph
nodes. When it does, it actually kind of percolates and slows down the flowing of the
lymph. This gives the lymph nodes time to filter harmful particles.
 In mechanical filtration, the lymph nodes physically stop the particles from
progressing any further in the lymphatic system and the body.
 In biological filtration, the processes of phagocytosis are used to destroy
and remove particles from circulation.
The lymph nodes also function in hematopoiesis, particularly in leukopoiesis, as
the lymphoid tissue in lymph nodes serves as the site for the final stages of
development for some white blood cells.
Main Organs of the Lymphatic System
Some of the major tissues or organs in the lymphatic system include the tonsils, the
thymus, and the spleen.
The spleen is located in the left hypochondriac region of the abdominopelvic cavity,
just below the diaphragm. It is kind of above the kidney and behind the stomach.
The spleen is a very vascular organ. Mono, or mononucleosis, or “the kissing
disease,” causes splenic enlargement - that is, it causes the spleen to become
bigger and swollen. This is why people who are diagnosed with mono are advised to
wait awhile before playing contact sports - the enlarged spleen is so vulnerable to
rupture. Because the spleen is so vascular, it's very dangerous, and there are many
infection risks.
There are two main tissue types in the spleen:
1. White pulp is made up of dense masses of developing lymphocytes (B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes), our white blood cells.
2. Red pulp is a vascular network with blood-filled cavities; it helps to filter out
toxins and old red blood cells.
Functions of the Spleen
The spleen has many different functions, including defence, tissue repair,
hematopoiesis, RBC and platelet destruction, and it acts as a blood reservoir.
 In terms of defence, as blood flows through the spleen, macrophages – a type
of white blood cell – remove microorganisms (bacteria or viruses) from the
blood and destroy them.
 The spleen also functions in tissue repair, as monocytes are stored in the red
pulp of the spleen and then mobilize to go to areas of tissue damage.
 The spleen also has a role in hematopoiesis and the production of white blood
cells, as agranular leukocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes) complete their
development and are activated within the spleen.
 The macrophages found within the spleen will also work to remove old red
blood cells and platelet from the blood and destroy them by phagocytosis.
 Finally, as we talked about, the spleen is quite vascular, and it can act as
storage, or a reservoir, for blood that can be called upon or used during times
of stress.
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